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A study on the effect of microspheres on the freeze–thaw resistance of EPS concrete

  • Haijie He , Lidan Gao , Ke Xu , Ji Yuan EMAIL logo , Wei Ge , Caiyuan Lin , Chuang He , Xiaogang Wang , Junding Liu and Jie Yang
Published/Copyright: February 28, 2024
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Science and Engineering of Composite Materials
From the journal Science and Engineering of Composite Materials Volume 31 Issue 1

Abstract

This study investigated the influence of microbead dosages (0, 5, 10, 15, and 20%) on the frost resistance of expanded polystyrene (EPS) concrete. Five groups of EPS concrete specimens were prepared and subjected to rapid freeze–thaw tests. The freeze–thaw deterioration of EPS concrete was assessed using macroscopic indicators, including mass loss, strength loss, and dynamic elastic modulus loss. The underlying deterioration mechanism was revealed through the analysis of the EPS particle–matrix interface. A concrete damage plasticity model of EPS concrete based on damage mechanics theory was established. The results indicate that the addition of microbeads increased the strength of EPS concrete by 38–53%, reduced the strength attenuation after freeze–thaw damage by 8.1%, and improved the frost resistance level by 10–60 grades. The optimal dosage of microbeads is 15% of the cementitious material. The interfacial transition zone gaps in EPS concrete with added microbeads after freeze–thaw cycles are smaller, contributing to a more complete hydration reaction. The freeze–thaw damage model established in this study accurately reflects the freeze–thaw damage law of EPS concrete and provides a reference for studying the mechanical properties of EPS concrete under freeze–thaw cycles. The research findings of this study can enhance the strength and service life of EPS concrete, expanding its application scope as a structural material. The study provides valuable insights for future research and engineering applications related to the frost resistance of EPS concrete.

Keywords: expanded polystyrene concrete; frost resistance; microbead; SEM; damage model

1 Introduction

In recent years, the development of low-carbon buildings has led to an increase in the application of expanded polystyrene (EPS) concrete [1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9]. As a structural material in walls, the durability of EPS concrete directly affects the safety of the structure [10,11,12,13,14,15,16]. Frost resistance is a crucial factor influencing concrete durability [17], and an inevitable connection exists between EPS concrete’s frost resistance and the structure’s service life. Enhancing EPS concrete’s frost resistance and extending its service life are important technical means to promote its use. However, current research on EPS concrete’s frost resistance and durability is limited. Improving the durability of EPS concrete can significantly impact the quality of EPS concrete structures and expand their application scope.

Presently, there are two main approaches to improve the frost resistance of EPS concrete. The first approach involves applying protective coatings to the surface of EPS concrete. Guo [18] applied a frost-resistant agent to EPS concrete, which significantly improved its frost resistance. Guan [19] used waterproofing agents such as organic silane on the surface of EPS concrete, resulting in a substantial improvement in frost resistance. The second approach focuses on modifying EPS concrete. Hu [20] incorporated polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) fibers into EPS concrete, which improved its frost resistance. Yuan et al. [15] modified the surface of EPS particles by encapsulation, altering the hydrophilicity of the EPS particle surface to enhance interfacial bonding performance and significantly improve EPS concrete’s frost resistance. While these methods effectively improve EPS concrete’s frost resistance, they introduce construction difficulties or increase application costs, hindering its promotion. A simple and economical method to enhance EPS concrete’s durability would significantly contribute to its promotion and application. Currently, there are potential methods to enhance the performance of concrete, such as incorporating carbon nanotubes [21,22], adding polylactic acid [23], and utilizing boron-enriched nanosized particles [24,25]. These materials may be effective in enhancing the performance of EPS concrete. The authors propose that adding mineral admixtures is a promising approach to improve EPS concrete’s durability. Mineral admixtures have been proven to significantly enhance the strength and durability of ordinary concrete [26]. In this study, a new type of mineral admixture, microbeads, was added to EPS concrete to improve its performance.

Microbeads [15,26] are ultrafine particles collected from the smoke emitted by coal-fired power plants. They not only reduce air pollution but also serve as a newly developed special resource. Microbeads have a continuous and uniform particle size distribution, which can act as a compact filler in mortar and concrete, reducing capillary pores. They synergize well with chemical corrosion inhibitors and waterproofing agents, enhancing corrosion resistance and impermeability. Their unique physicochemical properties can increase the compactness of mortar or concrete, reduce harmful capillary pores and microcracks, and thus enhance the corrosion and permeability resistance of mortar and concrete. Microbead anticorrosion and waterproofing agents used in silicate cement mortar or concrete can resist the corrosion of certain concentrations of SO 4 2 − , Cl−, HCO 3 − , Mg2+, and other salts, surface water, seawater, and sewage on mortar or concrete, while also enhancing the impermeability and frost resistance of mortar and concrete. Currently, microbeads are mainly used in the foundations of industrial and civil buildings, such as erosion-prone port terminals, water conservancy projects, bridges, nuclear power plants, and tunnels. Given the proven durability-enhancing effects of microbeads in ordinary concrete and mortar, along with their significant environmental and economic benefits, the aim of this study is to apply them in EPS concrete.

In this study, EPS concrete samples with a density of 1,100 kg/m3 were prepared with microbead admixtures at different dosages: 0, 5, 10, 15, and 20% of the cementitious materials. The durability of EPS concrete after 0, 25, 50, 75, 100, 125, 150, and 175 freeze–thaw cycles was investigated using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) to provide theoretical support for the engineering application of EPS concrete.

2 Experimental scheme

2.1 Raw materials

The cement used was P.O 42.5 with a specific surface area of 400 m2/kg, an average particle size of approximately 10–20 μm, and 3 days and 28 days strengths of 24.6 MPa and 46.3 MPa, respectively [27]. The sand was washed sea sand with an apparent density of 2,630 kg/m3 and a fineness modulus of 2.60. The fly ash was Class II fly ash [28] produced by Taizhou Tianda Environmental Protection Building Materials Co., Ltd. The microbeads were produced by Tianjin Zhucheng New Material Technology Co., Ltd, with an apparent density of 2,520 kg/m3, a bulk density of 760 kg/m3, a specific surface area of greater than 1,300 m2/kg, 28 days and 56 days activity coefficients of 105–110% and 115–120%, respectively, and a corrosion resistance coefficient index of 0.96. The microbeads and scanning electron micrographs are shown in Figure 1. The water reducer used was a polycarboxylic acid water reducer with a solid content of 20%. The particle size of EPS was 2–3 mm, and the bulk density was 17.6 kg/m3, as illustrated in Figure 2. In the composite powder of cement, microbeads, and fly ash, microbeads fill the pores between the cement and fly ash particles to form a compact cementitious material. The particle size distribution (PSD) of three powder materials (cement, microbeads, and fly ash) was determined using a laser particle size analyzer, as plotted in Figure 3. The chemical compositions obtained using X-ray fluorescence (XRF) testing are provided in Table 1.

Figure 1 Microbeads and their scanning electron micrographs [11,14].
Figure 1

Microbeads and their scanning electron micrographs [11,14].

Figure 2 EPS foam particles.
Figure 2

EPS foam particles.

Figure 3 PSD of solid materials used in the mixtures.
Figure 3

PSD of solid materials used in the mixtures.

Table 1

Chemical composition of the cementitious material

Chemical composition (%) SiO2 CaO MgO Al2O3 Fe2O3 Na2O K2O SO3 TiO2
Microbeads 56.52 4.85 1.33 26.54 5.36 1.42 3.28 0.65 0.02
Cement 22.93 58.42 1.81 6.93 3.43 0.37 1.13 3.75 0.48
Fly ash 34.48 4.62 0.60 42.35 9.88 0.48 1.42 2.15 2.51

2.2 EPS concrete mix proportion design

In this study, five groups of EPS particle specimens were designed, maintaining the total amount of cementitious materials constant for each group. Group 1 was the blank control group with no microbead addition. Groups 2, 3, 4, and 5 contained microbead admixtures of 5, 10, 15, and 20% of the cementitious material, respectively, replacing the fly ash in Group 1 with corresponding microbead dosages. The mix proportions for the five groups of EPS concrete specimens are shown in Table 2.

Table 2

Mix proportion of EPS concrete

Group Cement/kg Fly ash/kg Polyphenyl particle/L Water/kg Water reducer/kg Mircobead/kg Cementitious material replacement ratio (%)
1# 370 370 580 252 3.5 0 0
2# 370 333 580 252 3.5 37 5
3# 370 296 580 252 3.5 74 10
4# 370 259 580 252 3.5 111 15
5# 370 222 580 252 3.5 148 20

2.3 Specimen preparation and curing

The specimen preparation for this experiment followed the “Standard for test methods of concrete physical and mechanical properties” (GB/T50081-2019) [29]. For each group of EPS concrete, three sets of cubic specimens (100 mm × 100 mm × 100 mm) and one set of prismatic specimens (100 mm × 100 mm × 400 mm) were prepared, with three specimens in each set. One set of cubic specimens was used for testing the 28 days curing strength, one set for testing the strength after freeze–thaw cycles, one set for microscopic testing, and the prismatic specimens for freeze–thaw testing. After molding, the EPS concrete specimens were placed in a natural curing room, and the molds were removed after one day and transferred to a standard curing room for curing. The dry density of the specimens in each group is shown in Figure 4, and the dry density of all five groups of EPS concrete was 1,100 kg/m3. The main experimental process is provided in Figure 5.

Figure 4 Dry density of the specimens.
Figure 4

Dry density of the specimens.

Figure 5 Main experimental flowchart.
Figure 5

Main experimental flowchart.

2.4 Freeze–thaw testing

In this experiment, a TDRF-2 rapid freeze–thaw box for concrete was used, and the test was conducted using the rapid freezing method as per “Standard for test methods of long-term performance and durability of ordinary concrete” (GB/T50082-2009). The experimental procedure is illustrated in Figure 6. The freezing temperature range was −18 to −20°C, with a freezing time of 4 h, while the thawing temperature range was 18−20°C, with a thawing time of 4 h. After every 25 freeze–thaw cycles, the mass, dynamic elastic modulus, and compressive strength were measured using an electronic balance, a concrete dynamic modulus tester, and a pressure testing machine, respectively [30].

Figure 6 Experimental procedure.
Figure 6

Experimental procedure.

2.5 Microscopic testing

To reveal the microscopic deterioration rules of EPS concrete under freeze–thaw cycles, SEM was used for the microstructure analysis. The experiment was conducted at the Material Science Institute of Taizhou University. A Hitachi S-4800 field emission SEM was employed to test EPS concrete before and after freeze–thaw cycles. The specific steps were: (1) sample preparation; (2) gold sputtering treatment of the sample; (3) placing the sample and adjusting its position; (4) vacuuming; (5) emitting electron beams; (6) observing and taking photographs; and (7) sampling.

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Freeze–thaw damage phenomena

3.1.1 Group 1

The apparent morphology changes of Group 1 of EPS concrete during the freeze–thaw process are shown in Figure 7. After 25 freeze–thaw cycles, EPS foam particles on the specimen surface began to fall off. After 50 freeze–thaw cycles, specimens 1–1 and 1–3 fractured, and the specimens were damaged by freeze–thaw.

Figure 7 Freeze–thaw damage morphology of Group 1 specimens.
Figure 7

Freeze–thaw damage morphology of Group 1 specimens.

3.1.2 Group 2

The apparent morphology changes of Group 2 of EPS concrete during the freeze–thaw process are provided in Figure 8. After 25 freeze–thaw cycles, EPS foam particles on the specimen surface began to fall off. After 50 freeze–thaw cycles, the mortar on the specimen surface fell off. After 75 freeze–thaw cycles, specimen 2–3 fractured, and the mortar on the specimen surface fell off further. After 100 freeze–thaw cycles, specimen 2–2 fractured, the specimen ends became flat, and the concrete surface and edges displayed severe spalling.

Figure 8 Freeze–thaw damage morphology of Group 2 specimens.
Figure 8

Freeze–thaw damage morphology of Group 2 specimens.

3.1.3 Group 3

The apparent morphology changes of Group 3 of EPS concrete during the freeze–thaw process are plotted in Figure 9. After 25 freeze–thaw cycles, EPS foam particles on the specimen surface began to fall off. After 50 freeze–thaw cycles, the mortar on the specimen surface fell off, and specimen 3–3 fractured. After 75 freeze–thaw cycles, the mortar on the specimen surface fell off further, and the specimen end was severely damaged. After 100 freeze–thaw cycles, specimen 3–1 fractured, and the specimen end became flat.

Figure 9 Freeze–thaw damage morphology of Group 3 specimens.
Figure 9

Freeze–thaw damage morphology of Group 3 specimens.

3.1.4 Group 4

The apparent morphology changes of Group 4 of EPS concrete during the freeze–thaw process are illustrated in Figure 10. After 25 freeze–thaw cycles, EPS foam particles on the specimen surface began to fall off. After 50 freeze–thaw cycles, the mortar on the specimen surface fell off. After 75 freeze–thaw cycles, the mortar on the specimen surface fell off further, and the specimen end was damaged. After 100 freeze–thaw cycles, the specimen end was further damaged, the mortar on the specimen end fell off, and the end was severely damaged. After 125 freeze–thaw cycles, specimen 4–2 fractured and the specimen end became flat.

Figure 10 Freeze–thaw damage morphology of Group 4 specimens.
Figure 10

Freeze–thaw damage morphology of Group 4 specimens.

3.1.5 Group 5

The apparent morphology changes of Group 5 of EPS concrete during the freeze–thaw process are depicted in Figure 11. After 25 freeze–thaw cycles, EPS foam particles on the specimen surface began to fall off. After 50 freeze–thaw cycles, the mortar on the specimen surface fell off. After 75 freeze–thaw cycles, the mortar on the specimen surface fell off further, and the specimen end was damaged. After 100 freeze–thaw cycles, the specimen end was further damaged, and the mortar on the specimen end fell off. After 125 freeze–thaw cycles, specimen 5–2 fractured.

Figure 11 Freeze–thaw damage morphology of Group 5 specimens.
Figure 11

Freeze–thaw damage morphology of Group 5 specimens.

3.2 Mass loss rate

The mass changes and mass loss rates of the five EPS concrete groups are shown in Figure 12. Within 50 freeze–thaw cycles, the mass of the specimens increases, as the water absorption mass of the EPS concrete is greater than the spalling mass in the initial stage. When the number of freeze–thaw cycles exceeded 50, the internal cracks in the specimens gradually increased, and the freeze–thaw damage continued to increase, resulting in a larger mass loss rate. When the freeze–thaw reached 75 cycles, the mass loss rate curve still rose relatively gently. After the freeze–thaw exceeded 75 cycles, the mass loss curve rose significantly, with severe spalling on the EPS concrete surface and freeze–thaw damage.

Figure 12 Mass change of specimens during the freeze–thaw process. (a) Mass change of EPS concrete. (b) Mass loss rate of EPS concrete.
Figure 12

Mass change of specimens during the freeze–thaw process. (a) Mass change of EPS concrete. (b) Mass loss rate of EPS concrete.

3.3 Strength degradation

The specimens of each group before and after freeze–thaw are provided in Figure 13(a), and the strength degradation ratios of each group after freeze–thaw damage are plotted in Figure 13(b). As seen in Figure 13, after the addition of microbeads, the 28 days strength of EPS concrete was higher than that of EPS concrete without microbeads, with a strength increase of 38–53%. After freeze–thaw, the strength degradation of the specimens in Groups 1, 2, and 3 was more significant, while the strength degradation of specimens in Groups 4 and 5 was insignificant. The incorporation of microbeads significantly impacts the strength of EPS concrete, with a strength degradation rate of 15–25% after freeze–thaw. The higher the strength of EPS concrete, the smaller the strength degradation rate of freeze–thaw damage. The addition of microbeads can effectively alleviate the strength loss of EPS concrete under freeze–thaw conditions, and the strength degradation is significantly slowed down.

Figure 13 Freeze–thaw strength degradation of EPS concrete. (a) Strength before and after freeze–thaw. (b) Strength loss rate of EPS concrete.
Figure 13

Freeze–thaw strength degradation of EPS concrete. (a) Strength before and after freeze–thaw. (b) Strength loss rate of EPS concrete.

3.4 Dynamic elastic modulus loss rate

The attenuation curves of the relative dynamic elastic modulus of the five EPS concrete groups with freeze–thaw cycles are illustrated in Figure 14. The relative dynamic elastic modulus of Groups 1, 2, and 3 decreased linearly. For Group 1, the relative dynamic elastic modulus had already dropped below 60% after 25 freeze–thaw cycles. For Groups 2 and 3, the relative dynamic elastic modulus dropped below 60% after 50 freeze–thaw cycles. The attenuation curves of the relative dynamic elastic modulus of Groups 4 and 5 basically coincided, and the relative dynamic elastic modulus dropped below 60% only after 100 freeze–thaw cycles. The relative dynamic elastic modulus of the specimens decreases with the increase in the number of freeze–thaw cycles, and the internal damage of EPS concrete accumulates continuously. According to the analysis, the addition of microbeads can improve the internal structure of EPS concrete, thereby enhancing its frost resistance. However, there is an optimal microbead dosage. When the microbead dosage was 15 and 20%, the dynamic elastic modulus attenuation curves of Groups 4 and 5 basically remained the same. In this experiment, the optimal microbead dosage for EPS concrete was 15%.

Figure 14 Dynamic elastic modulus change of the specimens during freeze–thaw process.
Figure 14

Dynamic elastic modulus change of the specimens during freeze–thaw process.

3.5 Durability index

The frost durability index of EPS concrete was based on the “Standard for test methods of long-term performance and durability of ordinary concrete” (GB/T50082-2009) and the experimental phenomenon [30]. The frost resistance mark was determined by the maximum number of freeze–thaw cycles when the relative dynamic elastic modulus was not less than 60%, the compressive strength loss rate did not exceed 25%, and the mass loss rate did not exceed 5%. In this experiment, the frost resistance class determined by the relative dynamic elastic modulus is relatively more accurate, so it is more suitable to use the relative dynamic elastic modulus value to determine the frost durability index of EPS concrete. Among them, the relative dynamic modulus of Group 1 was less than 60% after 25 freeze–thaw cycles, and the number of freeze–thaw cycles corresponding to the relative dynamic modulus of 60% was more than 15 times calculated by the interpolation method. Therefore, the frost durability index of Group 1 was set to 15 times in this test.

The frost durability index of the five EPS concrete groups is plotted in Figure 15. The frost durability index of EPS concrete without microbeads was the lowest, and those of EPS concrete with microbead dosages of 15 and 20% were the highest. Adding an appropriate amount of microbeads to EPS concrete can significantly improve the frost durability index of the concrete, with an increase of 66.6–400%. This is sufficient to show that the addition of microbeads can significantly improve the frost resistance of EPS concrete. The fundamental reason is that after adding microbeads, the interfacial transition zone (ITZ) of EPS concrete becomes denser, the ITZ’s loose structure is improved, the crack propagation is slowed down under the action of freeze–thaw cycles, and the time required for frost heave damage is longer.

Figure 15 Frost durability index of EPS concrete.
Figure 15

Frost durability index of EPS concrete.

According to the “Technical specification for lightweight aggregate concrete” JGJ51-2002 [26], the requirements for the frost resistance of lightweight aggregate concrete are tabulated in Table 3. According to the requirements of Table 3, it can be seen that Group 1 of EPS concrete is only suitable for non-heating areas, while Groups 2 and 3 of EPS concrete are suitable for heating areas with a relative humidity of less than or equal to 60%, and Groups 4 and 5 are suitable for heating areas with a relative humidity greater than 60% or in areas with alternating dry and wet conditions and changing water levels. After adding microbeads to EPS concrete, the application scope of EPS concrete has been expanded.

Table 3

Frost durability index of lightweight aggregate concrete under different usage conditions [31]

Service condition Frost resistance mark
Non-heating areas F15
Heating areas
Relative humidity ≤ 60% F25
Relative humidity＞60% F35
Areas with alternating dry and wet conditions and changing water levels F50

3.6 Microscopic characterization of freeze–thaw deterioration of EPS concrete

The freeze–thaw cycle process is actually the process of continuous loading and unloading inside the specimen. Freezing is equivalent to the loading process, and thawing is equivalent to the unloading process. From a microscopic perspective, it can be explained as the hydration product structure changing from dense to sparse, microscopic cracks gradually developing, and ITZ continuously deteriorating [32]. In order to reveal the freeze–thaw deterioration mechanism of EPS concrete and analyze the EPS concrete with different microbead dosages, the internal ITZ structure and hydration products of EPS concrete after freeze–thaw cycles were analyzed through SEM, as presented in Figures 16 and 17, respectively.

Figure 16 ITZ structures of EPS concrete after freeze–thaw. (1) 1# EPS concrete. (2) 2# EPS concrete. (3) 3# EPS concrete. (4) 4# EPS concrete. (5) 5# EPS concrete.
Figure 16

ITZ structures of EPS concrete after freeze–thaw. (1) 1# EPS concrete. (2) 2# EPS concrete. (3) 3# EPS concrete. (4) 4# EPS concrete. (5) 5# EPS concrete.

Figure 17 Hydration product structure after freeze–thaw. (1) 1# EPS concrete. (2) 2# EPS concrete. (3) 3# EPS concrete. (4) 4# EPS concrete. (5) 5# EPS concrete.
Figure 17

Hydration product structure after freeze–thaw. (1) 1# EPS concrete. (2) 2# EPS concrete. (3) 3# EPS concrete. (4) 4# EPS concrete. (5) 5# EPS concrete.

Figure 16 shows the ITZ structure of the five EPS concrete groups. From Figure 16, it can be seen that the ITZ structure of EPS concrete was significantly damaged after freeze–thaw, with obvious pores and cracks on the structure surface. As shown in Figure 16(1), when the replacement ratio was 0%, the ITZ structure exhibited the most severe deterioration, the structure began to loosen, and there were obvious cracks between EPS and the cement matrix. As shown in Figure 15(2), when the replacement ratio reached 5%, there were obvious gaps between the cement matrix and EPS, and cracks appeared between EPS particles and the cement matrix, but the crack width was smaller compared to the replacement ratio 0% case. As depicted in Figure 16(3), (4), and (5), when the replacement ratio was 10, 15, and 20%, the ITZ deterioration degree was significantly reduced compared to the cases of 0 and 5% replacement ratios, with less obvious ITZ gaps.

Figure 17 presents the hydration product structure of EPS concrete with different microbead dosages after freeze–thaw. From Figure 17, it can be seen that the hydration product structure of the five EPS concrete groups varies significantly. When the microbead dosages were 0 and 5%, the hydration product structure displayed a flaky and clustered distribution trend, which is due to CH gel enrichment in the ITZ. As shown in Figure 17(3), when the microbead dosage reached 10%, there are needle-like and rod-like hydration products, with the hydration products interweaving and wrapping around each other. These hydration products are AFt. Figure 17(4) shows that the clustered distribution trend of the hydration product structure decreases. From Figure 17(5), the structure has good compactness, without any CH and AFt products that affect the strength. In EPS concrete without microbeads, the ITZ structure has more needle-like and rod-like ettringite crystals, which cause the structure between the cement matrix and aggregate interface to deteriorate, resulting in an overall porous and loose hydration structure. This leads to low strength and frost resistance of the concrete specimens. In Groups 4 and 5, where more microbeads are used, the microbeads act as crystallization nuclei [33,34], enhancing the precipitation of C–S–H and formation of hydration products, accelerating the hydration process. This also confirms that the strength of these two groups is higher. The addition of microbeads reduces the number of pores and lowers the static water pressure and osmotic pressure that may be generated due to the flow of water solution, making the overall structure more stable. Therefore, the frost resistance of EPS concrete with added microbeads is improved.

4 Freeze–thaw damage model

During the freeze–thaw cycle of concrete, water entering the pores during thawing will freeze again, causing continuous damage to the concrete. Frost heave can be regarded as a process of tension and compression between the microstructures within the element body [35]. It is assumed that the changes in microcracks and micropores of EPS concrete under freeze–thaw cycles are uniformly isotropic. Due to the repeated freezing and thawing, the dynamic elastic modulus of concrete decreases during the damage stage. The change in the dynamic elastic modulus of EPS concrete can represent the internal changes in the material. The dynamic elastic modulus represents the same damage variable values in all directions and is easy to analyze and measure during the freeze–thaw cycle test. Therefore, the deterioration degree inside the EPS concrete can be inferred by measuring the dynamic elastic modulus of the material. Most studies on the freeze–thaw damage of concrete use the dynamic elastic modulus as a measure. Scholars have proposed many types of concrete freeze–thaw damage models [15,36,37,38,39]. This study used the model reported by Yuan et al. [15] to study the changes in EPS concrete during the freeze–thaw process. The relative dynamic elastic modulus attenuation equation is as follows:

(1) E r = a n 2 + b n + c ,

where E r represents the relative dynamic elastic modulus, n represents the number of freeze–thaw cycles, and a, b, and c are parameters. After fitting, it is found that this model has high accuracy, with fitting correlation coefficients greater than 0.964, which is in line with the damage deterioration of EPS concrete during the freeze–thaw cycle. The fitting curves are presented in Figure 18, and the fitting coefficients are presented in Table 4.

Figure 18 Relative dynamic elastic modulus fitting curve. (1) 1# EPS concrete. (2) 2# EPS concrete. (3) 3# EPS concrete. (4) 4# EPS concrete. (5) 5# EPS concrete.
Figure 18

Relative dynamic elastic modulus fitting curve. (1) 1# EPS concrete. (2) 2# EPS concrete. (3) 3# EPS concrete. (4) 4# EPS concrete. (5) 5# EPS concrete.

Table 4

Parameters of relative dynamic elastic modulus fitting curve

Group a b c R 2
1# 0 −2.26091 100.00000 100.00000
2# 0 −1.17602 98.27311 0.98976
3# 0 −1.17031 102.06430 0.98529
4# −0.00599 −0.06255 97.01008 0.96968
5# −0.00643 −0.00679 96.56239 0.96497

According to Yuan et al. [15], the damage rate can be calculated as −(2aN + b). When n is 0, 25, 50, 75, and 100 freeze–thaw cycles, the damage rates of each group of specimens after different cycles are calculated. As tabulated in Table 5, Group 1 had the largest damage rate, Groups 2 and 3 shared similar damage rates, and Groups 4 and 5 exhibited the smallest damage rates. The frost resistance of EPS concrete with added microbeads is significantly improved from the freeze–thaw damage rate.

Table 5

Freeze–thaw damage rate

Freeze–thaw cycles/times Freeze–thaw damage rate
1# 2# 3# 4# 5#
0 2.26091 1.17602 1.17031 0.06255 0.00679
25 2.26091 1.17602 1.17031 0.36205 0.32829
50 — 1.17602 1.17031 0.66155 0.64979
75 — — 1.17031 0.96105 0.97129
100 — — — 1.26055 1.29279

5 Conclusion

By studying the frost resistance of EPS concrete with different microbead dosages at the same density level, the following conclusions were drawn:

  • The addition of microbeads in EPS concrete significantly improves the frost resistance of EPS concrete, increasing its level by 10–60 magnitudes compared to concrete without microbeads; the improvement range is 66–400%. The improved frost resistance of EPS concrete has expanded its range of applications.

  • Adding microbeads can enhance the strength of EPS concrete. The strength of EPS concrete increased by 38–53% after the addition of microbeads, and the strength loss rate after freeze–thaw damage decreased by 8.1%.

  • The ITZ width and crack width of EPS concrete with added microbeads after freeze–thaw damage are significantly smaller than those of EPS concrete without microbeads; the hydration reaction is also more complete, it is mainly attributed to the smaller particle size of microbeads, which exhibits a better filling effect.

  • The calculated values from the EPS concrete freeze–thaw damage model agree well with the measured values. The damage characteristics predicted by the fitting model align with the actual freeze–thaw damage observed in the specimens. The damage model can well reflect the freeze–thaw damage law of EPS concrete.

  • The optimal microbead dosage is 15% of the cementitious material. At this dosage, the EPS concrete achieves optimal frost resistance and cost-effectiveness

  1. Funding information: This research was funded by the “Pioneer” and “Leading Goose” R&D Program of Zhejiang (2023C03135), Science and technology project of the Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development (2021-K-125), Taizhou science and technology project (22gyb07, 23gyb03), Science and technology project of Department of housing and urban-rural development of Zhejiang Province (2023K217, 2023K165, 2021K042).

  2. Conflict of interest: Authors state no conflict of interest.

  3. Data availability statement: All data included in this study are available upon request by contact with the corresponding author.

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Received: 2023-07-06
Revised: 2023-11-28
Accepted: 2024-01-24
Published Online: 2024-02-28

© 2024 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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https://doi.org/10.1515/secm-2022-0241
Keywords for this article
expanded polystyrene concrete; frost resistance; microbead; SEM; damage model
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Regular Articles
  2. Research on damage evolution mechanisms under compressive and tensile tests of plain weave SiCf/SiC composites using in situ X-ray CT
  3. Structural optimization of trays in bolt support systems
  4. Continuum percolation of the realistic nonuniform ITZs in 3D polyphase concrete systems involving the aggregate shape and size differentiation
  5. Multiscale water diffusivity prediction of plain woven composites considering void defects
  6. The application of epoxy resin polymers by laser induction technologies
  7. Analysis of water absorption on the efficiency of bonded composite repair of aluminum alloy panels
  8. Experimental research on bonding mechanical performance of the interface between cementitious layers
  9. A study on the effect of microspheres on the freeze–thaw resistance of EPS concrete
  10. Influence of Ti2SnC content on arc erosion resistance in Ag–Ti2SnC composites
  11. Cement-based composites with ZIF-8@TiO2-coated activated carbon fiber for efficient removal of formaldehyde
  12. Microstructure and chloride transport of aeolian sand concrete under long-term natural immersion
  13. Simulation study on basic road performance and modification mechanism of red mud modified asphalt mixture
  14. Extraction and characterization of nano-silica particles to enhance mechanical properties of general-purpose unsaturated polyester resin
  15. Roles of corn starch and gellan gum in changing of unconfined compressive strength of Shanghai alluvial clay
  16. A review on innovative approaches to expansive soil stabilization: Focussing on EPS beads, sand, and jute
  17. Experimental investigation of the performances of thick CFRP, GFRP, and KFRP composite plates under ballistic impact
  18. Preparation and characterization of titanium gypsum artificial aggregate
  19. Characteristics of bulletproof plate made from silkworm cocoon waste: Hybrid silkworm cocoon waste-reinforced epoxy/UHMWPE composite
  20. Experimental research on influence of curing environment on mechanical properties of coal gangue cementation
  21. Multi-objective optimization of machining variables for wire-EDM of LM6/fly ash composite materials using grey relational analysis
  22. Synthesis and characterization of Ag@Ni co-axial nanocables and their fluorescent and catalytic properties
  23. Beneficial effect of 4% Ta addition on the corrosion mitigation of Ti–12% Zr alloy after different immersion times in 3.5% NaCl solutions
  24. Study on electrical conductive mechanism of mayenite derivative C12A7:C
  25. Fast prediction of concrete equivalent modulus based on the random aggregate model and image quadtree SBFEM
  26. Research on uniaxial compression performance and constitutive relationship of RBP-UHPC after high temperature
  27. Experimental analysis of frost resistance and failure models in engineered cementitious composites with the integration of Yellow River sand
  28. Influence of tin additions on the corrosion passivation of TiZrTa alloy in sodium chloride solutions
  29. Microstructure and finite element analysis of Mo2C-diamond/Cu composites by spark plasma sintering
  30. Low-velocity impact response optimization of the foam-cored sandwich panels with CFRP skins for electric aircraft fuselage skin application
  31. Research on the carbonation resistance and improvement technology of fully recycled aggregate concrete
  32. Study on the basic properties of iron tailings powder-desulfurization ash mine filling cementitious material
  33. Preparation and mechanical properties of the 2.5D carbon glass hybrid woven composite materials
  34. Improvement on interfacial properties of CuW and CuCr bimetallic materials with high-entropy alloy interlayers via infiltration method
  35. Investigation properties of ultra-high performance concrete incorporating pond ash
  36. Effects of binder paste-to-aggregate ratio and polypropylene fiber content on the performance of high-flowability steel fiber-reinforced concrete for slab/deck overlays
  37. Interfacial bonding characteristics of multi-walled carbon nanotube/ultralight foamed concrete
  38. Classification of damping properties of fabric-reinforced flat beam-like specimens by a degree of ondulation implying a mesomechanic kinematic
  39. Influence of mica paper surface modification on the water resistance of mica paper/organic silicone resin composites
  40. Impact of cooling methods on the corrosion behavior of AA6063 aluminum alloy in a chloride solution
  41. Wear mechanism analysis of internal chip removal drill for CFRP drilling
  42. Investigation on acoustic properties of metal hollow sphere A356 aluminum matrix composites
  43. Uniaxial compression stress–strain relationship of fully aeolian sand concrete at low temperatures
  44. Experimental study on the influence of aggregate morphology on concrete interfacial properties
  45. Intelligent sportswear design: Innovative applications based on conjugated nanomaterials
  46. Research on the equivalent stretching mechanical properties of Nomex honeycomb core considering the effect of resin coating
  47. Numerical analysis and experimental research on the vibration performance of concrete vibration table in PC components
  48. Assessment of mechanical and biological properties of Ti–31Nb–7.7Zr alloy for spinal surgery implant
  49. Theoretical research on load distribution of composite pre-tightened teeth connections embedded with soft layers
  50. Coupling design features of material surface treatment for ceramic products based on ResNet
  51. Optimizing superelastic shape-memory alloy fibers for enhancing the pullout performance in engineered cementitious composites
  52. Multi-scale finite element simulation of needle-punched quartz fiber reinforced composites
  53. Thermo-mechanical coupling behavior of needle-punched carbon/carbon composites
  54. Influence of composite material laying parameters on the load-carrying capacity of type IV hydrogen storage vessel
  55. Review Articles
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  57. On in-house developed feedstock filament of polymer and polymeric composites and their recycling process – A comprehensive review
  58. Research progress on freeze–thaw constitutive model of concrete based on damage mechanics
  59. A bibliometric and content analysis of research trends in paver blocks: Mapping the scientific landscape
  60. Bibliometric analysis of stone column research trends: A Web of Science perspective
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