Home Life Sciences A review on apple cultivation in Morocco: Current situation and future prospects
Article Open Access

A review on apple cultivation in Morocco: Current situation and future prospects

  • Mohammed Kara , Amine Assouguem EMAIL logo , Lahlali Rachid , Sezai Ercisli , Nouha Haoudi , Safaâ Benmessaoud , Mouhcine Ajdi , Abdou Rachid Zerhouni and Jamila Bahhou
Published/Copyright: March 11, 2025
Download Article (PDF)
Open Agriculture
From the journal Open Agriculture Volume 10 Issue 1

Abstract

In Morocco, the efforts offered by the government are improving the field of agriculture. In recent years, the fruit tree sector has provided a growth boost to the country’s GDP. This review aims to present a synthesis of the background surrounding the current situation, the place of Morocco in the world, and the future challenges of the apple tree field. Indeed, we highlight the main findings of previous studies and reports proposed by the administration and the scientific articles published until now. According to current data available online, the apple sector has been improved by various strategies deployed by the government. Among these strategies, the Green Morocco Plan (GMP) is considered the main strategy that has contributed to the improvement of the sector. Despite the success of this sector, it remains subject to multiple abiotic and biotic factors affecting the development of the sector. Climate change, reduced rainfall, increased temperatures, hail, frost, salinity, susceptibility of planted cultivars to diseases, and pests (codling moth, spider mite, scab, and root rot symptoms) are the main scourges of this sector. The consolidation of this success must be maintained by focusing more on the effects of climate change on the yield and quality of apples produced. The identification and characterisation of all varieties planted in Morocco should be further studied using a classical, genetic, and molecular approach, as well as developing others that are more adapted to the local climate. The use of apples for purposes other than raw consumption must also be considered for the development of this sector.

Keywords: Green Morocco Plan; apple tree; agriculture; Rosaceae; Malus domestica

1 Introduction

The apple variety commonly consumed today was initially documented in 1803 by Borkhausen and is frequently referred to as Malus × domestica Borkh or simply M. domestica Borkh [1]. The origin of the first apple plants was probably in the mountains of Central Asia at 1,200 to 1,800 m altitude. According to the botanical classification of [2], apple trees can be classified into the kingdom: Plantae, phylum: Spermatophytes, subphylum: Angiosperms, class: Dicotyledons, subclass: Maloideae, order: Rosales, family: Rosaceae, and genus: Malus. M. domestica Borkh variety results from a complex hybrid derived from Malus sylvestris Mill, Malus pumila, and Malus praecox Borkh. They are cultivated on all continents except Antarctica [1]. Apple is a nutrient-rich fruit that grows in all temperate zones and is one of the most economically and culturally important species [3].

The first apple plantations in Morocco were probably established as early as the 1920s based on Spanish varieties with a low cold requirement [4]. In these last years, Morocco has experienced a renewal of public policies for rural and agricultural development. These are essential: the National Human Development Initiative of Morocco (NHDI), Green Morocco Plan (GMP), and Generation Green [5]. These new public policies based on the participatory design of agricultural and rural development projects allow the farmers to obtain several public funds and carry out various tasks [5]. On the economic front, agricultural gross domestic product (GDP) doubled between 2006 and 2023, rising from 76 to 141 billion USD with an annual increase of 5.25% compared to 3.8% for other sectors. This achievement has placed Morocco in the top 10% of countries in terms of agricultural growth [6].

The success of apple cultivation in high-altitude areas in Morocco has encouraged its expansion to other geographical areas of the country. This was done by transposing cultivation models without considering the environment’s specificities, especially for the choice of suitable plant material [7]. The use of vertical planting and the adaptation of modern techniques for the management and handling of the apple crop have increased production [8]. The persistence of bush cultivation and the increasing age of the trees result in the production of apples of average or poor quality. To improve the apple sector in Morocco, the government and the Federation for the Development of Arboriculture in Morocco (FeDAM) have signed a contract program for the period 2011–2020 to improve productivity and promote the conditions of valorisation by developing aggregation projects around valorisation units and by strengthening the professional organisations (cooperatives, associations) associated with this sector [9,10,11]. Every country in the world is seeking to increase its apple production through a variety of strategies. Turkey, for example, is considered a major producer of apples worldwide, having contributed roughly 5% of the 95 million tonnes of apples produced around the globe in 2022 thanks to the strategies offered [12]. It has implemented several initiatives to support apple growers and gardeners, focusing on sustainable practices, financial assistance, and export facilitation. The government’s most significant commitments involved financial support and subsidies offered by the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, including various grants to registered apple growers [13]. In 2023, the government launched specific subsidies for soil testing, fertilisers, and fuel. However, rising production costs have outstripped these subsidies, leading to ongoing assessments to better assist farmers. Support is extended to infrastructure through investment in modern storage facilities and efficient logistics to maintain apple quality during transport, improving competitiveness in international markets. Sustainable farming practices through the application of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) to reduce pesticide use in apple orchards [13]. Export support and market expansion have been important and supportive trade policies and regulatory frameworks established by the government to facilitate apple exports. These efforts have led to a diversification of export destinations, and export volumes of Turkish apples have increased 10-fold over the past decade, as growers have adapted their operations to take advantage of growing export opportunities. The main destinations for Turkish exports are India, Iraq, Russia, Syria, Libya, and Saudi Arabia. In recent years, apple exports from Turkey to India have really taken off, rising from around 20,892 tonnes in 2017–2018 to over 117,801 tonnes in 2022–2023 [14].

Apple cultivation is subject to several biotic and abiotic factors affecting the sector’s development in the different cultivated regions. Climatic changes, a decrease in precipitation, an increase in temperature, hail, frost, saline braid, and the sensitivity of planted cultivars against diseases and pests are the main scourges of this sector.

Current scientific research on apple growing in Morocco is not sufficiently available online. However, the available data should be compiled to clarify and specify the situation of this sector in Morocco. Therefore, this review aims to summarise the situation of the apple situation on a national and international scale, the different strategies adopted by the country, and the factors influencing the development of the apple sector.

2 Data collection

In compiling this review article, the technique used is by searching for sources or literature in the form of international journals in the last 20 years (2000–2020). The primary references in this article are through websites such as ScienceDirect, PubMed, Google Scholar, FAOSTAT, and other trusted journals with keywords such as apple, M. domestica, Moroccan agricultural strategy, production, superficies, yield, agriculture advance, and agriculture problems.

3 The current situation, monograph, and data on the Rosaceae

In Morocco, the arboricultural sector is characterised by three groups: stone rosaceous, seed rosaceous, and hardy fruits with an area of 234,981, 57,140, and 84,715 ha and a production of 548,350, 883,380, and 280,300 tonnes, respectively [15].

The crops of the almond are spread over an area of 143,000 ha (71%), apple 25,000 ha (12%), apricot 11,500 ha (6%), plum 8,000 ha (4%), pear 3,600 ha (2%), quince 3,400 ha (2%), peach-nectarine 4,700 ha (2%), and cherry 1,400 ha (1%). In terms of production, apple occupies 47% of the national production followed by peach/nectarine (9%), fig (9%), and plum (9%) (Figure 1) [16].

Figure 1 Distribution of rosaceous production in Morocco [15].
Figure 1

Distribution of rosaceous production in Morocco [15].

3.1 National agricultural strategies

3.1.1 GMP

The arboricultural development sector in Morocco results from the involvement of all the professional actors, the administrative, and the Ministry of Agriculture. In 2008, Morocco launched the GMP strategy, which aims to develop the agricultural sector and grow the national economy by relying on small- and medium-sized family farms and prominent entrepreneurs [17]; introduction of high-yielding, disease-resistant apple varieties better adapted to the Moroccan climate; and upgrading irrigation systems through drip irrigation and water-efficient technologies, especially in apple-growing regions. Several performance measures represent the arboriculture sector’s accomplishments. The surface area has increased by 84% from 2008 to the present (2024), and it mainly concerns species adapted to mountain habitats, such as almond trees (+51,000 ha), fig trees (+19,000 ha), and apple trees (+20,000 ha) [6].

Thanks to the GMP, especially Pillar II, several projects have been adopted to develop the arboriculture sector in rural areas in the region of Fez Meknes, concentrated in the province of Sefrou. These projects aim to plant about 450 ha of plum, 420 ha of almond, and 200 ha of apple trees, convert the gravity irrigation system into a localised irrigation system (drip), and construct a refrigeration unit with a capacity of 2,000 tonnes for apples [18]. In the region of Daraa Tafilalt, according to the Regional Office of Agricultural Development of Tafilalet (ORMVA), pillar II of GMP has developed a new plan to promote the apple sector. This plan aims to plant more than 300 ha of apple trees, develop and rehabilitate 800 ha of pre-existing apple trees, introduce water-saving techniques, and construct 4 frigorific units with a capacity of 2,500 tonnes [19]. Indeed, since 2008, the area of fruit trees has increased from 265,000 to 377,000 ha in 2019, with an increase of 46%. The regions of Fez-Meknes, Tangier-Tetouan-Al Hoceima, and the Oriental are the three main regions that occupy 27, 20, and 13% of this area, respectively [15]. Fruit production has almost doubled, knowing that the average amount produced annually increased from 812,000 to about 1.57 million tonnes between 2015 and 2019 [20]. The research carried out by Bouichou et al. reports that the Golden variety is in high demand and is perceived as having higher value by consumers [21]. The GMP report between 2008 and 2018 shows that Morocco covers 100% of its food needs in fruits and legumes [6].

3.1.2 National tree planting program

This initiative aims to expand fruit tree plantations in Morocco, with a particular focus on apple trees. The aim is to increase the area cultivated for apple orchards and improve productivity by extending orchard areas suited to this crop, such as high-altitude regions and cooler climates; tree-planting subsidies to encourage farmers to plant more apple trees, by covering part of the cost of seedlings, fertilisers, and other inputs; and training farmers and extension services to improve apple-growing practices, orchard management, and pest control [22].

3.1.3 The irrigation water resilience and sustainability project (IWRS)

The IWRS aims to strengthen water governance in agriculture in the context of increasing water scarcity and to improve the quality of irrigation and farm advisory services, as well as access to modern plot-based irrigation technologies [23]. In addition, the investment in water reservoirs and canal systems was adapted to ensure a reliable supply of water during dry seasons, particularly in apple-producing areas such as Meknes, El Hajeb, Sefrou, Ifrane, and Azrou [24]. Morocco recently launched the Saïss-irrigated plain safeguard project, which aims to strengthen the water resources of the Saïss plain by transferring and distributing an average annual volume of 125 Mm3 from the Mdez dam (Sefrou region, Morocco) to irrigate an area of 30,000 ha, benefiting some 7,300 farms. This will reduce pressure on the water resources of the aquifer and gradually restore its balance, which shows an average annual deficit of 100 Mm3, in particular by providing farmers with an alternative resource and thus safeguarding agricultural investments and the arboricultural heritage of this major production basin [24].

3.1.4 Agro-industrial development and export support

Morocco has been keen to strengthen its agro-industrial sector and improve apple production for local consumption and export markets. (i) Cold chain infrastructure: since 2014, the government has co-financed the construction of modern cold stores in apple-producing regions such as Meknes and Ifrane. This has significantly reduced post-harvest losses and improved export quality. (ii) Agro-processing initiatives: since 2016, the government has begun to promote the development of apple processing industries, such as the production of juice and dried apple products, with the aim of adding value to the apple supply chain. (iii) Export promotion: since 2015, Morocco has begun to focus on promoting apple exports by helping farmers obtain international certification, such as Global GAP and facilitating their entry into new markets, particularly in Europe.

3.1.5 Public–private partnerships (PPPs)

PPPs have played a key role in increasing apple production capacity and modernising the sector. Co-investment in modern farms by the establishment of high-tech apple farms equipped with state-of-the-art irrigation and production systems. In terms of research and development (R&D), the government partnered, under the aegis of its National Agronomic Research Institutes, with universities and private entities to launch programs focused on developing high-yielding, disease-resistant apple varieties adapted to Moroccan conditions. These R&D projects are ongoing and have resulted in improved varieties. In addition, between 2015 and 2019, several training programs were organised to help agribusinesses improve their management practices, production efficiency, and market penetration, specifically targeting the apple sector [25,26].

3.1.6 Generation Green 2020–2030

Recently in 2020, a new strategy for the development of the agricultural sector called “Generation Green 2020–2030” was launched and aims to double the agricultural GDP by 2030 and ensure the sustainability and modernisation of its agricultural sector. It succeeds the GMP, implemented between 2008 and 2020. While the GMP focused primarily on increasing agricultural productivity and exports, “Generation Green” emphasises: (i) human development by supporting youth farmers and entrepreneurs and rural women’s empowerment. The initiative sets out to enhance the socio-economic conditions of rural communities by creating new job opportunities, improving income levels, and reducing poverty. (ii) Land and agricultural production by improving access to agricultural land and transforming existing farming practices, encouraging private land ownership and adopting sustainable agricultural practices via climate-resilient farming techniques, water conservation, and efficient land use, promoting the use of agroecological practices that maintain the health of agricultural ecosystems while supporting biodiversity. (iii) Agro-industry and value addition have been launched to develop agro-industries that can process agricultural products and add value, benefiting farmers and the broader economy and improving the overall supply chain to ensure food stability. (vi) Digital transformation and innovation by integration of smart agriculture technologies such as precision agriculture, satellite monitoring, and mobile platforms for farmers, and the development of digital platforms for the marketing and selling of agricultural products, making it easier for producers to access markets [26,27,28].

3.2 Importance of the apple sector in Morocco

3.2.1 The worldwide apple sector

On a worldwide scale, rosaceous plants have undergone a remarkable evolution. The apple sector occupies an important place in the world production of rosaceous plants with 93144358.17 tonnes on a surface of 4,822,226 ha. Since 1995, the harvested area of apples has started to decrease in front of the increase in world production, which does not stop evolving. This allows the evolution of yield from 7.37 t/ha in 1991 to 18.49 t/ha in 2019 [29].

China is the world’s largest apple producer. Its production has increased to more than 47 million tonnes in 2022, followed by Turkey, the United States, and Poland, while Morocco occupies the 17th place among the top apple-producing countries (Table 1). The apple production in Uzbekistan, Morocco, and Turkey increased significantly with a relative change of 155, 147, and 141%, respectively. The area under apples in China is about 2,128,943 ha in 2022 instead of 2,987,963 ha in 1996, followed by India, Russia, and Poland, while Morocco occupies the 17th place (Table 2). The apple area has doubled in Morocco by increasing from 25,000 to 51,971 ha representing a relative change of 108% between 2006 and 2022. In terms of apple productivity, Morocco ranks 40th with a yield of 17.75 t/ha with 18.69% of relative change (Table 3).

Table 1

Distribution of the first 20 apple producers worldwide for 2006 and 2022 [30]

Country Production (tonnes) 2006 Production (tonnes) 2022 Absolute change Relative change (%)
China 26059000.00 47571800.00 +21512800.00 83
Turkey 2002033.00 4817500.00 +2815467.00 141
United States 4455819.00 4429330.00 −26489.00 −1
Poland 2304892.00 4264700.00 +1959808.00 85
India 1814000.00 2589000.00 +775000.00 43
Russia 1626000.00 2379900.00 +753900.00 46
Italy 2130980.00 2256240.00 +125260.00 6
Iran 2306941.00 1989734.00 −317207.00 −14
France 1679328.00 1785660.00 +106332.00 6
Chile 1350000.00 1479683.40 +129683.40 10
Uzbekistan 514441.00 1313232.90 +798791.90 155
South Africa 633495.00 1231866.90 +598371.90 94
Ukraine 536500.00 1129120.00 +592620.00 110
Germany 947611.00 1070980.00 +123369.00 13
Brazil 863019.00 1047217.00 +184198.00 21
Egypt 570330.00 934413.75 +364083.75 64
Morocco 374000.00 922820.06 +548820.06 147
Mexico 601915.00 817805.94 +215890.94 36
North Korea 665000.00 801532.60 +136532.60 21
Table 2

Apple superficie of the first 20 countries in the world for 2006 and 2022 [30]

Country Superficie (ha) 2006 Superficie (ha) 2022 Absolute change Relative change (%)
China 1,898,800 2,128,943 +230,143 12
India 226,600 315,000 +88,400 39
Russia 373,800 232,842 −140,958 −38
Turkey 162,666 170,941 +8,275 5
Poland 161,989 151,900 −10,089 −6
Uzbekistan 66,163 122,459 +56,296 85
United States 145,683 116,753 −28,930 −20
Iran 149,225 87,644 −61,581 −41
Ukraine 124,100 76,900 −47,200 −38
Pakistan 112,600 74,061 −38,539 −34
North Korea 72,511 69,003 −3,508 −5
Belarus 64,857 56,302 −8,555 −13
Mexico 57,777 54,959 −2,818 −5
Romania 59,298 54,070 −5,228 −9
France 43,888 54,020 + 10,132 23
Italy 57,143 53,730 −3,413 −6
Morocco 25,000 51,971 +26,971 108
Syria 34,720 51,405 +16,685 48
Moldova 63,627 51,200 −12,427 −20
Tajikistan 30,400 44,869 +14,469 48
Table 3

Apple yield of the first 20 countries in the world for 2006 and 2022 [30]

Country Yield (t/ha) 2006 Yield (t/ha) 2022 Absolute change Relative change (%)
New Zealand 36.42 58.66 +22.24 61
Switzerland 60.59 56.69 −3.89 −6
Chile 38.35 50.96 +12.61 33
Belgium 41.57 45.62 +4.05 10
Libya 40.00 43.18 +3.18 8
Italy 37.29 41.99 +4.70 13
South Africa 30.70 41.92 +11.22 37
Austria 83.46 41.37 −42.09 −50
United Kingdom 17.30 40.53 +23.22 134
unknown 30.64 40.42 +9.78 32
Netherlands 38.17 40.00 +1.83 5
United States 30.59 37.94 +7.35 24
France 38.26 33.06 −5.21 −14
Ireland 28.57 32.68 +4.10 14
Germany 29.15 32.35 +3.19 11
Brazil 23.90 31.44 +7.54 32
Colombia 10.66 29.67 +19.01 178
Denmark 20.69 29.10 +8.41 41
Turkey 12.31 28.18 +15.87 129
Poland 14.23 28.08 +13.85 97

3.2.2 Evolution of the apple field in Morocco

In Morocco, the almond tree ranks first in area harvested throughout the country with 226,213 ha followed by apple trees with 51,971 ha (in 2022) (Table 4). However, in terms of production, apples are placed first with a production of 922,820 tonnes followed by peaches and nectarines with a production of 247,870 tonnes, then almonds and apricots, and a very low production of cherries of about 15,915 tonnes [31]. Apple production in Morocco has increased by 6.5% per year over the two last decades (Figure 1). Globally, in 2022, Morocco was classified as the 17th largest apple-producing country at 922,820 tonnes [31]. At the African level, Morocco holds third place after South Africa (1,231,867 tonnes) and Egypt (934,414 tonnes), while the Maghreb is considered the first producer of apples. However, in terms of harvested area, Morocco contains a larger area located in the high and medium altitudes of the High and Middle Atlas (Khenifra, Elhajeb, Sefrou, Ifrane, Midelt, and Meknes) with some poles of concentration in the mountainous regions with a very cold winter. Nearly 50% of the area is concentrated in the region of Meknes [15,29].

Table 4

Yield, area, and production of apples in Morocco from 2000 to 2022 [31]

Years Production (tonnes) Area (ha) Yield (tonnes/ha)
2000 300,005 27,800 107,915
2001 227,800 28,600 79,650
2002 372,500 26,700 139,513
2003 275,200 26,000 105,846
2004 396,400 26,100 151,877
2005 308,500 25,600 120,508
2006 374,000 25,000 149,600
2007 426,816 25,936 164,565
2008 404,310 26,752 151,133
2009 422,572 27,334 154,596
2010 444,861 27,314 162,869
2011 512,407 30,073 170,388
2012 485,642 31,651 153,437
2013 583,230 41,771 139,624
2014 536,199 43,940 122,029
2015 674,153 45,207 149,126
2016 406,379 48,671 83,495
2017 820,547 49,498 165,774
2018 696,950 50,589 137,766
2019 809,762 49,731 162,829
2020 778,866 51,871 150,156
2021 889,736 52,550 169,312
2022 922,820 51,971 177,564

The data shown in Table 4 reveal an overall increase in production, yield, and cultivated area between 2000 and 2022, indicating improved agricultural efficiency.

3.2.2.1 Fez-Meknes region

The region of Fez-Meknes occupies the first position with 80% of the national production of rosaceous. Thanks to Green Morocco Plan, the region reached in 2019 an irrigated area of 39,000 ha and a storage capacity of over 170,000 tonnes per year [16]. The area of apples in the region has undergone an evolution of 131% (11,603–26,773 ha) and an increase of 93% in production (140,000–271,000 tonnes) between 2008 and 2019. In production, the province of Ifrane ranks first, followed by the province of Sefrou in the Fez-Meknes region. According to the Provincial Directorate of Agriculture (DPA) of Sefrou, the province of Sefrou represents 46% of the rosaceous area, estimated to be 5710 ha with a production of 90,000 tonnes [32].

3.2.2.2 Deraa Tafilalt region

The apple sector in the Draa Tafilalt region occupies the third place after the date palm and the olive tree among the cultivated fruit species. The cold climatic conditions characterizing the mountainous areas of this region favour the cultivation of apple. Thus, the state subventions during the last years have an impact on the evolution of the sector especially in the province of Midelt. The GMP has deployed within the framework of solidarity projects the creation of 48 refrigeration units with a storage capacity of 70,000 tonnes [19].

3.3 Apple import and export data

Morocco continues to increase its apple production, reaching 922,820 tonnes in 2022 [31]. This production has relatively satisfied the local market and has led to a remarkable reduction in imports, especially between February–March and June–July [11]. In general, apple imports have shown little annual variation, while exports have increased remarkably in the last few years [33] (Table 5).

Table 5

Morocco apple imports/exports from 2006 to 2022

Years Exports (tonnes) Imports (tonnes)
2006 <1 8014.17
2007 <1 5952.71
2008 <1 6490.4
2009 3.472 14188.3
2010 26.4 14024.7
2011 6.3 10395.7
2012 38.121 7643.88
2013 200.205 7194.06
2014 795.951 7058.18
2015 1077.14 8697.34
2016 185.002 9146.86
2017 183.581 8010.68
2018 107.292 8070.39
2019 113.444 6438.41
2020 327.804 6126.02
2021 532.749 7854.74
2022 257.31 8114.48

To meet its demand for apple, Morocco imports large quantities every year. In 2022, Morocco has imported a total of 8114.480 tonnes of apples from the main producing countries. According to the latest update, a large quantity is imported from Italy (3,227 tonnes), Spain (1,997 tonnes), Portugal (904.802 tonnes), Poland (697.782 tonnes), and France (506.493 tonnes) (Table 6).

Table 6

Morocco apple exports by country in 2022 [31]

Partner Trade value 1,000 USD Quantity (tonnes)
World 5627.13 8114.480
Italy 2225.69 3227.000
Spain 1371.24 1996.780
Portugal 626.61 904.802
Poland 488.59 697.782
France 352.39 506.493
Austria 330.74 466.117
Germany 105.89 134.952
Belgium 81.65 116.864
Netherlands 25.37 36.190
Turkey 14.81 21.500
Chile 3.5 5.079
New Zealand 0.64 0.931

In the early 2000s, Moroccan apple exports were limited to a few African countries such as Mauritania, Senegal, Equatorial Guinea, and Mali. Since 2013, Morocco has begun exporting its products to European countries, particularly France. In addition, the quantity of apples exported to these, and other countries has increased steadily, and now reaches 27 countries worldwide. Table 7 shows the most important export countries of apple from Morocco according to the latest update (2022) by World Integrated Trade Solution [33]. Among these countries, the quantity exported to Mauritania represents over 50% of the whole quantity of apples exported.

Table 7

Morocco apple imports by country in 2022

Partner Trade value 1,000 USD Quantity (tonnes)
World 159.08 257.310
Mauritania 66.57 132.339
Mali 19.17 37.759
Burkina Faso 19.77 29.319
Niger 12.1 24.589
Cote d’Ivoire 8.85 16.335
Guinea 3.42 5.860
Senegal 2.94 4.100
United Arab Emirates 15.97 3.418
Liberia 3.91 1.708
Sierra Leone 0.47 0.409
Russian Federation 0.7 0.300
Qatar 1.02 0.298
Gambia 1.51 0.181
Cyprus 0.5 0.143
Italy 0.33 0.104
Others (11 countries) 1.64 0.274

3.4 The choice of the rootstock

The choice of rootstock is a fundamental step for each variety before the plantation. The selection of a rootstock must meet the requirements of climate, resistance to diseases, pests, water stress, and adaptation to each region’s soil. In Morocco, a range of rootstocks is significantly diversified: MM106, MM111, EMLA9, M27, PAJAM1, M7, M45, P80, M9, and M26 [34,35]. However, MM106 is more used due to its performance and ability to adapt to the typical conditions of Morocco [34,35].

3.5 The varieties of apples in Morocco

The varietal profile of apples in Morocco is a blend of several varieties imported from abroad. The distribution of these varieties is very dominated by the Golden Delicious, followed by its pollinators Starking Delicious and Starkimson and expanded by the cultivation of Red Chief, Golden Smoothie, and Gloster [34]. Previous work conducted by Oukabli et al. showed the different phenological and physiological diversity of 27 apple varieties in regions with mild winters. Some of them are poorly adapted to these regions’ climatic and paedological conditions, while others can accommodate [7]. Black Stayman, Einschiemer, Vistabella, Ozark gold, Gala Royal, Anna, and Dorset Golden are the varieties that can be grown in areas of transition towards the mountain in temperate conditions and at 500–800 m altitudes [7,34]. The experimental centres located in the Fez-Meknes region established in 1936 collect several varieties. About 48 varieties were planted in Taoujdate centre (El Hajeb Province), of which 10% are of Moroccan origin and 90% were introduced from abroad [36] over a total area of 130 ha at an altitude of 550 m [37]. More than 28 varieties exist in the centre of the Annoceur located in the Middle Atlas Mountains (Province of Sefrou) on a total area of 40 ha at an altitude of 1,350 m [36,38].

To investigate the pomological diversity of apple germplasm growth in Morocco, various pomological traits using the descriptors of the International Board for Plant Genetic Resources [39] and the International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants [40] were carried out in the work of [41]. This work has shown that the varietal profile of apple in Morocco is diversified. In addition to the varieties introduced from outside of Morocco, there are local cultivars with specific properties of adaptation to each region of Morocco like: Oumlile, Ahmri, Mticha, Labiad, Amlale, Oumlile beldi, Azougar, beldi, Lahlou, Talhlout, Lahmar, and Zarbana [41,42].

The agricultural area of the province of Sefrou covers more than 14 varieties of early and late apples [32]. The apple trees in the nurseries in the area of Sefrou and Ifrane represent 70% from the national territory and 30% were imported from European countries [35]. Some of the apple varieties are labelled in Morocco as local products. Three varieties are mentioned, the Midelt apple, the Imilchel apple, and Haouz apple. The Midelt apple is a combination of Golden Delicious, Starkimson, and Starking Delicious varieties [43]. The “Imilchil apple” encompasses the whole circle of Imilchil (Imilchil, Bouznou, Outarbate, Amouguer, and Aït Ihya). The “Haouz apple” variety, derived from Golden Delicious, Starking Delicious, and Royal Gala varieties, is grown exclusively in the geographical area of the rural commune of Asni in the province of Al Haouz [44]. The number of new varieties continues to evolve while keeping their traceability by the National Office of Sanitary Safety of Food Products. Since 2011, the Office began to disseminate the lists of imported varieties. Table 8 represents the main varieties registered on the market [45].

Table 8

List of varieties protected by ONSSA and intended for cultivation

Species/Latin name Variety Description of the fruits References
Apple, M. domestica Borkh INORED Very attractive fruit, intense red colour washed over almost all of the fruit, 3/4 to 4/4 superimposed on a yellow background. The colour may darken to almost black if picked late. Fruit without russetting [32]
Stark Gugger, Red Velox GRIBA Fruit with dark red colour, blushed, slightly striped, sweet with low acidity Bulletin No 19 – 2013 [32]
Shape/size conical, typical for red delicious. Skin is smooth. Flesh with white colour, firm, and crispy
INOLOV Bicolour, smooth, and without russet. Sweet, crunchy, fine, juicy, and firm flesh Bulletin No 23 – 2015 [32]
GALA SCHNICO Intense, dark red colouration covering the entire surface and is blushed. It gains colour very early and is therefore ideal for areas with weak colouration. Flesh with light yellow colour, fine-grained, juicy, and very firm. Its sugar content is particularly high Bulletin No 23 – 2015 [32]
RED
ASFARI Yellow skin with occasional pink blush, small pronounced lenticels, golden-type. Sour-sweet, delicate aroma, firm, and juicy Bulletin No 28 – 2017
No 25 – 2016 [32]
REGALYOU Fruits with large size and round shape, luminous red skin colour. Flesh with yellow colour, very firm and juicy, and very crunchy, melty, and with good eating quality; the fruit is further characterized by its good handling and storage qualities Bulletin No 25 – 2016 [32]
REGALSTAR Fruits with large size and round slightly flattened shape, a red skin colour, very firm, and with exceptional eating quality; the fruit is further characterized by its good handling and storage qualities Bulletin No 25 – 2016 [32]
GRADISCA Fruit: sweet and perfumed, and colours well in hot weather, more perfumed fruit and more intense red overcolour. Background colour of skin: yellow. Over colour of skin: red-pink Bulletin No 29 – 2018 [32]
LADINA Apples are obloid in shape, with an attractive solid flush colouration and sweet juicy flesh Bulletin No 31 – 2019 [32]
G 814 Shape: round obloid. colour: partial red-skin with yellow orange blush undertones depending on the exposure to the sun. Sepals: sometimes persisting on a variable protruding calyx. Flesh: taste: astringent (not meant for consumption). Colour: yellow-orange with red bleed through from the skin in mature fruits Bulletin No 31 – 2019 [32]
G 213 Shape: obloid. Colour: partial orange skin (RHS 2aA) with red blush overtones depending on the exposure to the sun. Sepals: persisting on a very protruding calyx. Flesh: taste: astringent (not meant for consumption). Colour: yellow-orange. Seed: colour: grayed-red Bulletin No 31 – 2019 [32]
ANABP 01 Notable for its attractive dark purple red skin colour, excellent flavour and texture, attractive size and shape, and consistent cropping characteristics Bulletin No 32 – 2019 [32]
CR Brisset Fruit with bright red, cylindrical, semi-high, and homogeneous. The flesh is fine, crisp, and juicy. The flavour is sweet and tangy Bulletin No 32 – 2019 [32]
ZOUK 31 Fruit skin: glossy and smooth, generally green in colour. Fruit flesh with strong aromatic flavor, fresh, and juicy with a good balance between sweet and sour Bulletin No 33 – 2020 [32]
XELEVEN New and distinct apple tree notable for its semi-upright plant habit, red skin over colour, scab resistance, and mid-late timing of fruit ripening Bulletin No 34 – 2020 [32]
INOGO Attractive yellow fruit with dense, firm, and juicy flesh, sweet variety with good taste Bulletin No 35 – 2020 [32]
INOBI Notable for its attractive fruit, with its brilliant red colouring, favourable organoleptic qualities, and resistance to apple scab. Fruit of “INOBI” is highly coloured and has a long shelf life Bulletin No 35 – 2021 [32]
GALA RKD GALA RKD is a very beautiful Gala with flames, similar to the Gala SchniCo and with the same taste as any other Gala. It is conical and symmetrical in shape, the skin is not sensitive, characterised by a very nice red striped over-colouring, and beautiful flames. In areas of good colouring, RKD apples have a high percentage of over-colouring. The taste is very similar to that of Gala, with a very fine texture, juicy, and crisp flesh, a sweet tendency, and very low acidity Bulletin No 35 – 2021 [32]
OBROGALA Fruit with attractive solid Nopal Red blush ground colour which forms over approximately 90–100% of the fruit surface with hints of indeterminate striping or less-coloured fruit. The fruit tends to be more conical in configuration, matures for harvest earlier than that of Tenroy variety, and is excellent in texture and flavor [33]
DELBLUSH Attractive yellow fruits, usually with an orange colouration that extends over part of the skin, with the extent of over-colouring on the ripe fruit influenced by the position of the fruit on the tree and the level of sunlight encountered during ripening. Flesh with excellent flavour and texture resists blackening well when exposed to environmental conditions [33]
ARIANE Fruit has blushed bright red skin, with 75% of the fruit surface coloured. It is medium sized. The flesh is firm and crisp. It has excellent flavor and eating quality with a high level of sugar and acid [33]
JEROMINE Fruit with a very intense red colour. Flesh white, firm to tender, soft, sweet, not very acidic, with a better taste than the American red spurs [33]
GRADIROSE The fruit is average size. The base colour is greenish yellow, over which is a pink-red wash covering the sun-exposed half of the apple and marked with light-coloured lenticels [33]
GRADIYEL Skin background colour yellow-green, and skin surface colour red-purple, medium thick, smooth, hard, crisp. 40–70% of the amount of background colour. The over-colour pattern is a plain surface with weakly defined stripes. Flesh juicy, firm, strong aroma, high taste quality, rich flavour; yellow-white [33]
GALAVAL Fruit: very intense red washed and streaked. With soft, sweet, juicy, and crunchy flesh [33]
MC DONALD GALA [33]
UEB32642 Yellow fruit (sometimes blush) with sometimes overflowing russet. Very firm, sweet, and aromatic flesh [33]
Apple, Prunus persica (L.) Batsch SEKZIE Fruit with a light red washed colour (>80%) on No 20 – 2013 a yellow-green background. Crunchy, sweet, and slightly acidic flesh
[32]

4 Biotic and abiotic factors affecting the apple crop in Morocco

4.1 Current situation of diseases and pests associated with apple trees in Morocco

Morocco, by its geographical position, the diversity of its cultures, and the importance of exchanging plant material with the riparian and distant countries [46], is constantly threatened by the introduction of the dreaded pests to its heritage of the apple tree [47]. However, the faunistic potential seems very limited in comparison with other countries. The majority of these pest and disease species are illustrated below:

The scab (Venturia inaequalis G. Winter 1875) is a fungal disease that attacks apple and pear trees [48]. It affects the external appearance of the fruit by producing brown spots [49]. However, in the case of infected branches, the disease can also encourage premature fruit drop, accelerate leaf fall, and weaken the tree, eventually resulting in fewer fruiting buds [35,50]. Powdery mildew of apple is a disease caused by Podosphaera leucotrichia [51]. It is an ectoparasite. The hyaline mycelium spreads on the surface of the parasitized organs. To feed, it sends short filaments [49]. In Moroccan conditions, Phytophthora (Phytophthora porride Bary, 1876) is a fungus that causes the obstruction of the conductive vessels and causes the tree’s death [35,51]. This requires the removal of the tree. A tree infected by this fungus appears to be weakly attached to the ground, and this is a way to detect the presence of this fungus [52]. Tetranychus urticae C. L. Koch, 1836, is native to the temperate zone but is frequently introduced in tropical areas [53]. It is a phytophagous mite of the family Tetranychidae; this species is a highly polyphagous herbivore and a major agricultural pest worldwide that causes hard damage to economic crops [54–56]; it presents a notable pest of field crops, ornamentals, and annual and perennial plants [57]. It attacks (i) fruit trees, including apple, citrus, raspberry, and pear shrubs [58]; (ii) vegetables, including okra, cotton, cucumber, bean, tomato, and eggplant [59–62]; (iii) ornamentals, including dahlia, rose, gerbera, zinnia, and ganda [63]; and (iv) medicinal plants, including (Medicago sativa L.), metel (Datura metel L.), moringa (Moringa oleifera Lam.), Alfalfa, Peppermint (Mentha piperita L.), rosemary (Salvia rosmarinus Spenn.), and common vervain (Verbena offlicinalis L.) [64–68]. In Morocco and for some years, Panonychus ulmi Koch (Acari: Tetranychidae) was considered a primary pest with considerable damage to infected trees [69]. Among all mite species, P. ulmi is recognized as a major pest [70]. Its control is achieved by naturally occurring predatory mites such as Pytoseilus persimilis, Typhlodromus sp., and Euseuis stipulatis [70,71]. Cydia pomonella L. is the pest of rosaceous pips, especially apple and pear. It is a lepidopteran of the Tortricidae family. In lowland areas, this species evolves in 4 overlapping annual generations [72]. In Morocco, the fight against this pest is usually carried out using insecticides and trap captures (pheromone traps) [33]. In Moroccan conditions, the difficulty of controlling these butterflies is due to the resistance of insects, the functioning of sexual traps, and specific properties of insecticides [33]. Aphis pomi De Geer causes considerable losses to apple trees by sucking their sap and transmitting many diseases [35]. Aphids have adapted their life cycle to different geographical regions depending on the environmental conditions [73]. Root rot is the most common disease caused by Phytopythium vexans. The root rot symptoms caused by P. vexans are similar to those caused by other Pythium species [74,75]. In Morocco, this disease is significantly associated with apple and pear [74]. The most infested locations were Meknes (100%), Imouzzer Kander (83%), and Sefrou (80%) [74]. The watering method and soil type can influence the presence of P. vexans. The advanced, rational drip irrigation system and good sanitation practices could avoid the stagnation of water which is the origin of the appearance of this disease [74]. Fire blight disease is an infectious disease that affects peach fruits due to bacterium Erwinia amelovora family Enterobacteriaceae [76]. It was initially introduced to Morocco in 2006, posing the greatest danger to rosaceous plants. Since then, the sickness has spread far and wide, devastatingly impacting [77].

4.2 Abiotic factors influencing the apple crop in Morocco

In Morocco, hail, frost, and chergui are common weather occurrences in the provinces cultivated, causing substantial damage to fruit orchards [78]. Apple production in the region of Drâa-Tafilal recorded a decrease of almost 40% in 2016 and estimated production of 250,000 tonnes, compared to 480,000 tonnes last year, according to the Regional Directorate of Agriculture (DRA). The decline in apple production has been reduced this year due to poor weather conditions and the alternation in tree productivity [79,80].

Reduction of water resources: The water crisis, which has been related to drought, decreasing snowfall, and over-pumping of groundwater, has hampered the spread of apple agriculture [80]. According to the impact and vulnerability research, the impact of climate change is predicted to be a decline of around 25% in water resources, incorporating the effect of the droughts that Morocco has experienced since the 1980s. The loss in surface water supplies, groundwater, and increased demand for irrigation and drinking water have all contributed to the deepening of the water deficit [81]. Climate estimates for 2050, based on the RCP8.5 emission scenario, suggest a decrease in precipitation, which might result in a 3–39% loss in agricultural productivity in numerous areas and provinces of the Kingdom [81,82].

Effect of frosts: The frost is a meteorological phenomenon to be afraid of during the blooming, fruit set, and early fruit set stages of apple trees (April–May). Flowers and fruit can be completely destroyed by frost. The creation of frost rings on immature apples occurs when frosts are of short duration. Frost damage varies depending on the severity of the frosts and the plant material’s phenological stage [78].

Effect of hail: Morocco is one of the countries that has been affected by climate change. Hail is a climatic phenomenon becoming increasingly common and dangerous, particularly in mountainous places. Hail may inflict substantial damage to production and perhaps destroy it. The most sensitive organ to hail damage is the fruit. As a result, physical damage and a decrease in the leaf surface affect the fruit’s quality. Furthermore, the probability of infection penetration through wounds is increased [78,80].

Effect of snowfall: Indeed, snowfall lasts 5 months with a height ranging from 0.2 to 2 m (more than 5 m in rare years), hail lasts 6 months (April to September) and coincides with the maturity of the main fruit and vegetable crops, and frost is common, particularly in the spring and autumn. Because spring frost coincides with the flowering season of the primary fruit species, which is critical in the plant’s crop cycle, it causes irreparable harm [78]. Combating these phenomena has a cost and it is enormous. National projects are being deployed to provide solutions to these challenges [6].

Impact of temperature: These last years, the winter is characterized by periods of high temperatures, which negatively affect the accumulation of chilling units and lead to the perturbation of the flowering date [83]. In addition, high summer temperatures disrupt the action of insecticides and exacerbate codling moth populations [84]. Apple varieties grown in warm climate regions are poorly adapted to higher temperatures [7]. The decrease in cold availability hinders the expansion of the apple sector in mid-altitude areas in favour of less demanding crops. Furthermore, bud dormancy and the floral differentiation process are disrupted by alternating periods of high and low temperatures throughout the winter [80]. To compensate for the lack of cold in the region and the plant’s need for cold, acidic dormancy is broken in apple trees artificially by using dinitro-o-cresol and petroleum oil [85].

Pollination of apple: Pollination is an essential factor in the cultivation and management of fruit trees. The pollinizer (pollen donor tree) utilized in the orchards during planting is also a significant aspect of fertilisation. Bloom overlap and compatibility with the acceptor tree are the two most important factors when selecting a pollinizer [86]. The apple tree is known for its pollen incompatibility, which requires the presence of a vector that will ensure the fertilisation of apple flowers. Wind and insects are the two main agents of pollination. Bees constitute 60–90% of insects pollinate vector [87]. Recently, in 2022, Morocco has known a phenomenon of the disappearance of bees from the hives due to bee colony collapse disorder. Bees’ disappearance influences the fertilisation stage of tree fruits in several regions of the Kingdom [88,89].

4.3 Chemical and ecological methods used against apple pests

In the context of pest management in apple orchards, a comprehensive approach that combines chemical and ecological methods is commonly employed to achieve a delicate equilibrium between efficient pest control and environmental sustainability.

Chemical control: Chemical interventions play a pivotal role in swiftly and decisively addressing pest challenges. Broad-spectrum insecticides, celebrated for their adaptability, effectively combat a diverse range of pests with a single application [85]. However, the non-selective nature of these chemicals poses potential threats to beneficial insects, including crucial pollinators and natural predators. Specific insecticides, such as neonicotinoids and pyrethroids, offer a more precise solution, mitigating unintended harm to non-target organisms [85]. Yet, the use of specific insecticides requires meticulous consideration due to the risks of resistance development and the necessity for a nuanced understanding of the target pest species [85].

Ecological control: In tandem with chemical methodologies, ecological approaches constitute an integral component of a holistic pest management strategy [22]. Biological control, entailing the introduction or conservation of natural enemies like predatory insects and parasitoids, fosters equilibrium between pests and their adversaries [41]. Practices such as planting beneficial companion crops and implementing crop rotation contribute to an environment less conducive to pests [41]. IPM amalgamates chemical and ecological strategies, integrating monitoring, habitat management, and judicious pesticide use. These practices fortify resilience against pests, curtail reliance on chemicals, and contribute to the enduring sustainability of apple orchard ecosystems [51].

Integrated approach: An integrated approach, seamlessly merging chemical and ecological methodologies, emerges as the most efficacious strategy [85]. This approach discerns the strengths and limitations of each method, aiming to harness the benefits of chemical control for swift responses while leveraging ecological practices to minimize environmental impact and uphold ecosystem health. Regular monitoring, a profound understanding of pest life cycles, and adaptive management constitute crucial elements in this integrated strategy, ensuring that pest control remains effective, sustainable, and aligned with broader environmental conservation objectives [13].

5 Conclusion and future prospects

This review highlights the current knowledge of the fruit tree field, clarifies the apple tree sector’s current situation, and inspires specialists to improve and expand their research. Through this synthesis, we can conclude that the fruit tree sector, including the apple tree in Morocco, has been growing in the last decades thanks to the implementation of several strategies and the investigation of Morocco in this field. The most notable investments in this area are concentrated on the introduction of new varieties, the augmentation of the production of fruit apples, and their exportation and the reduction of the importation. However, it is still threatened by a number of challenges biotic and abiotic that need to be overcome.

To address the impacts of climate change on apple farming, it is essential to consider the cultivation of varieties resistant to the deficits generated by climate change in each region and to invest in new approaches to increase yields without harming the environment.

  • The apple varietal profile, in Morocco, is poorly investigated. However, the identification and characterisation of the varieties planted in the Kingdom need to be more investigated using a classic, genetic, and molecular approach to recognize apple cultivars cultivated in Moroccan.

  • Further research is needed to develop local varieties that can withstand the typical climatic conditions of the country.

  • The development of the apple tree and agriculture in Morocco must take into account the various issues at stake, in particular water stress and heat stress.

  • To reduce production losses, it is necessary to take into account the valorisation of the apple fruit in the production of by-products such as compotes, jams, food supplements, and vinegar.

  1. Funding information: Authors state no funding involved.

  2. Author contributions: All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and consented to its submission to the journal, reviewed all the results and approved the final version of the manuscript. Substantial contributions to the conception or design of the work, or the acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data for the work: MK, NH, and AA; final approval of the version to be published: SE, ARZ and JB; drafting the work or reviewing it critically for important intellectual content: SE, SB, and LR; and agreement to be accountable for all aspects of the work in ensuring that questions related to the accuracy or integrity of any part of the work are appropriately investigated and resolved: MK, AA, and MA.

  3. Conflict of interest: Authors state no conflict of interest.

  4. Data availability statement: All related data are within the manuscript.

References

[1] Luby JJ. Taxonomic classification and brief history. In: Ferree DC, Warrington IJ, editors. In Apples: Botany, production and uses. Wallingford: CABI; 2003. p. 1–14. ISBN 978-0-85199-592-2.10.1079/9780851995922.0001Search in Google Scholar

[2] Blamey M, Grey-Wilson C. La flore d’Europe occidentale. Paris: Arthaud; 1992. ISBN 978-2-7003-0867-9.Search in Google Scholar

[3] Spengler RN. Origins of the apple: The role of megafaunal mutualism in the domestication of Malus and Rosaceous trees. Front Plant Sci. 2019;10:617. 10.3389/fpls.2019.00617.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[4] Oukabli A, Mahhou A, Benbella M, Sekkat A, Serghini N, Achbani EH. Le Pommier Au Maroc, INRA. Morocco: INRA; 2011.Search in Google Scholar

[5] Faysse N, Mkadmi S, Errahj M. Capacités d’action Des Agriculteurs Dans Les Projets Locaux de Développement Agricole Au Maroc. Rev Tiers Monde. 2015;224:143. 10.3917/rtm.224.0143.Search in Google Scholar

[6] MAPM, M. de l’Agriculture et de la P.M. Le Plan Maroc Vert, Bilan Et Impacts 2008-2018 2019.Search in Google Scholar

[7] Oukabli A, Laghezali M, Chahbar A. Phenology and fruiting of apple in a zone with mild winters (Morocco). Fruits. 1998;2:105–17.Search in Google Scholar

[8] Sellika IE, Faysse N Perspectives de production et de commercialisation de la pomme au Maroc à l’horizon 2025 http://publications.cirad.fr/une_notice.php?dk=577680 (accessed on 9 April 2022).Search in Google Scholar

[9] Assouguem A, Lahlali R, Joutei AB, Kara M, Bari A, Aberkani K, et al. Assessing Panonychus ulmi (Acari: Tetranychidae) infestations and their key predators on Malus domestica Borkh in varied ecological settings. Agronomy. 2024;14(3):457.10.3390/agronomy14030457Search in Google Scholar

[10] Kara M, Assouguem A, Zerhouni AR, Bahhou J. Phytochemical content and antioxidant activity of vinegar prepared from four apple varieties by different methods. Trop J Nat Product Res. 2021;5:1578–85. 10.26538/tjnpr/v5i9.9.Search in Google Scholar

[11] Kara M. Contribution to the valorisation of a by-product of the apple tree in the Imouzzer Kandar region – The case of vinegar. Thesis. Faculty of Science Dhar El Mehraz, Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah University; 2023.Search in Google Scholar

[12] FAO better production: In Türkiye, reducing pesticide use revamps apple production and protects the local environment. Italy: FAO. http://www.fao.org/news/countries-good-practices/article/en/c/1708941/ (accessed on 13 December 2024).Search in Google Scholar

[13] Rishan C. Fresh deciduous fruit annual. USA: United states Department of agriculture; 2023.Search in Google Scholar

[14] Turkish goods Turkish apple export surge to $180M in 2021 - Turkish goods. https://www.turkishgoods.com/post/news/turkish-apple-export-surge-to-180m-in-2021 (accessed on 13 December 2024).Search in Google Scholar

[15] MAPM, M. de l’Agriculture et de la P.M. Filière Arboricole | Ministère de l’agriculture https://www.agriculture.gov.ma/fr/filiere/arboriculture (accessed on 27 February 2022).Search in Google Scholar

[16] MAPM, M. de l’Agriculture et de la P.M. Filière Des Rosacées | Ministère de l’agriculture https://www.agriculture.gov.ma/fr/filieres-regions/filiere-des-rosacees-fm (accessed on 28 February 2022).Search in Google Scholar

[17] FAO Plan Maroc Vert: Les Grands Principes et Avancées de La Stratégie Agricole Marocaine | FAO https://www.fao.org/family-farming/detail/fr/c/470753/ (accessed on 27 February 2022).Search in Google Scholar

[18] MAPM, M. de l’Agriculture et de la P.M. Plan Maroc Vert: La Région Fés Boulemane Mise Sur l’olivier, Les Rosacées et Le Figuier | Ministère de l’agriculture. https://www.agriculture.gov.ma/fr/actualites/plan-maroc-vert-la-region-fes-boulemane-mise-sur-lolivier-les-rosacees-et-le-figuier (accessed on 27 February 2022).Search in Google Scholar

[19] Abdellaoui M Filiere Amandes | Office Régional De Mise En Valeur Agricole Du Tafilalet 2020.Search in Google Scholar

[20] MAPM, M. de l’Agriculture et de la P.M. Filière Pommier | Ministère de l’agriculture. https://www.agriculture.gov.ma/fr/filieres-regions/pomme-dt (accessed on 28 February 2022).Search in Google Scholar

[21] Bouichou EH, Fadlaoui A, Bouayad A, Allali K. An hedonic evaluation of the impacts of vertical coordination on business performance amongst apple producers in Morocco. Heliyon. 2024;10:e27745. 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e27745.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[22] ADA, A. for A.D. apple tree planting and enhancement project as part of solidarity agriculture in Boulemane | ADA. https://www.ada.gov.ma/en/video-library/apple-tree-planting-and-enhancement-project-part-solidarity-agriculture-boulemane (accessed on 7 October 2024).Search in Google Scholar

[23] MAPMDREF M de l’Agriculture, de la Pêche Maritime, du Développement Rural et des Eaux et Forêts Projet de Résilience et de Durabilité Des Eaux d’Irrigation REDI | Ministère de l’agriculture. https://www.agriculture.gov.ma/fr/focus/projet-de-resilience-et-de-durabilite-des-eaux-dirrigation-redi (accessed on 7 October 2024).Search in Google Scholar

[24] MAPMDREF M de l’Agriculture, de la Pêche Maritime, du Développement Rural et des Eaux et Forêts, Rabat, Maroc Ministère de l’Agriculture, de La Pêche Maritime, Du Développement Rural et Des Eaux et Forêts, Rabat, Maroc. Bulletin de Transfert de Technologie en Agriculture; 2024.Search in Google Scholar

[25] MAPMDREF Recherche Agricole | Ministère de l’agriculture. https://www.agriculture.gov.ma/fr/programme/recherche-agricole (accessed on 9 October 2024).Search in Google Scholar

[26] Oxford Business Group. Green Morocco plan increases Morocco’s agricultural output - Africa 2020 - Oxford Business Group. https://oxfordbusinessgroup.com/reports/morocco/2020-report/economy/bearing-fruit-the-sector-development-plan-makes-concrete-gains-but-challenges-to-reaching-full-potential-persist (accessed on 9 October 2024).Search in Google Scholar

[27] MAPM, M. de l’Agriculture et de la P.M. “Génération Green 2020–2030” vise à doubler le PIB agricole à l’horizon 2030. https://www.maroc.ma/fr/actualites/generation-green-2020-2030-vise-doubler-le-pib-agricole-lhorizon-2030 (accessed on 27 February 2022).Search in Google Scholar

[28] MAPM, M. de l’Agriculture et de la P.M. “Génération Green 2020-2030”: Une stratégie consacrant la Vision Royale d’un secteur agricole résilient et durable. https://www.maroc.ma/fr/actualites/generation-green-2020-2030-une-strategie-consacrant-la-vision-royale-dun-secteur-agricole (accessed on 27 February 2022).Search in Google Scholar

[29] FAOSTAT FAOSTAT. https://www.fao.org/faostat/fr/#data/QCL/visualize (accessed on 24 October 2021).Search in Google Scholar

[30] FAOSTAT FAOSTAT. https://www.fao.org/faostat/fr/#data/QCL (accessed on 4 March 2022).Search in Google Scholar

[31] FAOSTA FAOSTAT. https://www.fao.org/faostat/fr/#data/QCL/visualize (accessed on 21 September 2024).Search in Google Scholar

[32] AgriMaroc Sefrou: la production pomicole dynamise la région – AgriMaroc.ma https://www.agrimaroc.ma/sefrou-la-production-pomicole-dynamise-la-region/ (accessed on 28 February 2022).Search in Google Scholar

[33] World Integrated Trade Solution, W. Morocco apples, fresh imports by country | 2022 | Data. https://wits.worldbank.org/trade/comtrade/en/country/MAR/year/2022/tradeflow/Imports/partner/ALL/product/080810 (accessed on 21 September 2024).Search in Google Scholar

[34] Oukabli A. Le pommier, une culture de terroir en zone d’altitude, bulletin mensuel d’information et de liaison du pntta No 115. Morocco: INRA; 2004.Search in Google Scholar

[35] Moinina A, Lahlali R, MacLean D, Boulif M. Farmers’ knowledge, perception and practices in apple pest management and climate change in the Fes-Meknes region, Morocco. Horticulturae. 2018;4:42. 10.3390/horticulturae4040042.Search in Google Scholar

[36] Skender A, Hadžiabuli S, Ercisli S, Hasanbegovic J, Dedic S, Almeer R, et al. Morphological and biochemical properties in fruits of naturally grown sustainability morphological and biochemical properties in fruits of naturally grown Cornelian cherry (Cornus mas L.) genotypes in Northwest Bosnia and Herzegovina. Sustainability. 2022;14(April):4579.10.3390/su14084579Search in Google Scholar

[37] INRA Domaine expérimental d’Ain Taoujdate | INRA 2014.Search in Google Scholar

[38] INRA Domaine expérimental d’Annoceur | INRA 2014.Search in Google Scholar

[39] IBPGR, T.C. for A. and R.C. IBPGR: International Board for Plant Genetic Resources. Spore 1992.Search in Google Scholar

[40] UPOV International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants (UPOV). https://www.upov.int/portal/index.html.en (accessed on 8 March 2022).Search in Google Scholar

[41] Khachtib Y, Bouda S, Ait Bella Y, Haddioui A. Pomological evaluation of apple (Malus × Domestica Borkh) germplasm in Morocco. Phytomorphol: An Int J Plant Morphol. 2020;70:1–9.Search in Google Scholar

[42] Mohammed K, Saghrouchni H, Abdali YE, Amine A, Haoudi N, Fadili ME, et al. Phytochemical and physicochemical studies of different apple varieties grown in Morocco. Open Chem. 2024;22:1703–8. 10.1515/chem-2023-0205.Search in Google Scholar

[43] MAPM, bulltin officiel No 6218 Bulletin Officiel, Texte Particulier, No 6218-29 Safar 1425 (2-1-2014) 2014.Search in Google Scholar

[44] MAPM, bulltin officiel, No 6854 Bulltin Officiel, No 6854 – 11 Joumada II 1441 (6-2-2020), Arrêté Du Ministre de l’agriculture, de La Pêche Maritime, Du Développement Rural et Des Eaux et Forêts No 4014-19 Du 21 Rabii II 1441 (18 Décembre 2019) Portant Reconnaissance de l’indication Géographique <<Pomme Du Haouz>> et Homologation Du Cahier Des Charges y Afférent. 2020.Search in Google Scholar

[45] ONSSA, M. ONSSA - Bulletin de La Protection Des Obtentions Végétales. http://www.onssa.gov.ma/fr/controle-des-semences-et-plants/protection-des-obtentions-vegetales (accessed on 28 February 2022).Search in Google Scholar

[46] Assouguem A, Kara M, Benmessaoud S, Mechchate H, El Jabboury Z, Farah A, et al. Ceratitis capitata Wiedemann (Diptera: Tephritidae) in Moroccan Citrus orchards: Chemical and sustainable control methods and priorities for future research. Trop J Nat Prod Res. 2021;5:1703–8.10.26538/tjnpr/v5i10.2Search in Google Scholar

[47] Tena A, García-Marí F. Current situation of citrus pests and diseases in the Mediterranean basin. IOBC/wprs Bull. 2011;62:365–78.Search in Google Scholar

[48] Lê Van A. Potentiel Évolutif Du Pouvoir Pathogène de Venturia Inaequalis En Lien Avec La Domestication Du Pommier et l’ Utilisation de Résistances Quantitatives En Amélioration Variétale. 2011, p. 127.Search in Google Scholar

[49] Ellis MA, Ferree DC, Funt RC, Madden LV. Effects of an apple scab-resistant cultivar on use patterns of inorganic and organic fungicides and economics of disease control. Plant Dis. 1998;82:428–33. 10.1094/PDIS.1998.82.4.428.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[50] Lauret J. Innovative strategies for the control of apple scab (Venturia Inaequalis [Cke.] Wint.) in organic apple production. Thesis. 2011; p. 188.Search in Google Scholar

[51] Moinina A, Boulif M, Lahlali R. Important pests, diseases and weather conditions affecting apple production: current state and perspectives. Rev Mar Sci Agron Vét. 2019;7:71–87.Search in Google Scholar

[52] De Cock AWAM, Neuvel A, Bahnweg G, De Cock JCJM, Prell HH. A comparison of morphology, pathogenicity and restriction fragment patterns of mitochondrial DNA among isolates of Phytophthora porri Foister. Neth J Plant Pathol. 1992;98:277–89. 10.1007/BF01974386.Search in Google Scholar

[53] Helle W, Sabelis MW. Spider mites their biology, natural enemies and control Volume 1A. Spider mites their biology, natural enemies and control Volume 1A; 1985. p. 75–90.Search in Google Scholar

[54] Lagziri M, Benicha M, M’rabet R, Amrani A. El Influence de l’usage Préventif Des Pesticides Sur Les Acariens Tetranychus Urticae et Phytoseiulus Persimilis (Acari: Tetranychidae, Phytoseiidae) Présents En Cultures de Fraisiers Du Nord Du Maroc. Biotechnol Agron Soc Environ. 2015;19:355–63.Search in Google Scholar

[55] Xue W, Snoeck S, Njiru C, Inak E, Dermauw W, Van Leeuwen T. Geographical distribution and molecular insights into abamectin and milbemectin cross-resistance in european field populations of Tetranychus urticae. Pest Manag Sci. 2020;76:2569–81. 10.1002/ps.5831.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[56] Vacante V. The handbook of mites of economic plants: Identification, bio-ecology and https://books.google.co.ma/books?hl=fr&lr=&id=yc4_CwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PR3&dq=Vacante+V.+2016+—+The+handbook+of+mites+of+economic+plants+—+Wallingford:+CABI+Publishing.+p&ots=owucks8JhR&sig=1Q-_htz0V9EuSINyaxQ7C7D9RPs&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false (accessed on 17 October 2021).Search in Google Scholar

[57] Seham AEEl-D, Azouz HAA, Amira EM, Doaa AAE-A. Provided for non-commercial research and education use. Not for reproduction, distribution or commercial use. Hepatoprotective Agents Rats. 2020;12:25–40.Search in Google Scholar

[58] Mariéthoz J, Baillod M, Linder C, Antonin Ph, Mittaz C. Distribution, Méthodes de Contröle et Stratégies de Lutte Chimique et Biologique Contre l’ Acarien Jaune, “Tetranychus Urticae” Koch, Dans Les Cultures de Framboisiers – Dialnet. https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=2984817 (accessed on 16 April 2021).Search in Google Scholar

[59] Gulati R. Incidence of Tetranychus cinnabarinus (Boisd.) infestation in different varieties of Abelmoschus esculentus L. https://agris.fao.org/agris-search/search.do? recordID=IN2004000229 (accessed on 16 April 2021).Search in Google Scholar

[60] Assouguem A, Kara M, Ramzi A, Annemer S, Kowalczyk A, Ali EA, et al. Evaluation of the effect of four bioactive compounds in combination with chemical product against two spider mites Tetranychus urticae and Eutetranychus orientalis (Acari: Tetranychidae). Evid-Based Complement Altern Med. 2022;2022:1–13.10.1155/2022/2004623Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[61] Acari K, Tomato T. Growth stage based economic injury levels for two spotted spider Lycopersicon esculentum Mill. 2010;22:54–65.10.4038/tar.v22i1.2670Search in Google Scholar

[62] Assouguem A, Joutei AB, Lahlali R, Kara M, Bari A, Ali EA, et al. Evaluation of the impact of two citrus plants on the variation of Panonychus citri (Acari: Tetranychidae) and beneficial phytoseiid mites. Open Life Sci. 2024;19(1):1–10.10.1515/biol-2022-0837Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[63] Silva EA, Reis PR, Carvalho TMB, Altoé BF. Tetranychus urticae (Acari: Tetranychidae) on Gerbera Jamesonii Bolus and Hook (Asteraceae). Braz J Biol. 2009;69:1121–5. 10.1590/s1519-69842009000500016.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[64] Luo Z. Analysis of the effect of reasonable close planting on respiration characteristics of Alfalfa (Medicago Sativa l.) artificial grassland. Turkish J Agric For. 2021;45:533–40. 10.3906/TAR-2103-110.Search in Google Scholar

[65] Logan JG, Birkett MA. Juvenile hormonal activity of mono- and polyenehomobenzenes in Drosophila virilis, Spodoptera frugiperda and Araschnia levana. Pest Manag Sci. 2007;63:809–14. 10.1002/ps.Search in Google Scholar

[66] Mudyiwa S, Gadzirayi C, Mupangwa J, Gotosa J, Nyamugure T. Constraints and opportunities for cultivation of Moringa oleifera in the Zimbabwean smallholder growers. Int J Agric Res Innov Technol. 2013;3:12–9. 10.3329/ijarit.v3i1.16044.Search in Google Scholar

[67] Abdallah AM, Ismail MSM, AboGhalia AH, Soliman MFM. Factors affecting population dynamics of Tetranychus urticae and its predators on three economic plants in Ismailia, Egypt. Int J Trop Insect Sci. 2019;39:115–24. 10.1007/s42690-019-00008-7.Search in Google Scholar

[68] Abo-Elmaged TM, Ali AWM, Abdel-Rahman MAA, Abd-Allah AHA. Activity of the two spotted spider mite, Tetranychus urticae (Koch) (Acari) infesting cucumber plants in upper Egypt. Int J Trop Insect Sci. 2021;41:463–9. 10.1007/s42690-020-00232-6.Search in Google Scholar

[69] Tixier MS, Kreiter S, Allam L, Ouahbi A, Hmimina M. Phytoseiid and tetranychid mites (Acari: Mesostigmata, Prostigmata) of some Moroccan crops. Acarologia. 2003;43:87–96.Search in Google Scholar

[70] Croft BA, Monetti LN, Pratt PD. Comparative life histories and predation types: Are Neoseiulus californicus and N. Fallacis (Acari: Phytoseiidae) similar type II selective predators of spider mites? Environ Entomol. 1998;27:531–8. 10.1093/ee/27.3.531.Search in Google Scholar

[71] Croft BA, Macrae IV. Biological control of apple mites - Impact of Zetzellia Mali (Acari, Stigmaeidae) on Typhlodromus pyri and Metaseiulus occidentalis (Acari, Phytoseiidae). Environ Entomol. 1993;22:865–73. 10.1093/ee/22.4.865.Search in Google Scholar

[72] Vicente C, Boutaleb A, Lebrun PH. Quelles Stratégies de Lutte Contre Les Acariens Ravageurs Du Pommier Au Maroc. Parasitica. 2003;59:25–41.Search in Google Scholar

[73] Gupta R, Tara JS. Life history of Aphis pomi De Geer (green apple aphid) on apple plantations in Jammu Province, J & K, India. 2015;10:388–91.Search in Google Scholar

[74] Jabiri S, Bahra C, MacLean D, Radouane N, Barka EA, Bendriss Amraoui M, et al. Phytopythium vexans associated with apple and pear decline in the Saïss plain of Morocco. Microorganisms. 2021;9:1916. 10.3390/microorganisms9091916.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[75] Erwin DC, Ribeiro OK. Phytophthora diseases worldwide. Phytophthora diseases worldwide. USA: Wiley; 1996.Search in Google Scholar

[76] Vanneste JL. Fire Blight: The disease and its causative agent, Erwinia Amylovora. USA: CABI; 2000. ISBN 978-1-84593-298-5.10.1079/9780851992945.0001Search in Google Scholar

[77] Ameur A, Ennaji MM, Cesbron S, Manceau C, Rhallabi N, Achbani EH. Characterization of Moroccan population of Erwinia Amylovora, the causal agent of fire blighton rosacea. Int J Biosci Biochem Bioinforma. 2014;4:200–3. 10.7763/IJBBB.2014.V4.339.Search in Google Scholar

[78] Moinina A, Lahlali R, Boulif M. Important pests, diseases and weather conditions affecting apple production in Morocco: Current state and perspectives. Rev Marocaine des Sci Agronomiques et Vétérinaires. 2019;7:71–87.Search in Google Scholar

[79] Wissal Drâa-Tafilalet: La production de pommes baisse en 2016 https://www.agrimaroc.ma/draa-tafilalet-la-production-de-pommes-baisse-en-2016/ (accessed on 5 April 2022).Search in Google Scholar

[80] Maazouz S Les contraintes à la culture du pommier au Maroc. https://www.agrimaroc.ma/les-contraintes-a-la-culture-du-pommier-au-maroc/ (accessed on 8 March 2022).Search in Google Scholar

[81] CDN-Morocco Contributions déterminées au niveau national ACTUALISÉE (NDCs) | CCNUCC. https://unfccc.int/fr/processus-et-reunions/l-accord-de-paris/nationally-determined-contributions-ndcs/contributions-determinees-au-niveau-national-ndcs (accessed on 17 March 2022).Search in Google Scholar

[82] ADA Royaume du Maroc - Agence pour le Développement Agricole. https://www.ada.gov.ma/fr/node (accessed on 17 March 2022).Search in Google Scholar

[83] Oukabli A, Bartolini S, Viti R. Anatomical and morphological study of apple (Malus × domesticaBorkh.) flower buds growing under inadequate winter chilling. J Hortic Sci Biotechnol. 2003;78:580–5. 10.1080/14620316.2003.11511667.Search in Google Scholar

[84] Iraqui SE, Hmimina M. Assessment of control strategies against Cydia pomonella (L.) in Morocco. J Plant Prot Res. 2015;56:82–8. 10.1515/jppr-2016-0012.Search in Google Scholar

[85] Taoura M. [Study of effects of the artificial dormancy breaking of apple tree “golden delicious” in Sais area [Morocco]: utilization of dnoc and petroleum oil]; 1986.Search in Google Scholar

[86] OECD O for E.C. and D. OECD, Environment Directorate, Joint Meeting of the Chemicals Committee and the Working Party on Chemicals, Pesticides and Biotechnology. Series on the Safety of Novel Foods and Feeds, No. 16 | Feedipedia. https://www.feedipedia.org/node/6226 (accessed on 9 March 2022).Search in Google Scholar

[87] MAPM/DERD La Pollinisation Des Arbres Fruitiers - Transfert de Technologie En Agriculture 2008.Search in Google Scholar

[88] vanEngelsdorp D, Evans JD, Saegerman C, Mullin C, Haubruge E, Nguyen BK, et al. Colony collapse disorder: A descriptive study. PLoS One. 2009;4:e6481. 10.1371/journal.pone.0006481.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[89] Matin L. Disparition des abeilles: L’ONSSA approfondit les investigations. https://lematin.ma/express/2022/disparition-abeilles-lonssa-proce-prelevement-echantillons-ruchers-approfondir-investigations/371797.html (accessed on 19 June 2022).Search in Google Scholar
Received: 2024-05-20
Revised: 2024-12-14
Accepted: 2025-01-02
Published Online: 2025-03-11

© 2025 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Research Articles
  2. Optimization of sustainable corn–cattle integration in Gorontalo Province using goal programming
  3. Competitiveness of Indonesia’s nutmeg in global market
  4. Toward sustainable bioproducts from lignocellulosic biomass: Influence of chemical pretreatments on liquefied walnut shells
  5. Efficacy of Betaproteobacteria-based insecticides for managing whitefly, Bemisia tabaci (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae), on cucumber plants
  6. Assessment of nutrition status of pineapple plants during ratoon season using diagnosis and recommendation integrated system
  7. Nutritional value and consumer assessment of 12 avocado crosses between cvs. Hass × Pionero
  8. The lacked access to beef in the low-income region: An evidence from the eastern part of Indonesia
  9. Comparison of milk consumption habits across two European countries: Pilot study in Portugal and France
  10. Antioxidant responses of black glutinous rice to drought and salinity stresses at different growth stages
  11. Differential efficacy of salicylic acid-induced resistance against bacterial blight caused by Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae in rice genotypes
  12. Yield and vegetation index of different maize varieties and nitrogen doses under normal irrigation
  13. Urbanization and forecast possibilities of land use changes by 2050: New evidence in Ho Chi Minh city, Vietnam
  14. Organizational-economic efficiency of raspberry farming – case study of Kosovo
  15. Application of nitrogen-fixing purple non-sulfur bacteria in improving nitrogen uptake, growth, and yield of rice grown on extremely saline soil under greenhouse conditions
  16. Digital motivation, knowledge, and skills: Pathways to adaptive millennial farmers
  17. Investigation of biological characteristics of fruit development and physiological disorders of Musang King durian (Durio zibethinus Murr.)
  18. Enhancing rice yield and farmer welfare: Overcoming barriers to IPB 3S rice adoption in Indonesia
  19. Simulation model to realize soybean self-sufficiency and food security in Indonesia: A system dynamic approach
  20. Gender, empowerment, and rural sustainable development: A case study of crab business integration
  21. Metagenomic and metabolomic analyses of bacterial communities in short mackerel (Rastrelliger brachysoma) under storage conditions and inoculation of the histamine-producing bacterium
  22. Fostering women’s engagement in good agricultural practices within oil palm smallholdings: Evaluating the role of partnerships
  23. Increasing nitrogen use efficiency by reducing ammonia and nitrate losses from tomato production in Kabul, Afghanistan
  24. Physiological activities and yield of yacon potato are affected by soil water availability
  25. Vulnerability context due to COVID-19 and El Nino: Case study of poultry farming in South Sulawesi, Indonesia
  26. Wheat freshness recognition leveraging Gramian angular field and attention-augmented resnet
  27. Suggestions for promoting SOC storage within the carbon farming framework: Analyzing the INFOSOLO database
  28. Optimization of hot foam applications for thermal weed control in perennial crops and open-field vegetables
  29. Toxicity evaluation of metsulfuron-methyl, nicosulfuron, and methoxyfenozide as pesticides in Indonesia
  30. Fermentation parameters and nutritional value of silages from fodder mallow (Malva verticillata L.), white sweet clover (Melilotus albus Medik.), and their mixtures
  31. Five models and ten predictors for energy costs on farms in the European Union
  32. Effect of silvopastoral systems with integrated forest species from the Peruvian tropics on the soil chemical properties
  33. Transforming food systems in Semarang City, Indonesia: A short food supply chain model
  34. Understanding farmers’ behavior toward risk management practices and financial access: Evidence from chili farms in West Java, Indonesia
  35. Optimization of mixed botanical insecticides from Azadirachta indica and Calophyllum soulattri against Spodoptera frugiperda using response surface methodology
  36. Mapping socio-economic vulnerability and conflict in oil palm cultivation: A case study from West Papua, Indonesia
  37. Exploring rice consumption patterns and carbohydrate source diversification among the Indonesian community in Hungary
  38. Determinants of rice consumer lexicographic preferences in South Sulawesi Province, Indonesia
  39. Effect on growth and meat quality of weaned piglets and finishing pigs when hops (Humulus lupulus) are added to their rations
  40. Healthy motivations for food consumption in 16 countries
  41. The agriculture specialization through the lens of PESTLE analysis
  42. Combined application of chitosan-boron and chitosan-silicon nano-fertilizers with soybean protein hydrolysate to enhance rice growth and yield
  43. Stability and adaptability analyses to identify suitable high-yielding maize hybrids using PBSTAT-GE
  44. Phosphate-solubilizing bacteria-mediated rock phosphate utilization with poultry manure enhances soil nutrient dynamics and maize growth in semi-arid soil
  45. Factors impacting on purchasing decision of organic food in developing countries: A systematic review
  46. Influence of flowering plants in maize crop on the interaction network of Tetragonula laeviceps colonies
  47. Bacillus subtilis 34 and water-retaining polymer reduce Meloidogyne javanica damage in tomato plants under water stress
  48. Vachellia tortilis leaf meal improves antioxidant activity and colour stability of broiler meat
  49. Evaluating the competitiveness of leading coffee-producing nations: A comparative advantage analysis across coffee product categories
  50. Application of Lactiplantibacillus plantarum LP5 in vacuum-packaged cooked ham as a bioprotective culture
  51. Evaluation of tomato hybrid lines adapted to lowland
  52. South African commercial livestock farmers’ adaptation and coping strategies for agricultural drought
  53. Spatial analysis of desertification-sensitive areas in arid conditions based on modified MEDALUS approach and geospatial techniques
  54. Meta-analysis of the effect garlic (Allium sativum) on productive performance, egg quality, and lipid profiles in laying quails
  55. Optimizing carrageenan–citric acid synergy in mango gummies using response surface methodology
  56. The strategic role of agricultural vocational training in sustainable local food systems
  57. Agricultural planning grounded in regional rainfall patterns in the Colombian Orinoquia: An essential step for advancing climate-adapted and sustainable agriculture
  58. Perspectives of master’s graduates on organic agriculture: A Portuguese case study
  59. Developing a behavioral model to predict eco-friendly packaging use among millennials
  60. Government support during COVID-19 for vulnerable households in Central Vietnam
  61. Citric acid–modified coconut shell biochar mitigates saline–alkaline stress in Solanum lycopersicum L. by modulating enzyme activity in the plant and soil
  62. Herbal extracts: For green control of citrus Huanglongbing
  63. Research on the impact of insurance policies on the welfare effects of pork producers and consumers: Evidence from China
  64. Investigating the susceptibility and resistance barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) cultivars against the Russian wheat aphid (Diuraphis noxia)
  65. Characterization of promising enterobacterial strains for silver nanoparticle synthesis and enhancement of product yields under optimal conditions
  66. Testing thawed rumen fluid to assess in vitro degradability and its link to phytochemical and fibre contents in selected herbs and spices
  67. Protein and iron enrichment on functional chicken sausage using plant-based natural resources
  68. Fruit and vegetable intake among Nigerian University students: patterns, preferences, and influencing factors
  69. Bioprospecting a plant growth-promoting and biocontrol bacterium isolated from wheat (Triticum turgidum subsp. durum) in the Yaqui Valley, Mexico: Paenibacillus sp. strain TSM33
  70. Quantifying urban expansion and agricultural land conversion using spatial indices: evidence from the Red River Delta, Vietnam
  71. LEADER approach and sustainability overview in European countries
  72. Influence of visible light wavelengths on bioactive compounds and GABA contents in barley sprouts
  73. Assessing Albania’s readiness for the European Union-aligned organic agriculture expansion: a mixed-methods SWOT analysis integrating policy, market, and farmer perspectives
  74. Genetically modified foods’ questionable contribution to food security: exploring South African consumers’ knowledge and familiarity
  75. The role of global actors in the sustainability of upstream–downstream integration in the silk agribusiness
  76. Multidimensional sustainability assessment of smallholder dairy cattle farming systems post-foot and mouth disease outbreak in East Java, Indonesia: a Rapdairy approach
  77. Enhancing azoxystrobin efficacy against Pythium aphanidermatum rot using agricultural adjuvants
  78. Review Articles
  79. Reference dietary patterns in Portugal: Mediterranean diet vs Atlantic diet
  80. Evaluating the nutritional, therapeutic, and economic potential of Tetragonia decumbens Mill.: A promising wild leafy vegetable for bio-saline agriculture in South Africa
  81. A review on apple cultivation in Morocco: Current situation and future prospects
  82. Quercus acorns as a component of human dietary patterns
  83. CRISPR/Cas-based detection systems – emerging tools for plant pathology
  84. Short Communications
  85. An analysis of consumer behavior regarding green product purchases in Semarang, Indonesia: The use of SEM-PLS and the AIDA model
  86. Effect of NaOH concentration on production of Na-CMC derived from pineapple waste collected from local society
https://doi.org/10.1515/opag-2025-0412
Keywords for this article
Green Morocco Plan; apple tree; agriculture; Rosaceae; Malus domestica
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Research Articles
  2. Optimization of sustainable corn–cattle integration in Gorontalo Province using goal programming
  3. Competitiveness of Indonesia’s nutmeg in global market
  4. Toward sustainable bioproducts from lignocellulosic biomass: Influence of chemical pretreatments on liquefied walnut shells
  5. Efficacy of Betaproteobacteria-based insecticides for managing whitefly, Bemisia tabaci (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae), on cucumber plants
  6. Assessment of nutrition status of pineapple plants during ratoon season using diagnosis and recommendation integrated system
  7. Nutritional value and consumer assessment of 12 avocado crosses between cvs. Hass × Pionero
  8. The lacked access to beef in the low-income region: An evidence from the eastern part of Indonesia
  9. Comparison of milk consumption habits across two European countries: Pilot study in Portugal and France
  10. Antioxidant responses of black glutinous rice to drought and salinity stresses at different growth stages
  11. Differential efficacy of salicylic acid-induced resistance against bacterial blight caused by Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae in rice genotypes
  12. Yield and vegetation index of different maize varieties and nitrogen doses under normal irrigation
  13. Urbanization and forecast possibilities of land use changes by 2050: New evidence in Ho Chi Minh city, Vietnam
  14. Organizational-economic efficiency of raspberry farming – case study of Kosovo
  15. Application of nitrogen-fixing purple non-sulfur bacteria in improving nitrogen uptake, growth, and yield of rice grown on extremely saline soil under greenhouse conditions
  16. Digital motivation, knowledge, and skills: Pathways to adaptive millennial farmers
  17. Investigation of biological characteristics of fruit development and physiological disorders of Musang King durian (Durio zibethinus Murr.)
  18. Enhancing rice yield and farmer welfare: Overcoming barriers to IPB 3S rice adoption in Indonesia
  19. Simulation model to realize soybean self-sufficiency and food security in Indonesia: A system dynamic approach
  20. Gender, empowerment, and rural sustainable development: A case study of crab business integration
  21. Metagenomic and metabolomic analyses of bacterial communities in short mackerel (Rastrelliger brachysoma) under storage conditions and inoculation of the histamine-producing bacterium
  22. Fostering women’s engagement in good agricultural practices within oil palm smallholdings: Evaluating the role of partnerships
  23. Increasing nitrogen use efficiency by reducing ammonia and nitrate losses from tomato production in Kabul, Afghanistan
  24. Physiological activities and yield of yacon potato are affected by soil water availability
  25. Vulnerability context due to COVID-19 and El Nino: Case study of poultry farming in South Sulawesi, Indonesia
  26. Wheat freshness recognition leveraging Gramian angular field and attention-augmented resnet
  27. Suggestions for promoting SOC storage within the carbon farming framework: Analyzing the INFOSOLO database
  28. Optimization of hot foam applications for thermal weed control in perennial crops and open-field vegetables
  29. Toxicity evaluation of metsulfuron-methyl, nicosulfuron, and methoxyfenozide as pesticides in Indonesia
  30. Fermentation parameters and nutritional value of silages from fodder mallow (Malva verticillata L.), white sweet clover (Melilotus albus Medik.), and their mixtures
  31. Five models and ten predictors for energy costs on farms in the European Union
  32. Effect of silvopastoral systems with integrated forest species from the Peruvian tropics on the soil chemical properties
  33. Transforming food systems in Semarang City, Indonesia: A short food supply chain model
  34. Understanding farmers’ behavior toward risk management practices and financial access: Evidence from chili farms in West Java, Indonesia
  35. Optimization of mixed botanical insecticides from Azadirachta indica and Calophyllum soulattri against Spodoptera frugiperda using response surface methodology
  36. Mapping socio-economic vulnerability and conflict in oil palm cultivation: A case study from West Papua, Indonesia
  37. Exploring rice consumption patterns and carbohydrate source diversification among the Indonesian community in Hungary
  38. Determinants of rice consumer lexicographic preferences in South Sulawesi Province, Indonesia
  39. Effect on growth and meat quality of weaned piglets and finishing pigs when hops (Humulus lupulus) are added to their rations
  40. Healthy motivations for food consumption in 16 countries
  41. The agriculture specialization through the lens of PESTLE analysis
  42. Combined application of chitosan-boron and chitosan-silicon nano-fertilizers with soybean protein hydrolysate to enhance rice growth and yield
  43. Stability and adaptability analyses to identify suitable high-yielding maize hybrids using PBSTAT-GE
  44. Phosphate-solubilizing bacteria-mediated rock phosphate utilization with poultry manure enhances soil nutrient dynamics and maize growth in semi-arid soil
  45. Factors impacting on purchasing decision of organic food in developing countries: A systematic review
  46. Influence of flowering plants in maize crop on the interaction network of Tetragonula laeviceps colonies
  47. Bacillus subtilis 34 and water-retaining polymer reduce Meloidogyne javanica damage in tomato plants under water stress
  48. Vachellia tortilis leaf meal improves antioxidant activity and colour stability of broiler meat
  49. Evaluating the competitiveness of leading coffee-producing nations: A comparative advantage analysis across coffee product categories
  50. Application of Lactiplantibacillus plantarum LP5 in vacuum-packaged cooked ham as a bioprotective culture
  51. Evaluation of tomato hybrid lines adapted to lowland
  52. South African commercial livestock farmers’ adaptation and coping strategies for agricultural drought
  53. Spatial analysis of desertification-sensitive areas in arid conditions based on modified MEDALUS approach and geospatial techniques
  54. Meta-analysis of the effect garlic (Allium sativum) on productive performance, egg quality, and lipid profiles in laying quails
  55. Optimizing carrageenan–citric acid synergy in mango gummies using response surface methodology
  56. The strategic role of agricultural vocational training in sustainable local food systems
  57. Agricultural planning grounded in regional rainfall patterns in the Colombian Orinoquia: An essential step for advancing climate-adapted and sustainable agriculture
  58. Perspectives of master’s graduates on organic agriculture: A Portuguese case study
  59. Developing a behavioral model to predict eco-friendly packaging use among millennials
  60. Government support during COVID-19 for vulnerable households in Central Vietnam
  61. Citric acid–modified coconut shell biochar mitigates saline–alkaline stress in Solanum lycopersicum L. by modulating enzyme activity in the plant and soil
  62. Herbal extracts: For green control of citrus Huanglongbing
  63. Research on the impact of insurance policies on the welfare effects of pork producers and consumers: Evidence from China
  64. Investigating the susceptibility and resistance barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) cultivars against the Russian wheat aphid (Diuraphis noxia)
  65. Characterization of promising enterobacterial strains for silver nanoparticle synthesis and enhancement of product yields under optimal conditions
  66. Testing thawed rumen fluid to assess in vitro degradability and its link to phytochemical and fibre contents in selected herbs and spices
  67. Protein and iron enrichment on functional chicken sausage using plant-based natural resources
  68. Fruit and vegetable intake among Nigerian University students: patterns, preferences, and influencing factors
  69. Bioprospecting a plant growth-promoting and biocontrol bacterium isolated from wheat (Triticum turgidum subsp. durum) in the Yaqui Valley, Mexico: Paenibacillus sp. strain TSM33
  70. Quantifying urban expansion and agricultural land conversion using spatial indices: evidence from the Red River Delta, Vietnam
  71. LEADER approach and sustainability overview in European countries
  72. Influence of visible light wavelengths on bioactive compounds and GABA contents in barley sprouts
  73. Assessing Albania’s readiness for the European Union-aligned organic agriculture expansion: a mixed-methods SWOT analysis integrating policy, market, and farmer perspectives
  74. Genetically modified foods’ questionable contribution to food security: exploring South African consumers’ knowledge and familiarity
  75. The role of global actors in the sustainability of upstream–downstream integration in the silk agribusiness
  76. Multidimensional sustainability assessment of smallholder dairy cattle farming systems post-foot and mouth disease outbreak in East Java, Indonesia: a Rapdairy approach
  77. Enhancing azoxystrobin efficacy against Pythium aphanidermatum rot using agricultural adjuvants
  78. Review Articles
  79. Reference dietary patterns in Portugal: Mediterranean diet vs Atlantic diet
  80. Evaluating the nutritional, therapeutic, and economic potential of Tetragonia decumbens Mill.: A promising wild leafy vegetable for bio-saline agriculture in South Africa
  81. A review on apple cultivation in Morocco: Current situation and future prospects
  82. Quercus acorns as a component of human dietary patterns
  83. CRISPR/Cas-based detection systems – emerging tools for plant pathology
  84. Short Communications
  85. An analysis of consumer behavior regarding green product purchases in Semarang, Indonesia: The use of SEM-PLS and the AIDA model
  86. Effect of NaOH concentration on production of Na-CMC derived from pineapple waste collected from local society
Sign up now to receive a 20% welcome discount
Institutional Access
How does access work?
Have an idea on how to improve our website?
Please write us.
© 2026 De Gruyter Brill
Downloaded on 4.2.2026 from https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/opag-2025-0412/html
Scroll to top button