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Effect of heat-treatment processes and high temperature variation of acid-chloride media on the corrosion resistance of B265 (Ti–6Al–4V) titanium alloy in acid-chloride solution

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Published/Copyright: April 27, 2022
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Open Engineering
From the journal Open Engineering Volume 12 Issue 1

Abstract

Corrosion resistance of untreated (B265TiN), quenched (B265TiQ), and annealed (B265TiA) B265 titanium alloy was studied in 2–10 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl solution at 30, 70, and 95°C by potentiodynamic polarization, potentiostatic measurement, open circuit potential measurement, and optical microscopy. B265TiN was the most resistant of the alloys to general corrosion at 30°C with values between 0.094 and 3.782 mm/year. B265TiQ exhibited the highest corrosion rate values (0.210–23.399 mm/year). Its plots show significant increase in cathodic slope. At 70 and 95°C, B265TiN exhibited the lowest corrosion rate in 2 and 6 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl solution, while B265TiQ exhibited the corresponding highest values. Optical characterization shows B265TiN, B265TiQ, and B265TiA alloys are highly resistant to corrosion in 2 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl at 30°C compared to 10 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl, where marginal deterioration occurred on B265TiN, significant degradation on B265TiQ, and localized degradation on B265TiA. The extent of degradation increased at 70 and 95°C. B265TiN exhibited the highest resistance to metastable pits formation compared to B265TiQ and B265TiA. Potentiostatic values at 70°C shows high temperature exposure of Ti alloy to accelerated corrosion. Metastable pit initiation values at 70°C are significantly greater. Open circuit potential measurement at 30°C shows B265TiN demonstrated least vulnerability to corrosion with stable oxide formation at 2 M and 6 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl, and B265TiQ was least vulnerable at 10 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl. At 70°C, B265TiQ was least vulnerable to corrosion with unstable oxide formation at 2 M and 6 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl compared to B265TiN at 10 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl.

Keywords: titanium; corrosion; acid-chloride; heat-treatment; pitting; passivation

1 Introduction

Titanium is a nonmagnetic low-density (60% of stainless steel density) alloy with excellent heat conduction properties. Its coefficient of thermal expansion is below that of steel and aluminum. The mechanical properties of titanium can be significantly modified through alloying and other manufacturing processes [1]. Their melting points are higher than those of steels, but the optimal relevant temperature range for structural applications is as low as 400°C to about 600°C with respect to composition. Mechanical properties are the primary performance characteristic for titanium applications. Biocompatibility is the most important factor in medicine. However, in industry, corrosion resistance is the most important requirement. Though the economic consequence for use of titanium alloys is (a) higher than ferrous and non-ferrous alloys in the short term, (b) the long-term operational cost is lower, and (c) the productive lifespan and service reliability are longer coupled with marginal maintenance cost. Increased metallic production capacity and efficiency, more efficient processing technologies, extensive market base, and unlimited demand have significantly lowered the cost of titanium alloys [2]. Titanium alloys are extensively utilized in aviation, chemical manufacturing [3,4,5], pharmaceutical [6,7,8,9,10,11,12], petrochemical [13,14], desalination, nuclear and energy generation, heat exchangers, geothermal [15], mining, and biomedical industries [16,17,18]. Titanium exhibits higher corrosion resistance than stainless steels in neutral chloride and oxidizing acid conditions. The corrosion resistance of titanium is on account of a stable and protective resistant oxide film whose nature strongly depends on environmental factors. The protective oxide evolves instantaneously on titanium surface when exposed to aqueous conditions [19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33]. The oxide remains resistive to general and localized corrosion in most oxidizing and neutral conditions without the need for corrosion inhibitors like ferrous and aluminum alloys though they are vulnerable in reducing media [34,35]. This can be mitigated through coating of the titanium alloy. Research on the corrosion study of laser cladded Ti–6Al–4V alloy in dilute NaCl, H2SO4 and HCl solutions showed that the coating displayed a more noble corrosion behavior compared to the untreated alloy [36]. They have weak corrosion resistance in acidified fluids [37,38,39,40,41]. Generally, the oxide is in the form of TiO2, though it consists of other precipitates of titanium oxides at the metal interface (TiO2, Ti2O3, and TiO) [42,43].

High-temperature application of titanium alloys tends to advance the evolution of a chemically stable, resistant, and crystalline covering of TiO. Titanium alloys are utilized as the liner and interior components of steam sterilizers during the high-pressure and temperature acid filtration of nickel laterite ores where they are prone to astringent conditions of acidity, temperature, and pressure [44]. Ti–6Al–2Sn–4Zr–2Mo alloy proves to be more corrosion resistant than Ti–6Al–4V [45]. Yang et al. [46] studied the effect of solution and aging treatments on the microstructure and the corrosion resistance of laser solid formed Ti–6Al–4V titanium alloy and found that aging treated Ti–6Al–4V showed corrosion resistance in 3.5 wt% NaCl solution showed corrosion resistance which was slightly better than the as-deposited Ti–6Al–4V. Rotating parts in jet-engine blades and gas turbine are currently made of titanium alloys which combine high strength and stable metallurgical structure for high temperature performance. Titanium alloys exhibit good potential for high temperature utilization in turbine parts owing to their good oxidation properties [47,48,49,50,51]. The corrosion behaviors of titanium alloy in high temperature applications vary with environments. In extractive metallurgy, titanium alloys are subjected to the deprecating action of reducing acids. According to Yue et al. [52], B265 titanium alloy reacted poorly in high Cl− solution concentration and acidic environments containing Cl− ions. Blanco-Pinzon et al. [53] stated that B265 titanium alloy was vulnerable to corrosion in H2SO4 solution in the absence of alloying elements of Pd and Ni. High temperature usage of titanium alloys in reducing environments subjects them to operating conditions which modify the physical, mechanical, and metallurgical properties, and strongly influences their corrosion resistance. Increased use of Ti alloys in extractive metallurgy and other high temperature applications has prompted research into their corrosion resistance properties in sulfuric acid solutions. B265 titanium is the most applicable titanium alloy among the αβ titanium alloys. Its corrosion resistance in HCl, H2SO4 and NaCl media at room and elevated temperatures from different production and manufacturing techniques have been researched into by other authors [54,55,56,57,58,59,60,61,62,63,64]. In contribution to the study of corrosion resistance of titanium alloys, this article studies the effect of heat-treatment processes and high temperature variation of acid-chloride media on the corrosion resistance of B265 (Ti–6Al–4V) titanium alloy.

2 Experimental methods

2.1 Materials preparation

B265 titanium alloy (B265TiN) obtained from the University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa was analyzed with Phenom ProX Scanning Electron Microscope (Model No. MVE0224651193) at the Central Laboratory, Covenant University. The nominal (wt%) content of B265TiN alloy is shown in Table 1. B265TiN was cut by using a hacksaw into 15 specimens with dimensions of 1 cm × 1 cm × 0.5 cm (length × breadth × thickness). A total of 10 B265TiN specimens underwent annealing and quenching heat treatment process in a muffle furnace after heating the steel to 600°C and maintained at that temperature for 30 min. Annealed B265TiN (B265TiA) was gradually chilled in air, while quenched B265TiN (B265TiQ) was chilled in deionized H2O. The temperature within the muffle furnace was sustained with a control dial at accuracy ±10°C and connected to a thermocouple (K-Type). A Cu wire was attached to B265TiN, B265TiQ, and B265TiA specimens with soldering iron, and the specimens were embedded in pre-hardened acrylic resin mounts. The exposed area of the embedded specimens (1 cm × 1 cm) were thereafter grinded with emery paper with 80, 120, 220, 600, and 1,000 grit sizes according to ASTMG59-97 [65]. B265TiN was then burnished with 6 µm diamond polishing solution and later sanitized with deionized H2O and C3H6O in accordance with ASTM G1-03 [66].

Table 1

Nominal (wt%) constituent of B265 titanium alloy

Element V Al Fe O C N H Y Ti
% composition 4 6 0.3 0.2 0.08 0.05 0.015 0.005 89.35

2.2 Test solution

Standard grade recrystallized NaCl (obtained from Loba Chemie Pvt. Ltd, India) was prepared into volume concentrations of 10% in 400 mL of 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10 M H2SO4 solution by adding 40 g NaCl into a beaker and filling up to 400 mL of the required dilute H2SO4 solution concentration. Dilute H2SO4 was prepared from conventional grade reagent of the acid (98%, purchased from Sigma-Aldrich, USA).

2.3 Electrochemical test

Potentiodynamic polarization tests were performed at 30, 70, and 95°C with a ternary electrode configuration (working electrode, Ag/AgCl reference electrode, and Pt wire counter electrode) within a transparent beaker containing the acid-chloride electrolyte (placed on a portable heating device) using Digi-Ivy 2311 electrochemical workstation (plugged to a computer). Fisherbrand accumet glass body Ag/AgCl reference electrode was used for high temperature electrochemical test. The temperature of the heating device was thermostatically controlled. Polarization curves were drawn at sweep rate of 0.0015 V/s from −1.4 to +0.75 V according to ASTM G102-89(2015) [67]. Corrosion current density (C D, A/cm2) and corrosion potential (C P, V) values were determined by the Tafel extrapolation method. Corrosion rate (C R) was computed from the equation below:

(1) C R = 0.00327 ⁎ C D ⁎ E Q D ,

where E Q represents the specimen equivalent weight (g). 0.00327 represents constant for corrosion rate calculation in mm/year [68]. Open circuit potential measurement (OCP) was executed at 0.05 V/s step potential for 3,000 s to analyze the active-passive transition behavior and the thermodynamic stability of B265TiN, B265TiQ, and B265TiA alloys in 2 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl, 6 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl, and 10 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl solutions at 30 and 70°C [69].

2.4 Optical microscopy characterization

Optical representative images of B265TiN, B265TiQ, and B265TiA alloy surfaces in 2 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl and 10 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl solutions at 30°C, 2 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl and 6 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl solutions at 70°C, and 2 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl and 6 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl solutions at 95°C were studied and compared using Omax microscope.

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Potentiodynamic polarization studies

Corrosion resistance of B265TiN, B265TiQ, and B265TiA titanium alloys were studied by potentiodynamic polarization method at 30°C. Potentiodynamic plots of B265TiN, B265TiQ, and B265TiA corrosion in 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10 M H2SO4 solution at 10% NaCl concentration are displayed in Figure 1(a)–(c). Table 2 shows the polarization data retrieved from the plots for B265TiN, B265TiQ, and B265TiA alloys. Data for B265TiN in Table 2 shows that increase in H2SO4 concentration results in proportionate increase in B265TiN corrosion. Corrosion rate of B265TiN in 2 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl concentration is 0.094 mm/year which corresponds to corrosion current density of 8.07 × 10−6 A/cm2 and polarization resistance of 3,184 Ω. B265TiN Corrosion rate value from 2–6 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl concentration are well below 1 mm/year signifying strong resistance of B265TiN to corrosion within the acid-chloride media. The reaction of B265TiN in the electrolyte generally proceeds according to equation (2), where B265TiN alloy is oxidized to Ti3+ and passes into the electrolyte. Simultaneously, electrolytic transport of H+ ions from the electrolyte to the metal exterior occurs leading to the formation of atomic hydrogen and subsequently H2 gas according to equation (3) below;

(2) Ti ° → Ti 3 + + 3 e − ( anodic reaction ) ,

(3) 2 H + → 2 H − 2 e − → H 2 − 2 e − ( cathodic reaction ) .

Figure 1 Potentiodynamic plots of (a) B265TiN, (b) B265TiQ, and B265TiA alloys in 2–10 M H2SO4 solution at 10% NaCl concentration.
Figure 1

Potentiodynamic plots of (a) B265TiN, (b) B265TiQ, and B265TiA alloys in 2–10 M H2SO4 solution at 10% NaCl concentration.

Table 2

Potentiodynamic polarization output for B265TiN, B265TiQ, and B265TiA in 2–10 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl at 30°C

Specimen H2SO4 Conc. (M)/10% NaCl B265 Corrosion rate (mm/year) Corrosion current (A) Corrosion current density (A/cm2) Corrosion potential (V) Polarization resistance, R p (Ω) Cathodic potential, B c Anodic potential, B a
B265TiN
A 2 0.094 8.07 × 10−6 8.07 × 10−6 −0.523 3184.00 −6.92 4.327
B 4 0.350 3.02 × 10−5 3.02 × 10−5 −0.580 851.10 −9.74 4.079
C 6 0.760 6.55 × 10−5 6.55 × 10−5 −0.640 392.30 −6.048 5.782
D 8 2.390 2.06 × 10−4 2.06 × 10−4 −0.699 124.70 −6.941 5.237
E 10 13.782 1.19 × 10−3 1.19 × 10−3 −0.647 21.63 −7.184 4.408
B265TiQ
A 2 0.210 1.81 × 10−5 1.81 × 10−5 −0.491 2097.00 −8.009 2.148
B 4 0.569 4.91 × 10−5 4.91 × 10−5 −0.595 523.30 −9.568 4.933
C 6 4.452 3.84 × 10−4 3.84 × 10−4 −0.524 66.94 −5.448 4.630
D 8 4.618 3.98 × 10−4 3.98 × 10−4 −0.677 64.54 −7.238 4.419
E 10 23.399 2.02 × 10−3 2.02 × 10−3 −0.648 12.74 −7.848 4.150
B265TiA
A 2 0.135 1.16 × 10−5 1.16 × 10−5 −0.461 2211.00 −6.905 1.140
B 4 0.443 3.82 × 10−5 3.82 × 10−5 −0.467 695.00 −6.54 1.075
C 6 3.336 2.88 × 10−4 2.88 × 10−4 −0.568 89.33 −11.980 1.429
D 8 4.726 4.07 × 10−4 4.07 × 10−4 −0.661 63.06 −6.951 4.063
E 10 18.735 1.62 × 10−3 1.62 × 10−3 −0.631 15.91 −8.141 4.091

Corrosion resistance of B265TiN is primarily on account of the evolution of TiO2 on the alloy surface [70,71], according to the equation (4). B265TiN reacts with dissolved O2 to produce the strong adherent oxide layer on its surface.

(4) Ti + O 2 → TiO 2 .

Corrosion rate of B265TiN at 8 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl concentration is 2.390 mm/year, while at 10 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl concentration, B265TiN underwent severe surface deterioration with corrosion rate output of 13.782 mm/year. This value correlates with corrosion current density of 1.19 × 10−3 and polarization resistance of 21.63 Ω. The significantly low polarization resistance value at 2 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl concentration in contrast to the extremely high value at 10 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl concentration is an indication of the extent to which the TiO2 formed on B265TiN alloy has thinned out and got damaged from the constant attack of the anionic species [72]. Observation of the cathodic portion of the polarization plots in Figure 1(a) exhibits significant increase in cathodic polarization slope and decrease in cathodic reaction time due to accelerated H2 evolution and O2 reduction reactions. The corrosion potential shift of the combined anodic-cathodic polarization plots shows that the corrosion reaction mechanisms are dominated by cathodic processes. This observation stems from the increase in SO 4 2 − anionic concentration whose reaction (equation (5)) in conjunction with the presence of Cl− anions (equation (6)–(13)) tends to breakdown TiO2 protective film while simultaneously hindering its formation due to the occurrence of complex chemical precipitates. TiO2 on B265TiN reacts with NaCl and O2 (equations (6)–(8)) [73] as follows (equation (6)–(13));

(5) 2 Ti + 3 H 2 SO 4 → Ti 2 ( SO 4 ) 3 + 3 H 2 ,

(6) 5 TiO 2 + 4 NaCl + O 2 → Na 4 Ti 5 O 12 + 2 Cl 2 ,

(7) 6 TiO 2 + 4 NaCl → Na 4 Ti 5 O 12 + TiCl 4 .

The Cl2 in equation (5) transports through breakages on TiO2 and reacts with the substrate B265TiN [74,75]. Cl− anions contribute to the breakdown of the protective oxide (equations (6) and (11)). The greater reactivity of HCl compared to Cl2 ensures accelerated deterioration of the alloy surface, thus, more substrate metal is consumed and released into the solution, resulting in higher corrosion rate.

(8) 5 TiO 2 + 4 NaCl + 2 H 2 O → Na 4 Ti 5 O 12 + 4 HCl ,

(9) TiCl 4 + 2H 2 O → TiO 2  + 4HCl ,

(10) 2 HCl + Ti → TiCl 2 + H 2 ,

(11) 4 HCl + Ti → TiCl 4 + 2 H 2 ,

(12) 2 TiCl 2 + O 2 + 2 H 2 O → 2 TiO 2 + 4 HCl ,

(13) 2 H 2 + O 2 → 2 H 2 O .

Quenching and annealing heat-treatment strongly influence the microstructure and metallurgical properties of B265TiN alloy which in effect influences the corrosion resistance of the alloy [76,77,78,79]. Heat-treatment had marginal influence on the general corrosion resistance of B265TiQ and B265TiA at 2 M and 4 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl concentrations. Corrosion rate increased to 0.210 and 0.569 mm/year for B265TiQ, and 0.135 and 0.443 mm/year for B265TiA. At 6 M and 8 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl concentrations, the margin of difference in corrosion rate for B265TiQ and B265TiA has increased further, compared to the corresponding value for B265TiN. Heat-treatment strongly influences the properties and strength of TiO2 formed on B265TiQ and B265TiA alloys which invariably influences their interaction with anionic species from the electrolyte [80]. At 10 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl concentration, corrosion rate of B265TiQ and B265TiA alloys culminated at 23.399 and 18.735 mm/year compared to 13.782 mm/year for B265TiN. The slopes of the cathodic reaction mechanisms for B265TiQ and B265TiA (Figure 1b and c) are significantly higher than the corresponding slopes for B265TiN (Figure 1a) due to increased cathodic reaction mechanisms during potential scanning. Corrosion potential of the heat-treated alloys is substantially influenced by the strength of the protective oxide [81]. The corrosion potential of the potentiodynamic plots for B265TiA shifted to lower potential due to dominant cathodic reaction process compared to the corresponding values for B265TiQ. The redox reaction mechanism counterbalanced each other for B265TiQ with respect to variation in H2SO4 concentration, while the corrosion potentials of B265TiA were marginally lower than the values for B265TiN.

Corrosion resistance of B265TiN, B265TiQ, and B265TiA alloys were further subjected to analysis in hot acid-chloride media (2 M and 6 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl concentration) at 70 and 95°C. Figure 2a–c shows the potentiodynamic polarization plots of the anodic-cathodic reaction mechanisms of B265TiN, B265TiQ, and B265TiA alloys in 2 M and 6 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl concentration at 70°C, while Figure 3a and b shows the corresponding polarization plots at 95°C. Tables 3 and 4 show the polarization data obtained at 70 and 95°C. Observation of Table 3 shows B265TiN exhibited the lowest corrosion rate values at 70oC for all the acid-chloride concentrations studied with values of 4.979 and 16.090 mm/year. Corrosion potential of the polarization plots for B265TiN in Figure 2a shifted from −0.516 V (2 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl) to −0.566 V in Figure 3a (6 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl) due to increased destruction of TiO2 on its surface and dominant cathodic processes. The polarization resistance of B265TiN (at 2 M and 6 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl) are 59.87 and 18.52 Ω, respectively, which is a strong indication of the corrosion resistance properties of the protective oxide. B265TiQ exhibited the highest corrosion rates with corresponding values of 17.912 and 35.812 mm/year at polarization resistance of 16.64 and 8.32 Ω. Change in corrosion potential of the polarization plots (Figures 2b and 3b) with respect to electrolyte concentration was marginal from −0.585 to −0.589 V in the cathodic direction. At 95°C, corrosion rate of B265TiN, B265TiQ, and B265TiA in 2 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl media visibly increased to 11.937, 20.824, and 15.302 mm/year compared to their values at 70°C. Their corresponding values in 6 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl at 70oC exhibited corrosion rates of 14.304, 92.888 and 40.336 mm/year. These observations are due to the increased agitation of the anionic corrosive species at temperature above room temperature. The slopes of the polarization plots (Figures 2 and 3) are significantly higher than the corresponding values at 30oC ambient temperature. Comparison of the corrosion potentials of B265TiN, B265TiQ, and B265TiA at 70 and 95°C in 2 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl shows visible potential shift in the anodic direction for two reasons (i) increased general surface degeneration in the presence of agitated corrosive species [82], and (ii) greater evolution of oxide complexes on the alloy surface which do not protect the alloy but are by products of chemical reactions at the metal-solution interface. The corresponding values in 6 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl show significant decrease in corrosion potential values for B265TiN, B265TiQ, and B265TiA alloys in the cathodic direction. Nevertheless, results show heat treatments, increase in SO 4 2 − concentration, and temperature significantly influence and decrease the corrosion resistance of B265TiN alloy in aqueous acid-chloride media.

Figure 2 Potentiodynamic plots of B265TiN, B265TiQ, and B265TiA corrosion in (a) 2 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl at 70°C and (b) 6 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl at 70°C.
Figure 2

Potentiodynamic plots of B265TiN, B265TiQ, and B265TiA corrosion in (a) 2 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl at 70°C and (b) 6 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl at 70°C.

Figure 3 Potentiodynamic plots of B265TiN, B265TiQ, and B265TiA corrosion in (a) 2 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl at 95°C and (b) 6 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl at 95°C.
Figure 3

Potentiodynamic plots of B265TiN, B265TiQ, and B265TiA corrosion in (a) 2 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl at 95°C and (b) 6 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl at 95°C.

Table 3

Potentiodynamic polarization data for B265TiN, B265TiQ, and B265TiA in 2 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl and 6 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl at 70 and 95°C

B265 Specimen Temp. (°C) B265 Corrosion rate (mm/year) Corrosion current (A) Corrosion current density (A/cm2) Corrosion potential (V) Polarization resistance, R p (Ω) Cathodic potential, B c Anodic potential, B a
2 M H 2 SO 4 + 10% NaCl
N 70 4.979 4.29 × 10−4 4.29 × 10−4 −0.516 59.87 −8.343 7.768
Q 70 17.912 1.54 × 10−3 1.54 × 10−3 −0.585 16.64 −7.010 2.624
A 70 13.608 1.17 × 10−3 1.17 × 10−3 −0.547 21.91 −6.903 3.622
N 95 11.937 1.03 × 10−3 1.03 × 10−3 −0.549 26.22 −9.351 2.136
Q 95 20.824 1.80 × 10−3 1.80 × 10−3 −0.633 14.31 −8.219 2.497
A 95 15.302 1.32 × 10−3 1.32 × 10−3 −0.591 19.48 −5.001 6.012
6 M H 2 SO 4 + 10% NaCl
N 70 16.090 1.39 × 10−3 1.39 × 10−3 −0.566 18.52 −3.378 5.904
Q 70 35.812 3.09 × 10−3 3.09 × 10−3 −0.589 8.32 −4.703 5.162
A 70 26.485 2.28 × 10−3 2.28 × 10−3 −0.604 11.25 −5.693 4.821
N 95 14.304 1.23 × 10−3 1.23 × 10−3 −0.465 20.84 −6.363 8.683
Q 95 92.888 8.01 × 10−3 8.01 × 10−3 −0.577 3.21 −1.647 8.233
A 95 40.336 3.48 × 10−3 3.48 × 10−3 −0.475 7.39 −0.642 4.273
Table 4

Potentiostatic data for B265TiN, B265TiQ, and B265TiA metastable pitting activity and passivation behavior in 2–10 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl at 30°C

H2SO4 Conc./10% NaCl Corrosion potential (V) Metastable pitting initiation potential (V) Metastable pitting initiation current (A) Passivation current (A) Passivation potential (V) Metastable pitting -passivation potential range (V) Metastable pitting -passivation current range (A) Metastable pitting tendency (V)
B265TiN
10 M −0.523 −0.430 4.20 × 10−3 4.72 × 10−5 −0.010 0.420 4.15 × 10−3 0.093
8 M −0.580 −0.450 1.20 × 10−3 2.08 × 10−5 −0.070 0.380 1.18 × 10−3 0.130
6 M −0.640 −0.410 5.70 × 10−4 4.46 × 10−5 −0.130 0.280 5.25 × 10−4 0.230
4 M −0.699 −0.460 1.00 × 10−4 2.01 × 10−5 −0.190 0.270 7.99 × 10−5 0.239
2 M −0.647 −0.370 2.88 × 10−5 1.79 × 10−5 −0.190 0.180 1.09 × 10−5 0.277
B265TiQ
10 M −0.491 −0.470 6.40 × 10−3 4.79 × 10−5 0.010 0.480 6.35 × 10−3 0.021
8 M −0.595 −0.480 1.50 × 10−3 2.08 × 10−5 −0.010 0.470 1.48 × 10−3 0.115
6 M −0.524 −0.430 3.80 × 10−4 3.25 × 10−5 −0.160 0.270 3.48 × 10−4 0.094
4 M −0.677 −0.460 1.60 × 10−4 2.18 × 10−6 −0.170 0.290 1.58 × 10−4 0.217
2 M −0.648 −0.390 2.89 × 10−5 1.08 × 10−5 −0.170 0.220 1.81 × 10−5 0.258
B265TiA
10 M −0.461 −0.490 5.90 × 10−3 5.43 × 10−5 −0.010 0.480 5.85 × 10−3 0.029
8 M −0.467 −0.510 1.30 × 10−3 2.79 × 10−5 −0.080 0.430 1.27 × 10−3 0.043
6 M −0.568 −0.480 5.30 × 10−4 4.03 × 10−5 −0.160 0.320 4.90 × 10−4 0.088
4 M −0.661 −0.380 2.31 × 10−5 4.47 × 10−6 −0.170 0.210 1.86 × 10−5 0.281
2 M −0.631 −0.300 1.37 × 10−5 3.63 × 10−6 −0.170 0.130 1.01 × 10−5 0.331

3.2 Potentiostatic studies

Potentiostatic data for B265TiN, B265TiQ, and B265TiA alloys at 30°C in 2–10 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl are displayed in Table 4, while Table 5 depicts the potentiostatic data for B265TiN, B265TiQ, and B265TiA alloys at 70°C in 2 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl solution. The potentiodynamic plots in Figures 1a–c and 2a displayed significant metastable pitting activity and passivation behavior after anodic polarization. The metastable pitting activity is on account of the nucleation and growth of transient corrosion pits during potential scanning. The pits result from the partial breakdown of TiO2 on the alloy surface under high electric potential especially at sites of flaws and non-metallic inclusions. The metastable pits which grow due to discharge of the dissolving metallic cations from within the pit for a very short time interval eventually collapse after formation of resistant TiO2 on the alloy surface at the passive region [83,84]. The potentiodynamic plot configuration shows that metastable pits nucleate at regions with high potentiostatic current values, while time dependent decrease and collapse of the pits occur with the decrease in the potentiostatic current value [85,86]. The decrease in the potentiostatic current value is synonymous with the growth of TiO2 on the alloy surface until stable passivation is attained. Metastable pit initiation current and potential in Table 4 represents the current (A) and potential (V) value of the estimated region at which transient corrosion pits nucleate [87,88]. Passivation current and potential represents the current (A) and potential value (V) at which TiO2 repassivates on the Ti alloy surface and sufficiently prevents anodic polarization. Generally, the higher the SO 4 2 − anion concentration, the higher the metastable pit initiation value due to the electro-reactive nature of the electrolyte at higher concentration. This is also an indication of the extent of vulnerability of the alloy to transient pit formation, resilience of its protective oxide, and capacity to quickly repassivate. At higher SO 4 2 − concentration (8 M and 10 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl concentration), B265TiN exhibited highest resistance to the formation of metastable pits with values of 4.20 × 10−3 A and 1.20 × 10−3 A (−0.430 V and −0.450 V) compared to B265TiQ and B265TiA at 6.40 × 10−3 A and 1.50 × 10−3 A (−0.470 and −0.480 V), and 5.90 × 10−3 A and 1.30 × 10−3 A (0.490 and −0.510 V), while at lower SO 4 2 − anion concentrations the values vary among the alloys. B265TiN exhibited the lowest passivation current values in a similar trend to the metastable pit initiation value, signifying a higher tendency to passivate and resist corrosion compared to B265TiQ and B265TiA though the passivation potential values for the alloys at 10 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl concentration are similar. At lower SO 4 2 − concentrations, the earlier observation did not occur; nevertheless the current and potential at which passivation occurs decreases with decrease in SO4 2−. Observation of the metastable pitting current (A) and potential (V) range shows that SO 4 2 − anion concentration significantly influences the time dependent action of the metastable pitting activity of the alloys. The higher the SO 4 2 − anion concentration, the higher the metastable pitting range for all the alloys studied. The metastable pitting tendency is the difference in corrosion potential of the alloys and the potential at which metastable pitting initiates. It depicts the extent of anodic polarization on the steel surface before onset of transient localized deterioration of the alloy. The higher the value, the lower the risk to metastable pitting. Generally, the higher the SO 4 2 − anion concentration, the greater the risk to metastable pitting.

Table 5

Potentiostatic data for B265TiN, B265TiQ, and B265TiA metastable pitting activity and passivation behavior in 2 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl at 70°C

Titanium specimen Corrosion potential (V) Metastable pitting initiation potential (V) Metastable pitting initiation current (A) Passivation current (A) Passivation potential (V) Metastable pitting -passivation potential range (V) Metastable pitting -passivation current range (A) Metastable pitting tendency (V)
B265TiN −0.516 −0.350 2.90 × 10−3 8.36 × 10−5 0.01 0.360 2.82 × 10−3 0.170
B265TiQ −0.585 −0.400 3.30 × 10−3 1.04 × 10−4 −0.02 0.380 3.20 × 10−3 0.190
B265TiA −0.547 −0.380 3.50 × 10−3 1.74 × 10−4 −0.11 0.270 3.33 × 10−3 0.170

The potentiostatic values for B265TiN, B265TiQ, and B265TiA alloys at 70°C from 2 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl solution show increased temperature of aqueous environments exposes Ti alloy to accelerated corrosion and localized deterioration compared to corrosion at ambient room temperature (30°C). The metastable pit initiation values (current and potential) for the alloys at 70°C are significantly greater than their counterpart values at 30°C in 2 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl solution. At 70°C, the metastable pitting initiation current values for B265TiN, B265TiQ, and B265TiA alloys are 2.9 × 10−3 A, 3.3 × 10−3 A, and 3.5 × 10−3 A compared to 2.88 × 10−5 A, 2.89 × 10−5 A and 1.37 × 10−5 A at 30°C. The corresponding potential values show similar trend. High temperature exposes the alloys to the onset of pit formation due to temporary breakdown and passivation of the TiO2 on the alloy surface. Similarly, passivation occurred at higher current and lower potentials which signifies weaker or thinner protective oxide at 70°C compared to 30°C. The metastable pitting-passivation potential range values confirm this assertion as they tend to be significantly larger than the corresponding values at 30°C. This shows extended waiting time before collapse of the transient pits or invariable formation of more stable transient pits. The metastable pitting tendency for the alloys at 70°C agrees with the assertion earlier mention for the parameter at 30°C.

3.3 Optical microscopic studies

Optical representative images for B265TiN, B265TiQ, and B265TiA alloys (mag. ×40 and ×100) prior to and subsequently after corrosion test are displayed in Figures 4–11. Figure 4 displays the representative images for B265TiN, B265TiQ, and B265TiA prior to corrosion. Figures 5–7 display the images of B265TiN, B265TiQ, and B265TiA alloys after corrosion test in 2 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl and 10 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl at 30°C, respectively. Figures 8 and 9 show the images for B265TiN, B265TiQ, and B265TiA alloys after corrosion test in 2 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl and 6 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl at 70°C, while Figures 10 and 11 show the images for B265TiN, B265TiQ, and B265TiA alloys after corrosion test in 2 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl and 6 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl at 95°C, respectively. Observation of Figures 5a and 6a and and 7a shows B265TiN, B265TiQ, and B265TiA alloys are highly resistant to corrosion in 2 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl due to the resistant TiO2 oxide on the alloy surface [89]. The SO 4 2 − and Cl− anions from the electrolyte were unable to displace the adsorbed O2 atoms responsible for the evolution of the protective oxide. Hence, the images in Figures 5a and 6a and and 7a are similar to the image in Figure 4 (image before corrosion test) without any sign of significant difference. These statements contrast the observations in Figures 5b, 6b, and 7b, where significant surface deterioration occurred in 10 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl electrolyte. While the surface deterioration on Figure 5b appears marginal, Figure 6b exhibited significant morphological degradation over the entire surface as resistance due to the kinetic barrier of the passive film is unsustainable in the presence of excessive corrosive species and displacement of adsorbed O2 [90]. The deterioration in Figure 7b appears along the grain/phase boundaries on the alloy. The observed surface deterioration in Figures 6b and 7b is due to the partial breakage of the protective oxide on the alloy surface which exposes the substrate metal to the debilitating effect of the corrosive anions.

Figure 4 Optical representative images for B265TiN, B265TiQ, and B265TiA alloy before corrosion test.
Figure 4

Optical representative images for B265TiN, B265TiQ, and B265TiA alloy before corrosion test.

Figure 5 Optical images of B265TiN after corrosion test in (a) 2 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl and (b) 10 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl at 30°C.
Figure 5

Optical images of B265TiN after corrosion test in (a) 2 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl and (b) 10 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl at 30°C.

Figure 6 Optical images of B265TiQ after corrosion test in (a) 2 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl and (b) 10 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl at 30°C.
Figure 6

Optical images of B265TiQ after corrosion test in (a) 2 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl and (b) 10 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl at 30°C.

Figure 7 Optical images of B265TiA after corrosion test in (a) 2 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl and (b) 10 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl at 30°C.
Figure 7

Optical images of B265TiA after corrosion test in (a) 2 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl and (b) 10 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl at 30°C.

Figure 8 Optical images of (a) B265TiN, (b) B265TiQ, and (c) B265TiA after corrosion test in 2 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl at 70°C.
Figure 8

Optical images of (a) B265TiN, (b) B265TiQ, and (c) B265TiA after corrosion test in 2 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl at 70°C.

Figure 9 Optical images of (a) B265TiN, (b) B265TiQ, and (c) B265TiA after corrosion test in 6 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl at 70°C.
Figure 9

Optical images of (a) B265TiN, (b) B265TiQ, and (c) B265TiA after corrosion test in 6 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl at 70°C.

Figure 10 Optical images of (a) B265TiN, (b) B265TiQ, and (c) B265TiA after corrosion test in 2 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl at 95°C.
Figure 10

Optical images of (a) B265TiN, (b) B265TiQ, and (c) B265TiA after corrosion test in 2 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl at 95°C.

Figure 11 Optical images of (a) B265TiN, (b) B265TiQ, and (c) B265TiA after corrosion test in 6 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl at 95°C.
Figure 11

Optical images of (a) B265TiN, (b) B265TiQ, and (c) B265TiA after corrosion test in 6 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl at 95°C.

Figures (8a and b) and (9a and b) (from 2 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl and 6 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl at 70°C) exhibited severe morphological deterioration at significantly higher degree compared to the images studied earlier at 30°C. This is due to the entropy of the electrolyte, increased agitation of the corrosive species, and their electrochemical interaction with the alloy surface resulting in the thinning out and eventual breakage of the protective TiO2. However, the extent of degradation in Figures 8c and 9c contrasts the observation in Figures (8a and b) and (9a and b). B265TiA (Figures 8c and 9c) appears more resistant to corrosion at 70°C compared to B265TiN and B265TiQ (Figures (8a) and (b) and (9a) and (b)). Annealing heat treatment results in metallurgical features where morphological degradation is minimal. This is more evident in Figure 9c where the metallurgical phases are visible. Similar observation occurred for the alloy in Figures 10a–c and 11a–c.

3.4 Open circuit potential measurement analysis

The active-passive transition behavior and the thermodynamic properties of B265TiN, B265TiQ, and B265TiA alloys in the acid-chloride media were further studied by OCP measurement and presented in Figures 12–14. Figure 12a and b shows the OCP plots of B265TiN, B265TiQ, and B265TiA alloys in 2 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl solution at 30 and 70°C, while Figures 13(a) and (b) and 14(a) and (b) show the OCP plots of B265TiN, B265TiQ, and B265TiA alloys in 6M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl and 6M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl solutions, respectively, at 30 and 70°C. Generally, the configuration of the OCP plots in Figures 12a and 13a and and 14a substantially contrast the plots in Figures 12b and 13b and and 14b due to the agitated reaction of the SO 4 2 − and Cl− anions with the protective TiO2 on the Ti alloy surface at the higher temperature. The plots shown in Figures 12a and 13a and and 14a are more thermodynamically stable with limited relative active-passive transition behavior and potential transients due to the stability of the protective oxide on the alloys in the presence of less spontaneous corrosive species. Significant shift to electronegative values at the onset of potential measurement occurred due to the formation of complexes that increases the vulnerability of the alloys to corrosion and prevents the growth of the protective oxide. Observation of these plots show that B265TiN plots (Figures 12a and 13a) were relatively more electropositive throughout in 2 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl and 6 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl up to 3,000 s. In Figure 12a, the plot configuration shows that B265TiN surface is unstable due to its active-passive transition behavior despite having the most resistant protective oxide as evident in its electropositive values. The transition behavior is on account of the growth and breakdown of the protective oxide on the alloy [91,92,93,94,95,96,97,98]. It is also observed (Figure 12a) that the plot configuration of B265TiA generally remained stable with respect to exposure time from 965.61 s (−0.624 V) due to the stability of its oxide.

Figure 12 OCP plots of B265TiN, B265TiQ, and B265TiA alloy corrosion in 2 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl solution at (a) 30°C and (b) 70°C.
Figure 12

OCP plots of B265TiN, B265TiQ, and B265TiA alloy corrosion in 2 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl solution at (a) 30°C and (b) 70°C.

Figure 13 OCP plots of B265TiN, B265TiQ, and B265TiA alloy corrosion in 6 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl solution at (a) 30°C and (b) 70°C.
Figure 13

OCP plots of B265TiN, B265TiQ, and B265TiA alloy corrosion in 6 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl solution at (a) 30°C and (b) 70°C.

Figure 14 OCP plots of B265TiN, B265TiQ, and B265TiA alloy corrosion in 10 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl solution at (a) 30°C and (b) 70°C.
Figure 14

OCP plots of B265TiN, B265TiQ, and B265TiA alloy corrosion in 10 M H2SO4 + 10% NaCl solution at (a) 30°C and (b) 70°C.

In Figure 14a, the high concentration of the SO 4 2 − anions (10 M concentration) coupled with the Cl− anions present results in significant active-passive transition behavior of the alloys. B265TiQ plot significantly progressed in the electropositive direction in the presence of the corrosive anions. Due to the strong affinity of the alloy for O2, its protective oxide continues to grow until a peak threshold value of 3,000 s (−0.617 V). Within the same diagram (Figure 14a), B265TiN after undergoing active-passive transition behavior before attaining relative stability at 1,422.01 s (−0.670 V) till 3,000 s. It must be noted that OCP plots in Figure 12a for B265TiN, B265TiQ, and B265TiA generally attained pseudo stability at around −0.600 V (90.8 s), −0.639 V (1488.81 s), and −0.623 V (942.01 s), while the corresponding plots in Figure 13a attained pseudo stability at −0.676 V (278.2 s) and −0.691 V (59.4 s), and peaked at −0.651 V, −0.650 V, and −0.640 V (3,000 s), respectively. This shows that the titanium alloys are more prone to electrochemical reaction responsible for corrosion induced by higher concentrations of SO 4 2 − anions in the electrolyte. This observation contrasts the plot configuration in Figure 14a where they attained pseudo stable states after extended active-passive transition behavior. After an initial but brief sharp decrease to more electronegative potentials, the plots generally progressed thereafter to electropositive values beginning at −0.655 V (645.41 s), −0.658 V (544.4 s), and −0.637 V (853.81 s) for B265TiN, B265TiQ, and B265TiA, respectively. While the OCP plots for B265TiN and B265TiA attained marginal thermodynamic stability till 3,000 s, the plots for B265TiQ continues to progress to higher electropositive potentials due to growth of its protective oxide.

The plots in Figures 12b and 13b and and 14b significantly vary from their counterparts in Figures 12a, 13a, and 14a as earlier mentioned. While B265TiN and B265TiA in Figure 12b were generally thermodynamically stable with respect to exposure time, their OCP plots were more electronegative than their counterparts in Figure 12a due to reasons mentioned earlier. High temperature exposes the alloy to accelerated deterioration of the alloy surface. However, the behavior of B265TiQ (Figure 12b) contrast the behavior of the other alloys despite significant potential transients and active-passive transition behaviors. The plot of the alloy visibly progressed to electropositive values signifying the evolution of a resistant protective oxide on the alloy exterior. The potential transients show that the protective oxide is highly reactive in the presence of the corrosive species and not thermodynamically stable despite being sufficient and thick enough to reduce the reaction processes causing corrosion [99,100]. In Figure 13b, the protective oxide on B265TiQ alloys proves to be the most resistant being the most electropositive. Its potential initiated at 0.646 V (0 s) and attained an approximate peak electropositive potential at 1251.21 s (−0.579 V) before marginally decreasing to −0.609 V at 3,000 s. This behavior occurred at 6 M SO 4 2 − anion concentration compared to 2 M SO 4 2 − anion concentration in Figure 12b.

It is observed that the potential transient for B265TiQ in Figure 13b is much widely spaced compared to Figure 12b due to significant failure and repassivation of the protective oxide [101]. At 6 M SO 4 2 − concentration, the OCP plot of B265TiQ is more electronegative compared to its counterpart in Figure 12b. B265TiN and B265TiA alloys in Figure 13b are more electronegative than their counterparts in Figure 12b. B265TiN proves to be the most reactive and vulnerable to corrosion in Figure 13b with final potential of −0.704 V at 3,000 s. Its counterpart in Figure 12b has a final potential value of −0.647 V. In Figure 14b, B265TiQ and B265TiA exhibited a higher tendency to corrode. Their corrosion potential initiated at −0.670 V and −0.697 V (0 s) and progressively decreased to electronegative values associated with higher vulnerability to corrosion. While the electronegative shift was instantaneous for B265TiQ, prolonged decline occurred for B265TiA at 277.4 s (−0.695 V). B265TiA plot achieved relative stability at 1,267 s (−0.728 V) till 3,000 s. At 1,200 s (−0.733 V), the protective oxide on B265TiQ stabilized and begins to grow as evident on its plot configuration in Figure 14b. However, the active-passive transition behavior of the plot shows that the oxide is not stable due to the reactive complexes it forms with the corrosive anions. In contrast to it performance in Figures 12b and 13b, B265TiN exhibited strong resistance to the corrosive attack of SO 4 2 − and Cl− in Figure 14b. The OCP plot for B265TiN initiated at −0.686 V and significantly progressed to −0.597 V at 1,880.42 s where it achieved relative stability due to growth and thickening of its protective oxide till −0.598 V (2603.82 s). Beyond this point there was a marginal decrease till 3,000 s.

4 Conclusion

Untreated B265 titanium alloy exhibited strong resistance to general corrosion at room and elevated temperatures when compared with the quenched and annealed alloy. The quenched alloy was the most vulnerable to corrosion. The potentiodynamic polarization behavior of the alloy shows cathodic reaction mechanisms dominated the redox electrochemical process. The surface morphology of the untreated and heat-treated titanium alloys displayed strong resistance to corrosive degradation in low electrolyte concentration at room temperature. However, from the highest electrolyte concentration, significant general surface degradation was visible for quenched titanium alloy and degradation along grain boundaries for annealed titanium alloy. The extent of degradation was significantly higher in electrolyte at high temperature. The alloys displayed significant metastable pitting activity and passivation behavior with the untreated steel being the most resistant to metastable pits formation. Plots from open circuit potential measurement depict untreated titanium alloy was generally the least vulnerable to corrosion with stable oxide formation at room temperature and comparative low concentration of the electrolyte. Quenched titanium alloy exhibited the least vulnerability to corrosion with highly unstable oxide at higher temperature of the electrolyte.

Acknowledgement

The authors acknowledge the support of Covenant University towards the execution and success of this research.

  1. Conflict of interest: Author declare no conflict of interest.

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Received: 2021-11-20
Revised: 2022-01-31
Accepted: 2022-02-01
Published Online: 2022-04-27

© 2022 Roland Tolulope Loto, published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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https://doi.org/10.1515/eng-2022-0037
Keywords for this article
titanium; corrosion; acid-chloride; heat-treatment; pitting; passivation
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

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  53. Spatial mixture modeling for analyzing a rainfall pattern: A case study in Ireland
  54. Flow parameters effect on water hammer stability in hydraulic system by using state-space method
  55. Experimental study of the behaviour and failure modes of tapered castellated steel beams
  56. Water hammer phenomenon in pumping stations: A stability investigation based on root locus
  57. Mechanical properties and freeze-thaw resistance of lightweight aggregate concrete using artificial clay aggregate
  58. Compatibility between delay functions and highway capacity manual on Iraqi highways
  59. The effect of expanded polystyrene beads (EPS) on the physical and mechanical properties of aerated concrete
  60. The effect of cutoff angle on the head pressure underneath dams constructed on soils having rectangular void
  61. An experimental study on vibration isolation by open and in-filled trenches
  62. Designing a 3D virtual test platform for evaluating prosthetic knee joint performance during the walking cycle
  63. Special Issue: AESMT-2 - Part I
  64. Optimization process of resistance spot welding for high-strength low-alloy steel using Taguchi method
  65. Cyclic performance of moment connections with reduced beam sections using different cut-flange profiles
  66. Time overruns in the construction projects in Iraq: Case study on investigating and analyzing the root causes
  67. Contribution of lift-to-drag ratio on power coefficient of HAWT blade for different cross-sections
  68. Geotechnical correlations of soil properties in Hilla City – Iraq
  69. Improve the performance of solar thermal collectors by varying the concentration and nanoparticles diameter of silicon dioxide
  70. Enhancement of evaporative cooling system in a green-house by geothermal energy
  71. Destructive and nondestructive tests formulation for concrete containing polyolefin fibers
  72. Quantify distribution of topsoil erodibility factor for watersheds that feed the Al-Shewicha trough – Iraq using GIS
  73. Seamless geospatial data methodology for topographic map: A case study on Baghdad
  74. Mechanical properties investigation of composite FGM fabricated from Al/Zn
  75. Causes of change orders in the cycle of construction project: A case study in Al-Najaf province
  76. Optimum hydraulic investigation of pipe aqueduct by MATLAB software and Newton–Raphson method
  77. Numerical analysis of high-strength reinforcing steel with conventional strength in reinforced concrete beams under monotonic loading
  78. Deriving rainfall intensity–duration–frequency (IDF) curves and testing the best distribution using EasyFit software 5.5 for Kut city, Iraq
  79. Designing of a dual-functional XOR block in QCA technology
  80. Producing low-cost self-consolidation concrete using sustainable material
  81. Performance of the anaerobic baffled reactor for primary treatment of rural domestic wastewater in Iraq
  82. Enhancement isolation antenna to multi-port for wireless communication
  83. A comparative study of different coagulants used in treatment of turbid water
  84. Field tests of grouted ground anchors in the sandy soil of Najaf, Iraq
  85. New methodology to reduce power by using smart street lighting system
  86. Optimization of the synergistic effect of micro silica and fly ash on the behavior of concrete using response surface method
  87. Ergodic capacity of correlated multiple-input–multiple-output channel with impact of transmitter impairments
  88. Numerical studies of the simultaneous development of forced convective laminar flow with heat transfer inside a microtube at a uniform temperature
  89. Enhancement of heat transfer from solar thermal collector using nanofluid
  90. Improvement of permeable asphalt pavement by adding crumb rubber waste
  91. Study the effect of adding zirconia particles to nickel–phosphorus electroless coatings as product innovation on stainless steel substrate
  92. Waste aggregate concrete properties using waste tiles as coarse aggregate and modified with PC superplasticizer
  93. CuO–Cu/water hybrid nonofluid potentials in impingement jet
  94. Satellite vibration effects on communication quality of OISN system
  95. Special Issue: Annual Engineering and Vocational Education Conference - Part III
  96. Mechanical and thermal properties of recycled high-density polyethylene/bamboo with different fiber loadings
  97. Special Issue: Advanced Energy Storage
  98. Cu-foil modification for anode-free lithium-ion battery from electronic cable waste
  99. Review of various sulfide electrolyte types for solid-state lithium-ion batteries
  100. Optimization type of filler on electrochemical and thermal properties of gel polymer electrolytes membranes for safety lithium-ion batteries
  101. Pr-doped BiFeO3 thin films growth on quartz using chemical solution deposition
  102. An environmentally friendly hydrometallurgy process for the recovery and reuse of metals from spent lithium-ion batteries, using organic acid
  103. Production of nickel-rich LiNi0.89Co0.08Al0.03O2 cathode material for high capacity NCA/graphite secondary battery fabrication
  104. Special Issue: Sustainable Materials Production and Processes
  105. Corrosion polarization and passivation behavior of selected stainless steel alloys and Ti6Al4V titanium in elevated temperature acid-chloride electrolytes
  106. Special Issue: Modern Scientific Problems in Civil Engineering - Part II
  107. The modelling of railway subgrade strengthening foundation on weak soils
  108. Special Issue: Automation in Finland 2021 - Part II
  109. Manufacturing operations as services by robots with skills
  110. Foundations and case studies on the scalable intelligence in AIoT domains
  111. Safety risk sources of autonomous mobile machines
  112. Special Issue: 49th KKBN - Part I
  113. Residual magnetic field as a source of information about steel wire rope technical condition
  114. Monitoring the boundary of an adhesive coating to a steel substrate with an ultrasonic Rayleigh wave
  115. Detection of early stage of ductile and fatigue damage presented in Inconel 718 alloy using instrumented indentation technique
  116. Identification and characterization of the grinding burns by eddy current method
  117. Special Issue: ICIMECE 2020 - Part II
  118. Selection of MR damper model suitable for SMC applied to semi-active suspension system by using similarity measures
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