Startseite Optimizing carrageenan–citric acid synergy in mango gummies using response surface methodology
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Optimizing carrageenan–citric acid synergy in mango gummies using response surface methodology

  • Ann Myril C. Tiu EMAIL logo und Reciel Ann T. Cullano
Veröffentlicht/Copyright: 26. September 2025
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Open Agriculture
Aus der Zeitschrift Open Agriculture Band 10 Heft 1

Abstract

Seasonal mango surpluses in tropical regions result in substantial postharvest losses (30–40%), highlighting the need for sustainable utilization. This study optimized carrageenan and citric acid ratios in mango-flavored gummies to create clean-label confectionery using response surface methodology. The optimal formulation (1.3–1.55% carrageenan, 0.42–0.48% citric acid) stabilized moisture (20–22%), water activity (0.665), and sensory scores (≥6.5/9) at a production cost of Php65/kg (US$1.12/kg). Excess carrageenan (>2%) hardened the texture and dulled the natural pigmentation, while citric acid >0.48% heightened sourness. Validation trials confirmed consistency, with slight deviations in sensory acceptability (6.80 vs predicted 7.30). The method proved effective for mango and jackfruit but unsuitable for lipid-rich fruits like avocado. Economically viable for small-scale producers (break-even: 154.2 kg/month), this approach offers a scalable solution to valorize surplus fruits, though industrial adaptation and lipid-resistant formulations require further exploration.

Keywords: mango; gummy candy; clean-label confectionery; food product development; response surface methodology

1 Introduction

The confectionery industry is moving toward natural ingredients and plant-based, clean-label, and ethical sourcing products due to the growing consumer demand for sustainable and better nutrition [1,2]. The trend has spurred intensified efforts to identify replacements for animal-based additives such as gelatin. As such, this positions carrageenan, a seaweed-derived hydrocolloid, as a prominent alternative for gelatin (an animal-derived collagen), owing to its ability to form stable gels and compatibility with vegan product standards [3]. However, significant challenges remain in optimizing carrageenan for high-acid fruits like mango, particularly regarding pH sensitivity, where the gel strength decreases sharply at pH ≤ 4.0 and flavor volatility during processing [3].

Mango (Mangifera indica L.) is known for its vibrant color and natural sweetness, making it ideal for clean-label confectionery, and a rich profile of health-promoting compounds, including vitamin C, carotenoids (e.g., β-carotene), and polyphenols [4,5]. These secondary metabolites – volatile organic compounds, carotenoids, and flavonoids [6] – enhance flavor and color while providing antioxidant benefits that may support immune function. Despite these advantages, seasonal surpluses during peak harvest often strain processing capacity in tropical regions, with inadequate facilities contributing to substantial postharvest losses of 30–40% [7].

To address this waste challenge while meeting consumer demand, this work proposes converting surplus mango puree, a common but perishable intermediate, into gummy candies. This approach leverages the fruit’s natural flavor and color, and nutritional properties to create a diversified, clean-label product that offers a healthier alternative to synthetic, additive-laden confectionery. The optimized gummies provide dual benefits: (1) valorization of food waste through surplus utilization, and (2) delivery of fruit-derived phytochemicals in a shelf-stable format, aligning with global dietary recommendations for whole-fruit consumption [2].

Despite these opportunities, current research on carrageenan-based gummies primarily focuses on temperate fruits, leaving applications for tropical fruits underexplored [8,9]. Additionally, many studies overlook the scalability of formulations for small-scale producers in developing regions [10]. To bridge these gaps, this work addresses three key issues: (1) optimizing the ratios of carrageenan to citric acid to achieve a balance between quality and stability, (2) utilizing mango puree as a natural pigment and flavor enhancer, and (3) assessing the economic feasibility of the formulation for small-scale producers to reduce postharvest losses. Ultimately, this study promotes clean-label vegan gummies tailored to tropical fruit systems while supporting sustainable agricultural processing in resource-limited regions.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Materials

κ-Carrageenan (Shemberg Corp., Cebu City, Philippines), Philippine mango puree (pH 4.2 ± 0.1, 15°Brix), sucrose, glucose syrup (DE 4sorbitolitol, citric acid (OngKinKing Trading, Cebu City, Philippines), and sodium lactate (Cornell Foods, Metro Manila, Philippines) were sourced locally. All ingredients were of food-grade.

2.2 Gummy candy preparation

A 3 × 3 factorial design tested carrageenan (1–3% w/w) and citric acid (0.3–0.9% w/w) levels (Table 1). The process, summarized in Figure 1, involved homogenization of ingredients (500 rpm, 5–7 min), heating (90–100°C until 75°Brix), molding into 1 cm3 cubes, drying (50–60°C, 16 h), sweating (room temperature for 2 h), and sugar-coating to prevent sticking.

Table 1

Treatment combinations and formulation parameters

Treatment Variable (a) Variable (b) Other ingredients (%)
Carrageenan (% w/w) Citric acid (%w/w)
1–3 1.0 0.3, 0.6, 0.9 Water (49.35–52.35%), glucose syrup (25%), refined sugar sorbitol (2.5%), sodium lactate (0.6%), mango puree (0.25%)
4–6 2.0 0.3, 0.6, 0.9
7–9 3.0 0.3, 0.6, 0.9
Figure 1 Flowchart of mango gummy preparation.
Figure 1

Flowchart of mango gummy preparation.

2.3 Physicochemical analysis

2.3.1 Moisture content (MC)

MC was determined using the AOAC method 925.10 [11]. Samples (0.5–1.0 g) were dried at 105°C for 5 h in a forced-air oven (Biobase BOV-T105F, Shandong, China), cooled in a desiccator, and reweighed.

2.3.2 Water activity (a w)

Water activity was measured using a water activity meter (WA 60-A, Guangzhou, China) at 25°C following ISO 21807:2004 [12]. Powdered samples (5 g) were equilibrated for 10 min before recording.

2.3.3 Caloric content

Caloric content was analyzed via bomb calorimetry (Parr Instrument Co., IL, USA) using benzoic acid (6.318 kcal/g) for calibration. Cubed samples weighing 0.5 and 1.0 g were combusted, and the energy released was quantified [13], with analyses conducted in triplicate.

2.4 Sensory evaluation

Ninety experienced panelists rated color, aroma, texture, taste, and overall acceptability on a 9-point hedonic scale. An incomplete block design [14] minimized fatigue, with responses analyzed via Response Surface Regression (SAS 9.0). This work employed a 9-point hedonic scale (1 = dislike extremely; 9 = like extremely) and descriptive scoring quantified responses, following the standards for sensory testing [15].

Informed consent: Informed consent was obtained from the panelists and the procedures followed the ethical guidelines of the Cebu Technological University Research Ethics Committee.

2.5 Product yield and total cost

Product yield (%) was calculated using (1):

(1) % Yield = weight before drying − weight after drying total weight of the formulation × 100 .

The cost analysis focused on the proportions of raw materials used in various formulations based on the local market rates [10]. The raw material cost (RMC) was derived from these prices [16], while the labor cost (LC) was calculated using a regional minimum wage of Php50 (US$0.87) per hour and time-motion studies. Energy cost (EC) was based on electricity consumption at Php10 (US$0.17) per kWh for mixing and drying. Overhead cost (OC) included packaging and equipment depreciation. Total production cost was computed as follows (2):

(2) Total cost = RMC + LC + EC + OC .

The break-even (BEP) analysis for small-scale production used a retail price of PH/kg from local clean-label confectionery benchmarks, with the BEP calculated as follows (3):

(3) BEP ( kg ) = Fixed cost ( Php ) ( Selling price Php kg − Variable cost Php kg .

2.6 Optimization and experimental validation

Response surface methodology (RSM) using STATISTICA 6.0 was utilized to optimize the ratios of carrageenan to citric acid, exploring carrageenan concentrations from 1 to 3% (w/w) and citric acid from 0.3 to 0.9% (w/w). Quadratic models were validated via ANOVA at a significance level of p < 0.01. The optimal acceptable region (OAR) was defined with criteria including sensory scores of 6.5 or higher on a 9-point scale, MC ≤ 22%, and a w ≤ 0.70. Verification involved comparing predicted and actual scores using paired t-tests (α = 0.05).

For the experimental validation, triplicate batches of the optimized formulation and a suboptimal control were produced, with 32 experienced panelists assessing sensory attributes on a 9-point scale. The optimized formulation was tested on local fruit purees (jackfruit, guyabano, avocado, melon, and macapuno), and sensory differences were analyzed using Friedman’s test and one-way ANOVA.

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Physicochemical analysis

3.1.1 MC

MC ranged from 19.47 to 23.99% (Table 2), with higher carrageenan levels (3% w/w) surpassing typical gummy ranges (15–22%) due to its hygroscopic properties [17]. Co-solutes like sucrose and glucose syrup in mango puree weakened gel networks by competing for water [18], which reduced hydration efficiency and destabilized the gel structure [19].

Table 2

Percent moisture, dry matter, and water activity of mango gummies

Carrageenan level (% w/w) Citric acid level (%w/w) MC (%) Dry matter (%) Water activity (A w)
1 0.3 20.38 79.62 0.650
1 0.6 21.20 78.80 0.658
1 0.9 21.78 78.22 0.649
2 0.3 19.47 80.53 0.671
2 0.6 20.91 79.09 0.678
2 0.9 21.66 78.34 0.667
3 0.3 23.36 76.64 0.701
3 0.6 22.96 77.04 0.704
3 0.9 23.99 76.01 0.702

The quadratic model indicated a U-shaped relationship between carrageenan and moisture (R 2 = 0.949, p < 0.01) (Table 3). The negative linear term (−4.85, p < 0.01) showed that initial increases in carrageenan lowered moisture due to gel formation. In contrast, the positive quadratic term (1.60, p < 0.01) indicated that beyond 2% carrageenan, excess water was trapped in helical aggregates. The positive effect of citric acid (2.58, p < 0.01) revealed its role in disrupting carrageenan helices at pH < 4.0, releasing bound water. The optimal moisture stabilization occurred with 1.3–1.55% carrageenan and 0.42–0.48% citric acid, maintaining moisture at 20–22% (Figure 2a) and conforming to commercial standards while preventing syneresis.

Table 3

Parameter estimates of physicochemical and processing parameters of mango gummies

MC A w % Yield Cost
Intercept 22.85778 0.624444 199.300 56.35556
Carrageenan −4.85000* 0.002667ns −70.840ns 3.86000*
Carrageenan^2 1.59833* 0.005333ns 9.930ns 0.02667ns
Citric acid 2.51667ns 0.083333ns −211.633ns 1.90000ns
Citric acid^2 0.92593ns −0.074074ns 97.333ns −0.70370ns
Carrageenan*citric acid −0.64167ns 0.001667ns 36.517ns 0.00000ns
R 2 0.948964 0.994193 0.849836 0.999802

*significant at p < 0.05 and ns = not significant.

Figure 2 RSM contour plot for MC, water activity, yield, and production cost of mango gummies: (a) MC, (b) water activity, (c) production yield of gummy candy, and (d) production cost of gummy candy at 800 g.
Figure 2

RSM contour plot for MC, water activity, yield, and production cost of mango gummies: (a) MC, (b) water activity, (c) production yield of gummy candy, and (d) production cost of gummy candy at 800 g.

3.1.2 Water activity (a w)

The a w levels ranged from 0.65 to 0.71 and remained stable across treatments (Figure 2b), with values at or below 0.70 inhibiting microbial growth [20]. Mango puree functioned as a natural humectant due to its soluble solids (28–51°Brix) [21] and pectin (15–20%) [22], maintaining a w without synthetic additives. This contrasts with the findings of Goztok et al. [23], who reported lower a w values (0.46–0.52) in fruit juice-based gummies due to higher sugar concentrations (DE 60 vs DE 42).

Citric acid did not significantly impact a w values (p > 0.05), demonstrating the effectiveness of carrageenan in water-binding across different pH levels (p = 0.86 for carrageenan, and p = 0.12 for citric acid). This stability highlights mango puree as both a flavoring agent and humectant, differing from gelatin-based systems that require additional humectants like glycerol [24].

3.2 Sensory properties

Sensory evaluation demonstrated that carrageenan and citric acid levels significantly influenced consumer perceptions of mango gummies (Tables 3–6; Figure 3a–e). Color acceptability scores peaked at lower carrageenan concentrations (1–1.5% w/w), where the bright yellow hue from mango carotenoids (β-carotene) was preserved (scores: 6.02–7.19). With a significant linear effect on color (p < 0.01), carrageenan concentrations above 2% result in denser gel networks with obscured pigmentation, supported by the work of Kurniadi et al. [25], which indicated that kappa-carrageenan interacts with natural pigments, such as carotenoids in mango, to alter color intensity in fruit-based products. In contrast, citric acid had minimal impact on color (p > 0.05), differing from pectin systems where acidity is crucial for gelling [26]. This highlights carrageenan’s role in color dynamics, independent of pH. The optimized formulation (1.4% carrageenan, 0.48% citric acid) scored the highest (7.16), reflecting consumer preference for the bright-yellow hue typical of mango carotenoids.

Table 4

Quality description of the sensory attributes of mango gummies

Treatment Carrageenan (% w/w) Citric acid (% w/w) Color Aroma Texture Taste
1 1 0.3 Light yellow to yellow Perceptible mango Soft and less gummy Sweet and sour
2 1 0.6 Light yellow to yellow Perceptible mango Soft and less gummy Sweet and sour
3 1 0.9 Yellow Perceptible mango Gummy and elastic Sweet and sour
4 2 0.3 Yellow Perceptible mango Gummy and elastic Sweet and sour
5 2 0.6 Yellow Perceptible mango Strong gummy Sweet and sour
6 2 0.9 Yellow Perceptible mango Strong gummy Sweet and very sour
7 3 0.3 Yellow Perceptible mango Firm Sweet and very sour
8 3 0.6 Dark yellow Perceptible mango Firm Sweet and very sour
9 3 0.9 Dark yellow Perceptible mango Firm Sweet and very sour
Table 5

Mean acceptability scores of the sensory attributes of mango gummies

Treatment Factor level Sensory attributes
Carrageenan (% w/w) Citric acid (% w/w) Color Aroma Texture Taste Overall acceptability
1 1 0.3 7.19a 6.58ab 6.97a 7.19a 7.22a
2 1 0.6 7.02a 6.79ab 6.84a 7.14a 7.30a
3 1 0.9 7.11a 6.79ab 6.98a 7.32a 7.33a
4 2 0.3 6.71ab 5.83ab 6.05b 6.03bc 6.04c
5 2 0.6 6.89a 6.47ab 6.46ab 6.30b 6.61b
6 2 0.9 6.60ab 6.26ab 6.36ab 6.28bc 6.38bc
7 3 0.3 6.36bc 6.36a 5.16c 5.93bc 6.10bc
8 3 0.6 6.20bc 6.30ab 5.17c 5.79c 5.97c
9 3 0.9 6.02c 5.69b 5.00c 6.11bc 5.97c
Overall response mean 6.69 6.34 6.11 6.45 6.55

Note: Means with the same letters are not significantly different. 9 – like extremely, 8 – like very much, 7 – like moderately, 6 – like slightly, 5 – neither like nor dislike, 4 – dislike slightly, 3 – dislike moderately, 2 – dislike very much, 1 – dislike extremely.

Table 6

Parameter estimates of sensory attributes of mango gummies

Color Aroma Texture Taste Overall acc
Intercept 7.076389 5.93229 6.43056 9.07639 8.08854
Carrageenan 0.04166** −0.74219ns 0.34115** −2.16406* −1.72656**
Carrageenan^2 −0.091146** 0.21875ns −0.29427** 0.37760ns 0.30469**
Citric acid 0.63368* 4.95660ns 1.66667ns −0.71181ns 2.14410ns
Citric acid^2 −0.40509* −2.95139ns −1.09954ns 0.81019ns −1.30208ns
Carrageenan* citric acid −0.221354* −0.71615ns −0.13021ns 0.02604ns −0.20833**
R 2 0.179748 0.132250 0.408352 0.282285 0.269357

Note: **significant at p < 0.01, *significant at p < 0.05, and ns = not significant.

Figure 3 RSM contour plots for color, aroma, texture, taste, and overall acceptability of mango gummy candy: (a) color acceptability, (b) aroma acceptability, (c) texture acceptability, (d) taste acceptability, and (e) overall acceptability.
Figure 3

RSM contour plots for color, aroma, texture, taste, and overall acceptability of mango gummy candy: (a) color acceptability, (b) aroma acceptability, (c) texture acceptability, (d) taste acceptability, and (e) overall acceptability.

Aroma acceptability remained stable (mean = 6.34) due to the uniform amount of mango puree, which steadily releases volatile compounds. A contour plot (Figure 3b) indicated a peak aroma score of 6.5–6.75 at a carrageenan concentration of 1.2% and citric acid at 0.29%. This enhancement shows that carrageenan and citric acid concentrations influenced aroma perception but did not produce significant variations overall. The stable aroma acceptability can be attributed to carrageenan’s ability to slow the diffusion of aroma compounds. Bylaite et al. [27] and Chana et al. [28] confirmed that carrageenan interacts with flavor molecules, delaying their release. Increased carrageenan levels form firmer gels, further restricting the escape of volatiles, as seen in studies on hydrocolloid gummy systems like strawberry gummies [29].

The texture acceptability of mango gummies decreased linearly with increasing carrageenan concentration (p < 0.01, Table 6), with scores ranging from 5.00 to 6.98 (mean = 6.11). Lower carrageenan levels (1–1.5% w/w) produced softer, more elastic textures preferred by consumers, while concentrations above 2% w/w resulted in excessive firmness and reduced acceptability. These findings align with Minguito [30], who noted that levels over 3% led to excessively rigid textures that were disliked. On the other hand, citric acid further complicates texture dynamics; it can weaken gelatin networks by disrupting hydrogen bonding [8]. However, small amounts of citric acid (≤1.5%) may enhance gel strength in high-sugar gels due to improved molecular mobility during formation. Conversely, excessive hydrolysis from heating acidified mixtures above 100°C can lead to softer, less cohesive textures [31]. This highlights the intricate balance between formulation (carrageenan and citric acid concentrations) and processing conditions (e.g., heating).

Taste acceptability (mean = 6.45) was inversely linked to carrageenan (p < 0.01), as higher concentrations (>2%) trapped flavored compounds, reducing perceived sweetness [32]. Citric acid’s quadratic term (p < 0.05) highlighted 0.48% as ideal for harmonizing sourness with mango’s natural sugars, contrasting with commercial gummies that rely on >2% acid to intensify tartness [33].

The quadratic model for overall acceptability (coefficients from Table 6), derived from experimental sensory data collected via a 9-point hedonic scale (Section 2.4), expressed as in (4)):

(4) Overall Acceptability = 8.0885 − 1.7266 x + 2.1441 y + 0.3047 x 2 − 1.3021 y 2 − 0.2083 xy .

where x = carrageenan (% w/w) and y = citric acid (% w/w). The negative linear carrageenan term (−1.73, p < 0.01) and quadratic citric acid term (−1.30, p < 0.01) underscored the risks of overuse. The optimum region (1.3–1.55% carrageenan, 0.42–0.48% citric acid) maximized scores (Figure 3e), aligning with Song et al. [3] on carrageenan’s textural trade-offs but diverging from Göztok et al. [23], where higher acidity improved synthetic systems.

3.3 Production parameters and cost analysis

The combination of carrageenan and citric acid significantly affected production efficiency and economic viability (Tables 7 and 3; Figure 2a–d). Product yields ranged from 53.04 to 61.02%, with higher yields observed at lower carrageenan levels (1% w/w) and moderate citric acid (0.6–0.9% w/w). Excessive carrageenan (>2%) created dense networks, lowering water retention [34]. The yield’s quadratic model (R 2 = 0.85) showed a negative effect from citric acid (−211.63, p < 0.01), likely due to partial hydrolysis during heating [31].

Table 7

Production yield and cost of mango gummies

Carrageenan level (% w/w) Citric acid level (%w/w) MC (%) Yield (%) *Production cost (Php)
1 0.3 20.38 60.70 60.70
1 0.6 21.20 59.58 61.22
1 0.9 21.78 61.02 61.34
2 0.3 19.47 56.62 64.72
2 0.6 20.91 53.04 65.02
2 0.9 21.66 55.52 65.34
3 0.3 23.36 54.80 68.70
3 0.6 22.96 57.90 69.02
3 0.9 23.99 57.64 69.34

*Calculation computed at 800 g formulation; Php: Philippine Peso currency.

Production costs increased with increased carrageenan concentration, from Php60.70/kg (US$1.05/kg; 1% w/w) to Php69.34/kg (US$1.19/kg; 3% w/w), primarily due to raw material and drying costs (Table 7). However, industrial automation can reduce costs by 40% [35]. The quadratic cost model (R 2 = 0.999) confirmed carrageenan’s strong cost influence (3.86, p < 0.05).

The optimal carrageenan range (1.3–1.55%) balanced the cost (Php64.72–65.02/kg, US$1.12/kg), yield (56–60%), and sensory scores (≥6.5/9), presenting a practical framework for small producers. Cooperative sourcing and modular drying could help meet the break-even point (154.2 kg/month), addressing postharvest losses [7]. Additionally, mango puree’s natural humectant decreases the need for preservatives [24], while manual processing (3.5 h/kg) and energy inefficiencies (1.2 kWh/kg) reveal scalability challenges [36].

4 Optimization and experimental validation

The RSM identified an optimal formulation region for mango gummy candy production, consisting of 1.3–1.55% carrageenan and 0.42–0.48% citric acid. This region met several constraints: sensory acceptability (over 6.5/9), MC (≤22%), water activity (≤0.70), and production cost (≤Php65/kg, US$1.12/kg) (Figure 4). The central formulation of 1.4% carrageenan and 0.48% citric acid achieved an MC of 20.25%, a water activity of 0.665, a 60% yield, and a Php65/kg (US$1.12/kg) production cost.

Figure 4 Optimum region (pink shaded) for carrageenan and citric acid levels of mango gummies.
Figure 4

Optimum region (pink shaded) for carrageenan and citric acid levels of mango gummies.

Excessive carrageenan (over 2%) negatively impacted structural integrity, flavor, and cost, aligning with Song et al. [3]. Figure 5 presents the experimental validation results, showing that the actual acceptability of the optimized formulation (A) was 6.80, which is close to the predicted value of 7.30 (p = 0.020). Conversely, a suboptimal formulation (B) with 3% carrageenan and 0.6% citric acid received a low rating of 4.91 compared to a predicted 5.70 (p = 0.022), underscoring the risks of exceeding carrageenan levels. These findings support those of Ramadhanty et al. [32] but contrast with those of Matulyte et al. [33], which suggested that higher acid levels can enhance sourness.

Figure 5 Visual comparison of optimized (a) vs suboptimal (b) mango gummies. Sensory evaluation of optimized (Treatment A) and suboptimal (Treatment B) formulations. Values represent mean ± SD (n = 32). Significant differences are denoted by *p < 0.05 and **p < 0.01. Treatment A outperformed Treatment B in color (p = 0.003) and overall acceptability (p = 0.020), aligning with RSM predictions. Source: Created by the authors.
Figure 5

Visual comparison of optimized (a) vs suboptimal (b) mango gummies. Sensory evaluation of optimized (Treatment A) and suboptimal (Treatment B) formulations. Values represent mean ± SD (n = 32). Significant differences are denoted by *p < 0.05 and **p < 0.01. Treatment A outperformed Treatment B in color (p = 0.003) and overall acceptability (p = 0.020), aligning with RSM predictions. Source: Created by the authors.

4.1 Application to tropical fruit flavors

The RSM-optimized formulation, which included 1.4% carrageenan and 0.48% citric acid, was tested in gummies flavored with six tropical fruit purees: mango, jackfruit, guyabano, avocado, melon, and macapuno. Table 8 presents the ranking of the gummies with fruit flavors. Friedman’s rank test showed significant differences in flavor and color attractiveness (p < 0.01), but there were no significant differences in texture, as the carrageenan levels remained consistent. Mango and jackfruit were the top performers, with flavor scores ranging from 6.24 to 6.32 and a color score of 6.52 (Table 9). In contrast, avocado and macapuno received the lowest scores due to lipid interference. The texture remained uniform (p > 0.05) across all fruit flavors, confirming the structural consistency of carrageenan [37].

Table 8

Ranking of fruit flavors (1 = best, 6 = worst)

Treatment Sensory qualities
Flavor** Color**
Guyabano (Annona muricata) 4.30bc 3.16b
Avocado (Persea americana) 3.44bc 4.16c
Mango (Mangifera indica) 2.06a 2.26a
Macapuno (Cocos nucifera var. makapuno) 4.36c 4.78c
Jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus) 2.14a 3.16b
Melon (Cucumis melo L.) 3.70bc 3.48b

**significant at p < 0.01 and ns = not significant. Means having the same letter are not significantly different.

Table 9

Mean acceptability scores (9-point Hedonic scale)

Treatment Sensory properties
Color** Aroma** Flavor** Textureⁿˢ Overall**
Mango 6.52a 6.2a 6.24a 6.48 6.28a
Guyabano 5.40b 5.40dbc 5.32b 5.24 5.72ab
Avocado 6.36a 4.76c 4.40c 5.72 4.16c
Macapuno 5.80ab 4.92c 4.92bc 5.56 4.16b
Jackfruit 6.52a 6.04ab 6.32a 6.00 6.28a
Melon 6.08ab 5.16bc 5.24bc 5.16 5.68ab

**significant at p < 0.01 and ns = not significant. Means having the same letter are not significantly different.

5 Practical applications and future work

The optimized formulation (1.4% carrageenan and 0.48% citric acid) offers immediate practical value for small-scale producers in tropical regions, particularly the Philippines, where mango postharvest losses exceed 30–40% [7]. Producers can utilize surplus mango puree in vegan gummies to enhance economic resilience while meeting clean-label demands by using natural color pigments [5].

Shelf-life projections, based on physicochemical properties (a w ≤ 0.665, pH 3.8–4.2) and literature [20,24,37], indicate ≥90-day ambient stability (25°C, 65% RH) without the use of preservatives. This is enabled by (a) water activity below the microbial growth threshold (a w < 0.70) inhibits the growth of molds and yeasts [20], and (b) carrageenan’s hydrolysis resistance at pH > 3.5 [37].

For potential scalable adoption, a phased implementation pathway is proposed for small producers:

  1. Phase 1 (Manual Production)

    Artisanal batches (≤50 kg/day) using existing village kitchen infrastructure, achieving break-even at 154.2 kg/month.

  2. Phase 2 (semi-automated scaling)

    Integration of multi-purpose benchtop depositors (US$6,000–$16,000) and modular hybrid solar drying systems (≈US$2,000–$7,000/unit), increasing output 5-fold and reducing labor by 40% and energy costs by 30% [35].

  3. Phase 3 (cooperative model)

    Centralized puree processing to lower ingredient costs by 15% via collective sourcing with local mango associations [7].

Future work should prioritize validation of shelf-life testing under tropical conditions (30°C/75% RH), pilot-scale trials using cooperative models in high-loss postharvest regions, and lipid-resistant variants for avocado/macapuno using lecithin [26].

The model’s success with jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus) broadens its applicability to other underutilized fruits, diversifying product portfolios for niche vegan markets. This balances artisanal feasibility with industry scalability, converting postharvest losses into market-ready value-added products.

6 Conclusions

This study successfully optimized a clean-label, vegan gummy formulation using Philippine mango puree, carrageenan, and citric acid using RSM. The optimal region (1.3–1.55% carrageenan, 0.42–0.48% citric acid) balanced sensory acceptability (>6.5/9), physicochemical stability (moisture ≤22%, a w ≤ 0.70), and economic feasibility (Php65/kg, US$1.12/kg, addressing the mango industry’s postharvest losses and processing challenges). This formulation directly addresses the mango industry’s postharvest losses (30–40%) by valorizing surplus puree into shelf-stable products.

Key advantages include that the natural carotenoids in mango puree can potentially replace artificial colorants, maintaining consistent color ratings (6.69/9) while providing antioxidant benefits. Though not a substitute for fresh fruit, these gummies offer a palatable vehicle for fruit phytochemicals in contexts where fresh produce access is limited. The approach proved viable for jackfruit but requires adjustments for lipid-rich fruits (e.g., avocado), highlighting the need for composition-specific customization. Validation trials confirmed the RSM model’s reliability, with minor sensory deviations (<7%) attributed to natural pigment variability. For small-scale producers, this offers a low break-even (154.2 kg/month) solution to convert seasonal surpluses into value-added products, promoting economic resilience in resource-limited regions.

Acknowledgments

The authors sincerely thank Cebu Technological University (CTU) for its financial support. Likewise, we thank the Office of the Vice-President for Research and Development (OVPRD), the College of Technology, and CTU-IFSIT for their logistical and technical assistance in advancing this research endeavor.

  1. Funding information: This study received full financial support through a research grant awarded by Cebu Technological University (CTU) under the provisions of the GAA.

  2. Author contributions: All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and consented to its submission to the journal, reviewed all the results and approved the final version of the manuscript. AMCT: conceptualization, supervision, funding acquisition, methodology, project administration, writing – original draft, and writing – review and editing. RATC: conceptualization, methodology, formal analysis, data curation, visualization, writing – original draft, and writing – review and editing.

  3. Conflict of interest: Authors state no conflict of interest.

  4. Data availability statement: The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

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Received: 2025-03-09
Revised: 2025-07-11
Accepted: 2025-07-28
Published Online: 2025-09-26

© 2025 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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https://doi.org/10.1515/opag-2025-0463
Schlagwörter für diesen Artikel
mango; gummy candy; clean-label confectionery; food product development; response surface methodology
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Artikel in diesem Heft

  1. Research Articles
  2. Optimization of sustainable corn–cattle integration in Gorontalo Province using goal programming
  3. Competitiveness of Indonesia’s nutmeg in global market
  4. Toward sustainable bioproducts from lignocellulosic biomass: Influence of chemical pretreatments on liquefied walnut shells
  5. Efficacy of Betaproteobacteria-based insecticides for managing whitefly, Bemisia tabaci (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae), on cucumber plants
  6. Assessment of nutrition status of pineapple plants during ratoon season using diagnosis and recommendation integrated system
  7. Nutritional value and consumer assessment of 12 avocado crosses between cvs. Hass × Pionero
  8. The lacked access to beef in the low-income region: An evidence from the eastern part of Indonesia
  9. Comparison of milk consumption habits across two European countries: Pilot study in Portugal and France
  10. Antioxidant responses of black glutinous rice to drought and salinity stresses at different growth stages
  11. Differential efficacy of salicylic acid-induced resistance against bacterial blight caused by Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae in rice genotypes
  12. Yield and vegetation index of different maize varieties and nitrogen doses under normal irrigation
  13. Urbanization and forecast possibilities of land use changes by 2050: New evidence in Ho Chi Minh city, Vietnam
  14. Organizational-economic efficiency of raspberry farming – case study of Kosovo
  15. Application of nitrogen-fixing purple non-sulfur bacteria in improving nitrogen uptake, growth, and yield of rice grown on extremely saline soil under greenhouse conditions
  16. Digital motivation, knowledge, and skills: Pathways to adaptive millennial farmers
  17. Investigation of biological characteristics of fruit development and physiological disorders of Musang King durian (Durio zibethinus Murr.)
  18. Enhancing rice yield and farmer welfare: Overcoming barriers to IPB 3S rice adoption in Indonesia
  19. Simulation model to realize soybean self-sufficiency and food security in Indonesia: A system dynamic approach
  20. Gender, empowerment, and rural sustainable development: A case study of crab business integration
  21. Metagenomic and metabolomic analyses of bacterial communities in short mackerel (Rastrelliger brachysoma) under storage conditions and inoculation of the histamine-producing bacterium
  22. Fostering women’s engagement in good agricultural practices within oil palm smallholdings: Evaluating the role of partnerships
  23. Increasing nitrogen use efficiency by reducing ammonia and nitrate losses from tomato production in Kabul, Afghanistan
  24. Physiological activities and yield of yacon potato are affected by soil water availability
  25. Vulnerability context due to COVID-19 and El Nino: Case study of poultry farming in South Sulawesi, Indonesia
  26. Wheat freshness recognition leveraging Gramian angular field and attention-augmented resnet
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