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Numerical simulation of mechanically stimulated bone remodelling

  • Josephine Mauck EMAIL logo , Jan Wieding , Daniel Kluess and Rainer Bader
Published/Copyright: September 30, 2016
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Current Directions in Biomedical Engineering
From the journal Current Directions in Biomedical Engineering Volume 2 Issue 1

Abstract

The numerical simulation of bone remodelling provides a great opportunity to improve the choice of therapy in particular for complex bone defects. Despite this fact, its use in clinical practice is not yet expedient because of several unresolved problems. In this paper a new bone remodelling algorithm based on standard computer tomography datasets and finite element analysis is introduced.

Keywords: bone remodelling; computed tomography; finite-element analysis; numerical stimulation

1 Introduction

Numerical simulation of bone remodelling is a tool applied to investigate the fracture healing and the implant integration, in order to detect and quantify the secondary stability of the endoprosthetic implant as well as bone healing time and ingrowth of bone tissue into functionalized implant surfaces. A prognosis concerning changes in bone morphology under mechanical stress can be ventured using a time-step method based on standard computer tomography (CT) datasets and finite element analysis (FEA) [1], [2], [3]. Following this theory, the aim of our work was the development of a numerical algorithm to simulate the mechanically stimulated bone remodelling.

2 Method

The basis for the simulation of bone remodelling is represented by a finite element (FE) model, whose geometry is reconstructed from a CT dataset. To create this numerical model the following software packages are used:

  • Segmentation: Amira 5.4.1 (FEI Company, Hillsboro, OR, USA)

  • CAD-Reconstruction: Geomagic Studio 2013 (3D Systems, Rock Hill, SC, USA)

  • Mapping of HU values: Abactmat (self-developed software, University Medicine Rostock, Germany) based on Python 2.6.2 (Python Software Foundation, Beaverton, OR, USA)

  • Pre-processor and Solver: Abaqus/CAE 6.12-2 (Dassault Systèmes, Providence, RI, USA)

  • Bone remodelling simulation software using time-step method: Remodel (self-developed software, University Medicine Rostock, Germany) based on Python 2.7.2 (Python Software Foundation, Beaverton, OR, USA)

  • Post-processor: Abaqus/Viewer 6.12-2 (Dassault Systèmes, Providence, RI, USA)

The software tools could be used in the described process operation without any interface problems. The process operation steps, which are shown in Figure 1, are explained in detail in the following chapters.

Figure 1 Reconstruction of a three-dimensional bone model from CT data by segmentation, surface conversion, meshing and HU value mapping according to [4].
Figure 1

Reconstruction of a three-dimensional bone model from CT data by segmentation, surface conversion, meshing and HU value mapping according to [4].

2.1 Reconstruction of bone morphology

The reconstruction of bone morphology is based on CT datasets containing the interesting bone structures. The CT images, which represent the attenuation of X-ray spectrum by the tissue measured in Hounsfield units (HU), are imported in Amira and the bone structures and the areas, in which bone formation is expected, are segmented layer by layer using the image segmentation editor. Once the segmentation is completed, the three-dimensional surface of the bone can be reconstructed automatically using triangular faces. The resulting surface model is committed to Geomagic via a STL interface in ASCII mode. In Geomagic the faceted polygon surface is smoothed and converted into a surface of analytical Non-Uniform Rational B-Spline surfaces (NURBS). For this purpose, the surface of the model is divided into quadrilateral patches providing that a decomposition of the bone in hexahedral bodies is conceivable. Subsequently the model is covered with a grid, which is required to generate the NURBS surface. The model is transferred to the pre-processor via an IGES interface [4].

2.2 Preparation of the FE-model

If the surface has no further gaps or holes, the surface model is converted into a solid model when the import in Abaqus/CAE is performed. Afterwards, the solid model is meshed automatically with tetrahedral finite elements. The mapping of the material data from the CT to the FE mesh is done node-wise. Employing the self-developed software Abactmat, each node gets an HU value from the CT data by using the corresponding node coordinates. The HU values are considered as temperatures, in order to simulate the inhomogeneous bone material properties in vivo by a linear-elastic temperature-dependent material model [5]. Correlations between HU and Young’s modulus or bone mineral density and Young’s modulus can be found in the literature [6]. The relationship between HU and bone mineral density can be determined through a bone mineral density phantom, which should be CT-scanned together with the interesting bone structure [4].

In contrast, the application of the boundary conditions (forces, pressures, and displacements) in biomechanical FEA is mostly based on assumptions. Articular force measurements with specially instrumented implants such as OrthoLoad implants [7] or muscle force calculations based on inverse dynamics [8] cannot capture the entire spectrum of the constraints in vivo. Hence, the load, which is applied on the FE model, usually reposes on an available load from the literature like the maximum load during walking, sitting down or climbing stairs. The bearing of the bone model is performed in the articular centre points, while the articular forces and the muscle forces are applied on the model surface. All boundary conditions are implemented via reference points which are linked to the volume or surface through tie constraints.

In order to avoid an excessive calculation time, the FEA can be performed with a static load and, if appropriate, carried out without nonlinearities. The interesting output parameters of the FEA have to be augmented by the node temperature and the output parameter, which should be acting as the basis of the mechanical stimulus. Through the output of the input file the FE model is made available for the bone remodelling simulation.

2.3 Bone remodelling

The simulation of bone remodelling is implemented by the adaptation of the HU values to the FE-calculated mechanical stimulus. The aim is an optimally mineralized bone structure with high HU values in high stressed areas and low HU values in low stressed areas. In consequence, the stimulus in the whole bone structure gets more uniform. To adapt the HU values of the FE nodes, the local stimuli of the nodes are determined and compared with a reference stimulus, which represents the acceptable daily strain of the bone tissue. If the current stimulus is higher than the reference stimulus, the HU value of the node needs to be increased (bone formation). If the current stimulus is smaller, the HU value has to be reduced (bone resorption). Based on a mathematical function (Figure 2) the node-individual rate of bone turnover is calculated and a new HU value for the observed FE node is determined. Assuming that the current stimulus exceeds the maximum of bone formation, the overload leads to a necrotic bone resorption. If the current stimulus of the FE node is close to the reference stimulus, no adaptation of the HU value is required (equilibrium zone). To adapt the mathematical function (Figure 2) to the desired bone model, the following parameters need to be defined:

Figure 2 Exemplary representation of the bone remodelling algorithm by Behrens [3], Field [2] (without necrosis) and Beaupre [1] (without maximum formation rate and necrosis).
Figure 2

Exemplary representation of the bone remodelling algorithm by Behrens [3], Field [2] (without necrosis) and Beaupre [1] (without maximum formation rate and necrosis).

  • Reference stimulus,

  • Magnitude of the equilibrium,

  • Zone of necrosis stimulus,

  • Rate of bone turnover and

  • Remodelling balance between formation and degradation.

Moreover, the period of time represented by the FEA, and the weighting of different load cases (e.g. walking vs. climbing stairs) have to be clarified. By varying these input parameters, the bone remodelling rate can be changed and an increased bone formation or degradation is promoted. During the automatically proceeded optimization, FEA and HU-value adaptation are performed alternately, until a uniform strain or a previously defined termination criterion is reached.

To start the process of bone remodelling simulation, the following steps are required:

  1. The input parameters given above are entered in a pre-formatted text file (para.txt).

  2. The temperature table, which contains the nodes and the current HU values to be remodelled, are exported from the input file (job.inp) into a new text file that is stored as HU file (job.huf).

  3. Instead of the temperature table a cross-reference to the HU file is supplemented in the input file.

  4. Python code (remodel.py), parameter text file (para.txt), input file of the FE model (job.inp), HU file (job.huf) and an environment file for Abaqus (abaqus.env) are placed in a separate file folder.

Using a queue for the systematic processing of unsolved input files by the Abaqus solver, FEA and HU-value adaptation are performed automatically. After each FEA the HU-file is duplicated and edited to predetermine the new specific HU values for the following FEA. In which kind the files interact in detail is summarized in Figure 3 [9].

Figure 3 Interaction of the different file types during the bone remodelling: The process starts when the job.inp is detected by the FE queue. Regarding all input files the FE job is executed and the HU values are adapted. When the optimization process reaches the convergence or the termination criterion, the process is stopped [9].
Figure 3

Interaction of the different file types during the bone remodelling: The process starts when the job.inp is detected by the FE queue. Regarding all input files the FE job is executed and the HU values are adapted. When the optimization process reaches the convergence or the termination criterion, the process is stopped [9].

3 Results

The result of the bone remodelling simulation is an output file (job.odb) for the Abaqus Viewer. This file contains the results of all FEA including the HU value distributions, which were used for the corresponding FEA cycles. In Figure 4 the results of a mechanically stimulated rat bone is shown exemplarily. The transcortical hole through the diaphysis of the femur is closed in vivo and in silico within a simulation time of 1 month postoperatively.

Figure 4 Representation of the HU value distribution of the rat femur in the region of interest. Comparison of CT and FE images at different times: Using the bone remodelling algorithm by Beaupre [1] the results of the animal experiments could be simulated in a comparable time frame.
Figure 4

Representation of the HU value distribution of the rat femur in the region of interest. Comparison of CT and FE images at different times: Using the bone remodelling algorithm by Beaupre [1] the results of the animal experiments could be simulated in a comparable time frame.

4 Discussion

The relationship between morphology and mechanical stress in bones was already described in 1892 by Julius Wolff. Based on this theory, an organ-level strategy to simulate the load-driven remodelling in bones was developed. The aim was to predict the distribution of bone tissue and trabecular bone density with numerical bone models stimulated by stress or strain parameters [10]. Since these stimulation parameters have been questioned, new strategies driven by the removal of microdamages [11], regulated by biological parameters [12] and multiscale approaches were developed [10], [13].

Our presented bone remodelling algorithm is a load-driven strategy, which is based on high-resolution CT data including the mineral density of bone. Thus, the patient-specific bone structure and the inhomogeneous material are considered. As the presented results show, the algorithm provides a realistically remodelled bone structure comparable to the result from the animal study. Nevertheless, an exact adjustment of the input parameters is necessary to obtain the correct reconstruction velocity and the desired degree of bone volume. For a reliable prediction of bone remodelling, the implementation of sensitivity analyses and experimental validations is essential. Summarized, our method represents a mechanically focused approach to analyse the macro-morphology of bone under altered mechanical conditions or in combination with different implant designs and materials.

Despite the fact that the proposed bone remodelling strategy provides a great opportunity to improve the choice of therapy in particular for complex bone defects, its use in clinical practice is not yet expedient. Besides the limitations of FE simulations related to bone structures like the complexity of the FE model creation, the lack of an assured bone material definition and the insufficient knowledge concerning the load situation of different bone types, the question how to validate the method of bone remodelling simulation impairs the targeted application [11]. Today, validations using patient-specific data are not ethically acceptable because the patient would be exposed to an increased X-ray exposure due to frequent CT scans. Alternatively, a verification on an animal model can be performed, even if the healing process is affected through X-radiation and the transferability of the results to humans is difficult to prove because of restrictions due to different bone structures, surgical procedures and implant systems [11]. In the future a verification of the bone remodelling algorithm on human subjects might be realized if high resolution MRI scans can be used instead of CT scans. For this purpose, the development of a sufficiently hedged material definition of the bone tissue in vivo with respect to MRI specific metrics would be required in order to offer a method for bone remodelling simulation, which could meet the challenges of patient-specific modelling in later clinical use.

Acknowledgement

We would like to thank Professor Annelie Weinberg and Ms. Elisabeth Martinelli, University Hospital Graz, for providing the animal CT scan.

Author’s Statement

Research funding: The author state no funding involved. Conflict of interest: Authors state no conflict of interest. Material and Methods: Informed consent: Informed consent is not applicable. Ethical approval: The conducted research is not related to either human or animal use.

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Published Online: 2016-9-30
Published in Print: 2016-9-1

©2016 Josephine Mauck et al., licensee De Gruyter.

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 License.

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https://doi.org/10.1515/cdbme-2016-0141
Keywords for this article
bone remodelling; computed tomography; finite-element analysis; numerical stimulation
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BY-NC-ND 4.0

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  52. Left cardiac atrioventricular delay and inter-ventricular delay in cardiac resynchronization therapy responder and non-responder
  53. An automatic systolic peak detector of blood pressure waveforms using 4th order cumulants
  54. Real-time QRS detection using integrated variance for ECG gated cardiac MRI
  55. Preprocessing of unipolar signals acquired by a novel intracardiac mapping system
  56. In-vitro experiments to characterize ventricular electromechanics
  57. Continuous non-invasive monitoring of blood pressure in the operating room: a cuffless optical technology at the fingertip
  58. Application of microwave sensor technology in cardiovascular disease for plaque detection
  59. Artificial blood circulatory and special Ultrasound Doppler probes for detecting and sizing gaseous embolism
  60. Detection of microsleep events in a car driving simulation study using electrocardiographic features
  61. A method to determine the kink resistance of stents and stent delivery systems according to international standards
  62. Comparison of stented bifurcation and straight vessel 3D-simulation with a prior simulated velocity profile inlet
  63. Transient Euler-Lagrange/DEM simulation of stent thrombosis
  64. Automated control of the laser welding process of heart valve scaffolds
  65. Automation of a test bench for accessing the bendability of electrospun vascular grafts
  66. Influence of storage conditions on the release of growth factors in platelet-rich blood derivatives
  67. Cryopreservation of cells using defined serum-free cryoprotective agents
  68. New bioreactor vessel for tissue engineering of human nasal septal chondrocytes
  69. Determination of the membrane hydraulic permeability of MSCs
  70. Climate retainment in carbon dioxide incubators
  71. Multiple factors influencing OR ventilation system effectiveness
  72. Evaluation of an app-based stress protocol
  73. Medication process in Styrian hospitals
  74. Control tower to surgical theater
  75. Development of a skull phantom for the assessment of implant X-ray visibility
  76. Surgical navigation with QR codes
  77. Investigation of the pressure gradient of embolic protection devices
  78. Computer assistance in femoral derotation osteotomy: a bottom-up approach
  79. Automatic depth scanning system for 3D infrared thermography
  80. A service for monitoring the quality of intraoperative cone beam CT images
  81. Resectoscope with an easy to use twist mechanism for improved handling
  82. In vitro simulation of distribution processes following intramuscular injection
  83. Adjusting inkjet printhead parameters to deposit drugs into micro-sized reservoirs
  84. A flexible standalone system with integrated sensor feedback for multi-pad electrode FES of the hand
  85. Smart control for functional electrical stimulation with optimal pulse intensity
  86. Tactile display on the remaining hand for unilateral hand amputees
  87. Effects of sustained electrical stimulation on spasticity assessed by the pendulum test
  88. An improved tracking framework for ultrasound probe localization in image-guided radiosurgery
  89. Improvement of a subviral particle tracker by the use of a LAP-Kalman-algorithm
  90. Learning discriminative classification models for grading anal intraepithelial neoplasia
  91. Regularization of EIT reconstruction based on multi-scales wavelet transforms
  92. Assessing MRI susceptibility artefact through an indicator of image distortion
  93. EyeGuidance – a computer controlled system to guide eye movements
  94. A framework for feedback-based segmentation of 3D image stacks
  95. Doppler optical coherence tomography as a promising tool for detecting fluid in the human middle ear
  96. 3D Local in vivo Environment (LivE) imaging for single cell protein analysis of bone tissue
  97. Inside-Out access strategy using new trans-vascular catheter approach
  98. US/MRI fusion with new optical tracking and marker approach for interventional procedures inside the MRI suite
  99. Impact of different registration methods in MEG source analysis
  100. 3D segmentation of thyroid ultrasound images using active contours
  101. Designing a compact MRI motion phantom
  102. Cerebral cortex classification by conditional random fields applied to intraoperative thermal imaging
  103. Classification of indirect immunofluorescence images using thresholded local binary count features
  104. Analysis of muscle fatigue conditions using time-frequency images and GLCM features
  105. Numerical evaluation of image parameters of ETR-1
  106. Fabrication of a compliant phantom of the human aortic arch for use in Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) experimentation
  107. Effect of the number of electrodes on the reconstructed lung shape in electrical impedance tomography
  108. Hardware dependencies of GPU-accelerated beamformer performances for microwave breast cancer detection
  109. Computer assisted assessment of progressing osteoradionecrosis of the jaw for clinical diagnosis and treatment
  110. Evaluation of reconstruction parameters of electrical impedance tomography on aorta detection during saline bolus injection
  111. Evaluation of open-source software for the lung segmentation
  112. Automatic determination of lung features of CF patients in CT scans
  113. Image analysis of self-organized multicellular patterns
  114. Effect of key parameters on synthesis of superparamagnetic nanoparticles (SPIONs)
  115. Radiopacity assessment of neurovascular implants
  116. Development of a desiccant based dielectric for monitoring humidity conditions in miniaturized hermetic implantable packages
  117. Development of an artifact-free aneurysm clip
  118. Enhancing the regeneration of bone defects by alkalizing the peri-implant zone – an in vitro approach
  119. Rapid prototyping of replica knee implants for in vitro testing
  120. Protecting ultra- and hyperhydrophilic implant surfaces in dry state from loss of wettability
  121. Advanced wettability analysis of implant surfaces
  122. Patient-specific hip prostheses designed by surgeons
  123. Plasma treatment on novel carbon fiber reinforced PEEK cages to enhance bioactivity
  124. Wear of a total intervertebral disc prosthesis
  125. Digital health and digital biomarkers – enabling value chains on health data
  126. Usability in the lifecycle of medical software development
  127. Influence of different test gases in a non-destructive 100% quality control system for medical devices
  128. Device development guided by user satisfaction survey on auricular vagus nerve stimulation
  129. Empirical assessment of the time course of innovation in biomedical engineering: first results of a comparative approach
  130. Effect of left atrial hypertrophy on P-wave morphology in a computational model
  131. Simulation of intracardiac electrograms around acute ablation lesions
  132. Parametrization of activation based cardiac electrophysiology models using bidomain model simulations
  133. Assessment of nasal resistance using computational fluid dynamics
  134. Resistance in a non-linear autoregressive model of pulmonary mechanics
  135. Inspiratory and expiratory elastance in a non-linear autoregressive model of pulmonary mechanics
  136. Determination of regional lung function in cystic fibrosis using electrical impedance tomography
  137. Development of parietal bone surrogates for parietal graft lift training
  138. Numerical simulation of mechanically stimulated bone remodelling
  139. Conversion of engineering stresses to Cauchy stresses in tensile and compression tests of thermoplastic polymers
  140. Numerical examinations of simplified spondylodesis models concerning energy absorption in magnetic resonance imaging
  141. Principle study on the signal connection at transabdominal fetal pulse oximetry
  142. Influence of Siluron® insertion on model drug distribution in the simulated vitreous body
  143. Evaluating different approaches to identify a three parameter gas exchange model
  144. Effects of fibrosis on the extracellular potential based on 3D reconstructions from histological sections of heart tissue
  145. From imaging to hemodynamics – how reconstruction kernels influence the blood flow predictions in intracranial aneurysms
  146. Flow optimised design of a novel point-of-care diagnostic device for the detection of disease specific biomarkers
  147. Improved FPGA controlled artificial vascular system for plethysmographic measurements
  148. Minimally spaced electrode positions for multi-functional chest sensors: ECG and respiratory signal estimation
  149. Automated detection of alveolar arches for nasoalveolar molding in cleft lip and palate treatment
  150. Control scheme selection in human-machine- interfaces by analysis of activity signals
  151. Event-based sampling for reducing communication load in realtime human motion analysis by wireless inertial sensor networks
  152. Automatic pairing of inertial sensors to lower limb segments – a plug-and-play approach
  153. Contactless respiratory monitoring system for magnetic resonance imaging applications using a laser range sensor
  154. Interactive monitoring system for visual respiratory biofeedback
  155. Development of a low-cost senor based aid for visually impaired people
  156. Patient assistive system for the shoulder joint
  157. A passive beating heart setup for interventional cardiology training
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