Startseite Biocompatibility and osteoconductivity of scaffold porous composite collagen–hydroxyapatite based coral for bone regeneration
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Biocompatibility and osteoconductivity of scaffold porous composite collagen–hydroxyapatite based coral for bone regeneration

  • Siswanto Siswanto EMAIL logo , Dyah Hikmawati , Umi Kulsum , Djony Izak Rudyardjo , Retna Apsari und Aminatun Aminatun
Veröffentlicht/Copyright: 9. Juni 2020
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Open Chemistry
Aus der Zeitschrift Open Chemistry Band 18 Heft 1

Abstract

The synthesis of collagen–hydroxyapatite composites has been carried out, and the biocompatibility and osteoconductivity properties have been tested. This research was conducted to determine the ability of hydroxyapatite–collagen composites to support the bone growth through the graft surface. Hydroxyapatite used in this study was synthesized from coral with a purity of 96.6%, while collagen was extracted from the chicken claw. The process of forming a scaffold of collagen–hydroxyapatite composites was carried out using the freeze-drying method at −80°C for 4 h. The biocompatibility characteristics of the sample through the cytotoxicity tests showed that the percentage of viable cells in collagen–hydroxyapatite biocomposite was 108.2%, which is higher than the percentage of viable cells of hydroxyapatite or collagen material. When the viable cell is above 100%, collagen–hydroxyapatite composites have excellent osteoconductivity as a material for bone regeneration.

Keywords: biocompatibility; osteoconductivity; composite; coral

1 Introduction

The bone defect is a disease associated with the functional disability that has a serious impact on the quality of life of patients. This can be caused by trauma, tumors, or other bone diseases [1]. The Ministry of Health of the Republic of Indonesia in 2013 stated that traffic accidents in Indonesia have increased every year by 21.8% in 5 years. There are many victims of injuries and bone fractures from the incidents that occurred. According to the data from the Hospital Information System in Indonesia in 2018, cases of fractures have increased by 105% compared to that in 2013 [2]. Under these conditions, a biomaterial is needed as a substitute for the bone (bone graft). The need for biomaterials as a substitute for the bone will increase with the increasing number of cases of bone damage due to trauma, tumors, congenital abnormalities, infections, and bone resorption due to complications in the installation of joint prostheses [3].

Several types of bone grafts are used in the treatment of bone defects – autograft, allograft, and xenograft. Autograft is the “gold standard” for bone growth in the spine because autograft has osteoconduction, osteoinduction, and osteogenesis properties [4]. Although autograft is an ideal bone graph, autograft cannot be used in large bone defects. A large size bone will cause large morbidity at the place where the bone was taken [5]. In addition, several autograft limitations that need to be considered include blood loss, wound infections and complications, prolonged pain, and local sensory loss. Allograft and xenograft are alternatives to the use of autograft. Both these procedures do not require surgery to get a bone graft from another part of the patient’s body. So they do not require two surgeries similar to autograft and can reduce pain. However, an allograft can be rejected by the immune system and the transmission of diseases such as HIV and hepatitis C, while xenograft has an immunogenic risk and risk of the transmission of zoonotic diseases [6]. In addition, the sterilization process carried out in allograft and xenograft also results in the nature of osteogenesis being completely lost, and hence, all bone cells would have died [7].

The requirements for synthetic bone grafts that must be met are being acceptable to the body (biocompatible) and advantageous to the osteoconduction process (guiding the reparative growth of natural bone), osteoinduction (encouraging differentiated cells to active osteoblasts), and osteogenesis (living bone cells in the material bone graft that contributes to bone remodeling) [4]. Osteoconductive and osteoinductive are the most important properties of resorbable biomaterials to direct and encourage the formation of the tissue growth [8]. Osteoconductive and osteointegration of a bone graft are related to the porosity and pore size [9].

Based on the previous research, the minimum requirements for the pore size are around 100 µm [10]. This corresponds to the cell size, requirements for migration, and cell transport. However, a pore size of 300 µm is recommended for increasing new bone formation and capillary formation [11]. High macroporosity can increase bone formation, but porosity that is higher than 50% can result in the decreasing of the mechanical properties of a biomaterial [6].

A good synthetic bone graft is a bone graft that has a chemical structure and composition similar to the natural bone [12]. The collagen–hydroxyapatite (HA) composite is a synthetic bone graft that has similar properties to the natural bone. As is already known, bone’s main components are hydroxyapatite (67%) and collagen (28%) and the other component is noncollagen protein [13]. Hydroxyapatite has a modulus elasticity of 73–117 GPa, a compressive strength of 600 MPa, and a density of 3.1 g/cm3, while the modulus elasticity of collagen is 46.5 MPa [14]. Based on its mechanical properties, hydroxyapatite provides stiffness and hardness, while collagen provides tensile strength and flexibility. Collagen–HA composites have good biocompatibility and are osteoconductive, so collagen–HA composites are suitable for using as a scaffold for the bone tissue engineering [15].

The method to obtain composites that have the same structure and the composition as a natural bone is by collaborating several methods of synthesis. One of the keys to the synthesis of macroporous composites can be done through variations in the freezing rates [2]. The most appropriate synthesis method for fabricating porous biomaterials is the freeze-drying method. In this method, controlling the growth of ice crystals is very important to obtain the appropriate pore diameter and shape because the pore structure is a replication of the ice crystal dendrite entrapment.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Synthesis of hydroxyapatite from marine coral

In this study, hydroxyapatite was synthesized from marine coral. Fossilized coral is used because this coral has a higher calcium content than that of a marine coral. The coral is taken from the southern coast of Java Island (Popoh Tulungagung beach) as shown in Figure 1. Then, the coral is cleaned and dried in an open space. Corals are manually crushed to become smaller particles. The crushed corals are calcined at 900°C to remove some unnecessary elements or compounds and form CaO compounds. Then, the calcined coral was mashed using a mortar so that the size of the coral became powdered and filtered using a 200 mesh or 74 m sieves. After that, it is smoothed using high-energy milling (HEM type E3D) for 2 h with dry milling, so that the particles are reduced to a smaller size and formed as Ca(OH)2. The synthesis of hydroxyapatite is carried out by reacting calcium hydroxide and phosphoric acid (H3PO4, 85% Aldrich-Sigma) as stated in equation (3).

Figure 1 The process of scouring the coral becomes powder.
Figure 1

The process of scouring the coral becomes powder.

2.2 Collagen extraction from chicken claws

In this study, collagen was extracted from broiler chicken paws obtained at the Wonokromo Surabaya market, East Java, Indonesia. Chicken claws were separated from the bones by being cut using a knife to facilitate the destruction process. The claw pieces were crushed with a blender. Then, the crushed chicken claws were soaked in HCl solution for 24 h with 5 wt/vol% ratio. Soaking process was carried out in the cold environment of the refrigerator and then filtered. Liquid filtrate was mixed with 0.1 N NaOH solution until it reached a neutral pH and was then allowed to stand until the collagen agglomerated. When approaching neutral pH, collagen clots can be observed and the fibers began to form and coalesce, and hence, clots appeared more clearly. Collagen clots formed perfectly at neutral pH (pH 7). The chemicals used were Sigma–Aldrich HCl 37% and NaOH with 97% purity.

2.3 Synthesis of collagen–hydroxyapatite composite

The synthesis of collagen–hydroxyapatite composite begins by forming hydroxyapatite solution and collagen solution. Collagen solution is a dissolved collagen in acetic acid, while the hydroxyapatite solution is hydroxyapatite, which was dissolved in the phosphoric acid. The hydroxyapatite solution and the neutral collagen solution are mixed while manually slowly stirring them. The mixture was put into a cylindrical tube and then frozen at −80°C in freeze-drying with a variation of freezing time of 2, 4, and 6 h. Dried collagen–hydroxyapatite composites were removed from the mold for characterization.

2.4 Biocompatibility test

The biocompatibility of biomaterials was tested by the MTT assay method. The MTT method tests (3-[4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl]-2,5 diphenyl tetrazolium bromide) to measure the number of cells that still survive without the need for calculations. Cells that live with active metabolism can convert MTT into purple formazan products with maximum absorption at a wavelength of 570 nm, while dead cells lose the ability to convert MTT to formazan. Thus, the formation of color serves as a marker for viability cells [16]. The results of the MTT assay are shown in Figure 2. Biomaterials are considered toxic if the cell death is more than 50% and the number of viable cells is less than 50%. The increase or decrease in the number of viable cells indicates the level of toxicity of a biomaterial. Biomaterials have better biocompatibility if the number of proliferating cells is higher or the inhibitory value is lower [17,18].

Figure 2 Incubation of collagen-composite biomaterials.
Figure 2

Incubation of collagen-composite biomaterials.

  1. Ethical approval: The conducted research is not related to either human or animal use.

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Results of hydroxyapatite made from coral

The preparation of coral-based hydroxyapatite is carried out using the precipitation method. Coral is used because this material contains CaCO3 of 95.5%, MgSiO3 of 3.8%, and FeSi of 0.7%, as indicated by the X-ray diffraction (XRD) spectrum in Figure 3a.

Figure 3 XRD of (a) coral and (b) heated coral at 900°C for 3 h.
Figure 3

XRD of (a) coral and (b) heated coral at 900°C for 3 h.

Coral that is heated at 900°C for 3 h produces new compounds, namely, calcium oxide (Lime, syn) CaO and calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2. The presence of Ca(OH)2 in this process is thought to be due to the furnace not in a vacuum state, and hence, when the temperature is reduced to the ambient temperature, a reaction between water vapor and CaO occurs. The remaining CaCO3 (aragonite) compound in this heating is 8.9%. Silicate compounds are not detected in XRD peaks as in the results of the pure coral spectrum; however, they have good thermostability. The invisible height of the silicate compound is assumed to be of an insignificant quantity and the amount of calcium phosphate which is very dominant. To improve the efficiency of the reaction of hydroxyapatite formation, milling for 20 h is carried out on coral powder, so the powder size becomes smaller. During the milling process, CaO reacts with H2O to form Ca(OH)2 as shown in Figure 4a.

Figure 4 XRD of (a) coral milling for 20 h and (b) synthesized hydroxyapatite.
Figure 4

XRD of (a) coral milling for 20 h and (b) synthesized hydroxyapatite.

The formation of the coral hydroxyapatite by the precipitation method can be described as follows.

(1)CaCO3(s)→CaO(s)+CO2 (g)
(2)CaO(s)+H2O(l)→Ca(OH)2(s)
(3)10Ca(OH)2(s)+6H3PO4(l)→Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2(s)+18H2O(l)

Sintering of precipitation results is carried out at 900°C. The identification of the XRD spectrum in Figure 4b produces hydroxyapatite compounds of 96.6% and tricalcium phosphate compounds of 3.4%.

3.2 Results of collagen extraction

Collagen in this study was obtained by extracting chicken claws. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) collagen extraction from chicken paws is shown in Figure 5.

Figure 5 FTIR of HA, collagen, and collagen–HA composite.
Figure 5

FTIR of HA, collagen, and collagen–HA composite.

The main markers used for the collagen identification are amide A, amide I, amide II, and amide III. The peaks of 3369.64, 3439.08, 3126.61, and 2445.74 cm−1 are the amide A absorption area at the wavenumber of 3,600–2,300 cm−1, which indicates the presence of N–H bond. The peak at the wave number 1649.14 cm−1 indicates the presence of C═O bonds, which is the amide I absorption area. The amide I absorption area is in the wavenumber 1,636–1,661 cm−1. Meanwhile, the peak at the numbers 1544.98, 1454.33, and 1402.25 cm−1 is the amide II absorption area. The wave number of 1544.98 cm−1 indicates the presence of N–H bonds, while wavenumbers of 1454.33 and 1402.25 cm−1 also indicate the amide II uptake regions that have CH2 and CH3 bonds. The four markers are also found at the peak of absorption of pure collagen, especially collagen type I, as shown in Figure 6.

Figure 6 FTIR of pure collagen [17].
Figure 6

FTIR of pure collagen [17].

3.3 Results of the collagen–hydroxyapatite composite

Collagen–hydroxyapatite composites were synthesized using the freeze-drying method with a freezing time of 4 h. The FTIR results of this composite are stated in Figure 5. The characteristic peak of hydroxyapatite is at a wavelength of 500–600 cm−1. The FTIR of the collagen–hydroxyapatite composite was found at a wavelength of 553 cm−1. The characteristic peak of collagen was found at 2,873 cm−1 for CH stretching, 1,716 cm−1 for group C═ O, and above 3,000 cm−1 for N–H. Amide I bending occurs between a wavelength of 1,600–1,700 cm−1, and (PO4)3− bending occurs between 900 cm−1–1,200 cm−1.

The possible bond between collagen and hydroxyapatite is a hydrogen bond because collagen including protein and hydroxyapatite is ceramic. Hydrogen bonds occur between the hydrogen atom in collagen with the oxygen atom in hydroxyapatite as shown in Figure 7.

Figure 7 Bonding of hydrogen atoms in collagen.
Figure 7

Bonding of hydrogen atoms in collagen.

Mixing hydroxyapatite and collagen results in mineralized collagen by hydroxyapatite. Mineralized collagen occurs because of interactions that arise between the structure of collagen and hydroxyapatite crystals. This interaction occurs between the carboxylic group and the Ca2+ cation, which is illustrated in Figure 8. This hypothesis is supported by the FTIR data, which is explained based on the C–O and C═O band spectra of pure collagen and collagen–hydroxyapatite composites [19].

Figure 8 The mezomeric form of the stable carboxylic group during mineralization.
Figure 8

The mezomeric form of the stable carboxylic group during mineralization.

The synthesis of the collagen–hydroxyapatite scaffold was carried out using the freeze-drying method. The freezing time during freeze-drying affects the porosity of the scaffold formed. In this research, the freezing time is carried out in 2, 4, and 6 h. The measurement data and the calculation of porosity with freezing time are presented in Table 1. Composite porosity formed by freezing for 2 h has the highest porosity compared to porosity formed by freezing for 4 and 6 h. The greater the percentage of porosity, the easier the cell proliferation, but it is recommended not to exceed 60% because it will affect the physical and mechanical properties. The presence of pores in the scaffold is useful for facilitating the transport of oxygen and cell nutrition [20].

Table 1

Porosity scaffold with various freezing time

QuantityFreezing time, 2 hFreezing time, 4 hFreezing time, 6 h
Porosity52%35%27%

The results of cytotoxicity tests on samples of collagen, hydroxyapatite, and collagen–hydroxyapatite composites are shown in Figure 9. The graph of the MTT test results shows that collagen and hydroxyapatite are not toxic because the percentage of living cells is above 100%. The percentage of living cells above 100% also indicate cell proliferation in the MTT process. The occurrence of cell proliferation in collagen and hydroxyapatite is thought to be caused by two components that have osteoinductive factors, namely, bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) [21]. Type 1 collagen has BMP7 and hydroxyapatite has BMP2 [22].

Figure 9 MTT assay of samples.
Figure 9

MTT assay of samples.

Collagen–hydroxyapatite composites increase the percentage of living cells [22]. This proves that using collagen and hydroxyapatite together has benefits in terms of the cell growth. These MTT data also show that hydroxyapatite, collagen, or combined collagen–hydroxyapatite has an excellent biocompatible property. In addition, the cell growth above 100% can be interpreted that the collagen–hydroxyapatite composite is a very good medium for the growth and the development (osteoconductive) of bone cells. To strengthen this suspicion, currently, researchers are still conducting in vitro collagen–hydroxyapatite composites using the alkaline phosphatase test.

4 Conclusion

From the results of the preparation of hydroxyapatite-based coral and its composites with collagen, the following conclusions can be made. First, coral can be used as a bone replacement biomaterial because it can produce calcium phosphate in the form of 96.6% hydroxyapatite and 3.4% tricalcium phosphate. These two compounds are essential parts of the compact bone and the cancellous bone. Second, the MTT assay test results showed that cell viability in hydroxyapatite, collagen, and collagen–hydroxyapatite composites were 103.6%, 105.6%, and 108.9%, respectively. This shows that collagen and hydroxyapatite and its composites are nontoxic and biocompatible. Cell viability percentage values above 100% also indicate the cell proliferation in the MTT process. Cell proliferation in collagen and hydroxyapatite is thought to be caused by the two ingredients having osteoconductive and osteoinductive factors, namely, BMPs.

  1. Conflict of interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank Universitas Airlangga for the support through its Penelitian Unggulan Fakultas (PUF) funds, and the Ministries of Research, Technology, and Higher Education for its support through the Exceptional Applied Research in Higher Education program (Penelitian Terapan Unggulan Perguruan Tinggi or PTUPT), 2020 fiscal year.

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Received: 2019-07-15
Revised: 2020-02-12
Accepted: 2020-03-17
Published Online: 2020-06-09

© 2020 Siswanto Siswanto et al., published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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  69. Stability-indicating HPLC-DAD assay for simultaneous quantification of hydrocortisone 21 acetate, dexamethasone, and fluocinolone acetonide in cosmetics
  70. A novel lactose biosensor based on electrochemically synthesized 3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene/thiophene (EDOT/Th) copolymer
  71. Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad: Chemical characterization, scavenging and cytotoxic activities
  72. Development and validation of a high performance liquid chromatography/diode array detection method for estrogen determination: Application to residual analysis in meat products
  73. PCSK9 concentrations in different stages of subclinical atherosclerosis and their relationship with inflammation
  74. Development of trace analysis for alkyl methanesulfonates in the delgocitinib drug substance using GC-FID and liquid–liquid extraction with ionic liquid
  75. Electrochemical evaluation of the antioxidant capacity of natural compounds on glassy carbon electrode modified with guanine-, polythionine-, and nitrogen-doped graphene
  76. A Dy(iii)–organic framework as a fluorescent probe for highly selective detection of picric acid and treatment activity on human lung cancer cells
  77. A Zn(ii)–organic cage with semirigid ligand for solvent-free cyanosilylation and inhibitory effect on ovarian cancer cell migration and invasion ability via regulating mi-RNA16 expression
  78. Polyphenol content and antioxidant activities of Prunus padus L. and Prunus serotina L. leaves: Electrochemical and spectrophotometric approach and their antimicrobial properties
  79. The combined use of GC, PDSC and FT-IR techniques to characterize fat extracted from commercial complete dry pet food for adult cats
  80. MALDI-TOF MS profiling in the discovery and identification of salivary proteomic patterns of temporomandibular joint disorders
  81. Concentrations of dioxins, furans and dioxin-like PCBs in natural animal feed additives
  82. Structure and some physicochemical and functional properties of water treated under ammonia with low-temperature low-pressure glow plasma of low frequency
  83. Mesoscale nanoparticles encapsulated with emodin for targeting antifibrosis in animal models
  84. Amine-functionalized magnetic activated carbon as an adsorbent for preconcentration and determination of acidic drugs in environmental water samples using HPLC-DAD
  85. Antioxidant activity as a response to cadmium pollution in three durum wheat genotypes differing in salt-tolerance
  86. A promising naphthoquinone [8-hydroxy-2-(2-thienylcarbonyl)naphtho[2,3-b]thiophene-4,9-dione] exerts anti-colorectal cancer activity through ferroptosis and inhibition of MAPK signaling pathway based on RNA sequencing
  87. Synthesis and efficacy of herbicidal ionic liquids with chlorsulfuron as the anion
  88. Effect of isovalent substitution on the crystal structure and properties of two-slab indates BaLa2−xSmxIn2O7
  89. Synthesis, spectral and thermo-kinetics explorations of Schiff-base derived metal complexes
  90. An improved reduction method for phase stability testing in the single-phase region
  91. Comparative analysis of chemical composition of some commercially important fishes with an emphasis on various Malaysian diets
  92. Development of a solventless stir bar sorptive extraction/thermal desorption large volume injection capillary gas chromatographic-mass spectrometric method for ultra-trace determination of pyrethroids pesticides in river and tap water samples
  93. A turbidity sensor development based on NL-PI observers: Experimental application to the control of a Sinaloa’s River Spirulina maxima cultivation
  94. Deep desulfurization of sintering flue gas in iron and steel works based on low-temperature oxidation
  95. Investigations of metallic elements and phenolics in Chinese medicinal plants
  96. Influence of site-classification approach on geochemical background values
  97. Effects of ageing on the surface characteristics and Cu(ii) adsorption behaviour of rice husk biochar in soil
  98. Adsorption and sugarcane-bagasse-derived activated carbon-based mitigation of 1-[2-(2-chloroethoxy)phenyl]sulfonyl-3-(4-methoxy-6-methyl-1,3,5-triazin-2-yl) urea-contaminated soils
  99. Antimicrobial and antifungal activities of bifunctional cooper(ii) complexes with non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, flufenamic, mefenamic and tolfenamic acids and 1,10-phenanthroline
  100. Application of selenium and silicon to alleviate short-term drought stress in French marigold (Tagetes patula L.) as a model plant species
  101. Screening and analysis of xanthine oxidase inhibitors in jute leaves and their protective effects against hydrogen peroxide-induced oxidative stress in cells
  102. Synthesis and physicochemical studies of a series of mixed-ligand transition metal complexes and their molecular docking investigations against Coronavirus main protease
  103. A study of in vitro metabolism and cytotoxicity of mephedrone and methoxetamine in human and pig liver models using GC/MS and LC/MS analyses
  104. A new phenyl alkyl ester and a new combretin triterpene derivative from Combretum fragrans F. Hoffm (Combretaceae) and antiproliferative activity
  105. Erratum
  106. Erratum to: A one-step incubation ELISA kit for rapid determination of dibutyl phthalate in water, beverage and liquor
  107. Review Articles
  108. Sinoporphyrin sodium, a novel sensitizer for photodynamic and sonodynamic therapy
  109. Natural products isolated from Casimiroa
  110. Plant description, phytochemical constituents and bioactivities of Syzygium genus: A review
  111. Evaluation of elastomeric heat shielding materials as insulators for solid propellant rocket motors: A short review
  112. Special Issue on Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology 2019
  113. An overview of Monascus fermentation processes for monacolin K production
  114. Study on online soft sensor method of total sugar content in chlorotetracycline fermentation tank
  115. Studies on the Anti-Gouty Arthritis and Anti-hyperuricemia Properties of Astilbin in Animal Models
  116. Effects of organic fertilizer on water use, photosynthetic characteristics, and fruit quality of pear jujube in northern Shaanxi
  117. Characteristics of the root exudate release system of typical plants in plateau lakeside wetland under phosphorus stress conditions
  118. Characterization of soil water by the means of hydrogen and oxygen isotope ratio at dry-wet season under different soil layers in the dry-hot valley of Jinsha River
  119. Composition and diurnal variation of floral scent emission in Rosa rugosa Thunb. and Tulipa gesneriana L.
  120. Preparation of a novel ginkgolide B niosomal composite drug
  121. The degradation, biodegradability and toxicity evaluation of sulfamethazine antibiotics by gamma radiation
  122. Special issue on Monitoring, Risk Assessment and Sustainable Management for the Exposure to Environmental Toxins
  123. Insight into the cadmium and zinc binding potential of humic acids derived from composts by EEM spectra combined with PARAFAC analysis
  124. Source apportionment of soil contamination based on multivariate receptor and robust geostatistics in a typical rural–urban area, Wuhan city, middle China
  125. Special Issue on 13th JCC 2018
  126. The Role of H2C2O4 and Na2CO3 as Precipitating Agents on The Physichochemical Properties and Photocatalytic Activity of Bismuth Oxide
  127. Preparation of magnetite-silica–cetyltrimethylammonium for phenol removal based on adsolubilization
  128. Topical Issue on Agriculture
  129. Size-dependent growth kinetics of struvite crystals in wastewater with calcium ions
  130. The effect of silica-calcite sedimentary rock contained in the chicken broiler diet on the overall quality of chicken muscles
  131. Physicochemical properties of selected herbicidal products containing nicosulfuron as an active ingredient
  132. Lycopene in tomatoes and tomato products
  133. Fluorescence in the assessment of the share of a key component in the mixing of feed
  134. Sulfur application alleviates chromium stress in maize and wheat
  135. Effectiveness of removal of sulphur compounds from the air after 3 years of biofiltration with a mixture of compost soil, peat, coconut fibre and oak bark
  136. Special Issue on the 4th Green Chemistry 2018
  137. Study and fire test of banana fibre reinforced composites with flame retardance properties
  138. Special Issue on the International conference CosCI 2018
  139. Disintegration, In vitro Dissolution, and Drug Release Kinetics Profiles of k-Carrageenan-based Nutraceutical Hard-shell Capsules Containing Salicylamide
  140. Synthesis of amorphous aluminosilicate from impure Indonesian kaolin
  141. Special Issue on the International Conf on Science, Applied Science, Teaching and Education 2019
  142. Functionalization of Congo red dye as a light harvester on solar cell
  143. The effect of nitrite food preservatives added to se’i meat on the expression of wild-type p53 protein
  144. Biocompatibility and osteoconductivity of scaffold porous composite collagen–hydroxyapatite based coral for bone regeneration
  145. Special Issue on the Joint Science Congress of Materials and Polymers (ISCMP 2019)
  146. Effect of natural boron mineral use on the essential oil ratio and components of Musk Sage (Salvia sclarea L.)
  147. A theoretical and experimental study of the adsorptive removal of hexavalent chromium ions using graphene oxide as an adsorbent
  148. A study on the bacterial adhesion of Streptococcus mutans in various dental ceramics: In vitro study
  149. Corrosion study of copper in aqueous sulfuric acid solution in the presence of (2E,5E)-2,5-dibenzylidenecyclopentanone and (2E,5E)-bis[(4-dimethylamino)benzylidene]cyclopentanone: Experimental and theoretical study
  150. Special Issue on Chemistry Today for Tomorrow 2019
  151. Diabetes mellitus type 2: Exploratory data analysis based on clinical reading
  152. Multivariate analysis for the classification of copper–lead and copper–zinc glasses
  153. Special Issue on Advances in Chemistry and Polymers
  154. The spatial and temporal distribution of cationic and anionic radicals in early embryo implantation
  155. Special Issue on 3rd IC3PE 2020
  156. Magnetic iron oxide/clay nanocomposites for adsorption and catalytic oxidation in water treatment applications
  157. Special Issue on IC3PE 2018/2019 Conference
  158. Exergy analysis of conventional and hydrothermal liquefaction–esterification processes of microalgae for biodiesel production
  159. Advancing biodiesel production from microalgae Spirulina sp. by a simultaneous extraction–transesterification process using palm oil as a co-solvent of methanol
  160. Topical Issue on Applications of Mathematics in Chemistry
  161. Omega and the related counting polynomials of some chemical structures
  162. M-polynomial and topological indices of zigzag edge coronoid fused by starphene
https://doi.org/10.1515/chem-2020-0080
Schlagwörter für diesen Artikel
biocompatibility; osteoconductivity; composite; coral
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Artikel in diesem Heft

  1. Regular Articles
  2. Electrochemical antioxidant screening and evaluation based on guanine and chitosan immobilized MoS2 nanosheet modified glassy carbon electrode (guanine/CS/MoS2/GCE)
  3. Kinetic models of the extraction of vanillic acid from pumpkin seeds
  4. On the maximum ABC index of bipartite graphs without pendent vertices
  5. Estimation of the total antioxidant potential in the meat samples using thin-layer chromatography
  6. Molecular dynamics simulation of sI methane hydrate under compression and tension
  7. Spatial distribution and potential ecological risk assessment of some trace elements in sediments and grey mangrove (Avicennia marina) along the Arabian Gulf coast, Saudi Arabia
  8. Amino-functionalized graphene oxide for Cr(VI), Cu(II), Pb(II) and Cd(II) removal from industrial wastewater
  9. Chemical composition and in vitro activity of Origanum vulgare L., Satureja hortensis L., Thymus serpyllum L. and Thymus vulgaris L. essential oils towards oral isolates of Candida albicans and Candida glabrata
  10. Effect of excess Fluoride consumption on Urine-Serum Fluorides, Dental state and Thyroid Hormones among children in “Talab Sarai” Punjab Pakistan
  11. Design, Synthesis and Characterization of Novel Isoxazole Tagged Indole Hybrid Compounds
  12. Comparison of kinetic and enzymatic properties of intracellular phosphoserine aminotransferases from alkaliphilic and neutralophilic bacteria
  13. Green Organic Solvent-Free Oxidation of Alkylarenes with tert-Butyl Hydroperoxide Catalyzed by Water-Soluble Copper Complex
  14. Ducrosia ismaelis Asch. essential oil: chemical composition profile and anticancer, antimicrobial and antioxidant potential assessment
  15. DFT calculations as an efficient tool for prediction of Raman and infra-red spectra and activities of newly synthesized cathinones
  16. Influence of Chemical Osmosis on Solute Transport and Fluid Velocity in Clay Soils
  17. A New fatty acid and some triterpenoids from propolis of Nkambe (North-West Region, Cameroon) and evaluation of the antiradical scavenging activity of their extracts
  18. Antiplasmodial Activity of Stigmastane Steroids from Dryobalanops oblongifolia Stem Bark
  19. Rapid identification of direct-acting pancreatic protectants from Cyclocarya paliurus leaves tea by the method of serum pharmacochemistry combined with target cell extraction
  20. Immobilization of Pseudomonas aeruginosa static biomass on eggshell powder for on-line preconcentration and determination of Cr (VI)
  21. Assessment of methyl 2-({[(4,6-dimethoxypyrimidin-2-yl)carbamoyl] sulfamoyl}methyl)benzoate through biotic and abiotic degradation modes
  22. Stability of natural polyphenol fisetin in eye drops Stability of fisetin in eye drops
  23. Production of a bioflocculant by using activated sludge and its application in Pb(II) removal from aqueous solution
  24. Molecular Properties of Carbon Crystal Cubic Structures
  25. Synthesis and characterization of calcium carbonate whisker from yellow phosphorus slag
  26. Study on the interaction between catechin and cholesterol by the density functional theory
  27. Analysis of some pharmaceuticals in the presence of their synthetic impurities by applying hybrid micelle liquid chromatography
  28. Two mixed-ligand coordination polymers based on 2,5-thiophenedicarboxylic acid and flexible N-donor ligands: the protective effect on periodontitis via reducing the release of IL-1β and TNF-α
  29. Incorporation of silver stearate nanoparticles in methacrylate polymeric monoliths for hemeprotein isolation
  30. Development of ultrasound-assisted dispersive solid-phase microextraction based on mesoporous carbon coated with silica@iron oxide nanocomposite for preconcentration of Te and Tl in natural water systems
  31. N,N′-Bis[2-hydroxynaphthylidene]/[2-methoxybenzylidene]amino]oxamides and their divalent manganese complexes: Isolation, spectral characterization, morphology, antibacterial and cytotoxicity against leukemia cells
  32. Determination of the content of selected trace elements in Polish commercial fruit juices and health risk assessment
  33. Diorganotin(iv) benzyldithiocarbamate complexes: synthesis, characterization, and thermal and cytotoxicity study
  34. Keratin 17 is induced in prurigo nodularis lesions
  35. Anticancer, antioxidant, and acute toxicity studies of a Saudi polyherbal formulation, PHF5
  36. LaCoO3 perovskite-type catalysts in syngas conversion
  37. Comparative studies of two vegetal extracts from Stokesia laevis and Geranium pratense: polyphenol profile, cytotoxic effect and antiproliferative activity
  38. Fragmentation pattern of certain isatin–indole antiproliferative conjugates with application to identify their in vitro metabolic profiles in rat liver microsomes by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry
  39. Investigation of polyphenol profile, antioxidant activity and hepatoprotective potential of Aconogonon alpinum (All.) Schur roots
  40. Lead discovery of a guanidinyl tryptophan derivative on amyloid cascade inhibition
  41. Physicochemical evaluation of the fruit pulp of Opuntia spp growing in the Mediterranean area under hard climate conditions
  42. Electronic structural properties of amino/hydroxyl functionalized imidazolium-based bromide ionic liquids
  43. New Schiff bases of 2-(quinolin-8-yloxy)acetohydrazide and their Cu(ii), and Zn(ii) metal complexes: their in vitro antimicrobial potentials and in silico physicochemical and pharmacokinetics properties
  44. Treatment of adhesions after Achilles tendon injury using focused ultrasound with targeted bFGF plasmid-loaded cationic microbubbles
  45. Synthesis of orotic acid derivatives and their effects on stem cell proliferation
  46. Chirality of β2-agonists. An overview of pharmacological activity, stereoselective analysis, and synthesis
  47. Fe3O4@urea/HITh-SO3H as an efficient and reusable catalyst for the solvent-free synthesis of 7-aryl-8H-benzo[h]indeno[1,2-b]quinoline-8-one and indeno[2′,1′:5,6]pyrido[2,3-d]pyrimidine derivatives
  48. Adsorption kinetic characteristics of molybdenum in yellow-brown soil in response to pH and phosphate
  49. Enhancement of thermal properties of bio-based microcapsules intended for textile applications
  50. Exploring the effect of khat (Catha edulis) chewing on the pharmacokinetics of the antiplatelet drug clopidogrel in rats using the newly developed LC-MS/MS technique
  51. A green strategy for obtaining anthraquinones from Rheum tanguticum by subcritical water
  52. Cadmium (Cd) chloride affects the nutrient uptake and Cd-resistant bacterium reduces the adsorption of Cd in muskmelon plants
  53. Removal of H2S by vermicompost biofilter and analysis on bacterial community
  54. Structural cytotoxicity relationship of 2-phenoxy(thiomethyl)pyridotriazolopyrimidines: Quantum chemical calculations and statistical analysis
  55. A self-breaking supramolecular plugging system as lost circulation material in oilfield
  56. Synthesis, characterization, and pharmacological evaluation of thiourea derivatives
  57. Application of drug–metal ion interaction principle in conductometric determination of imatinib, sorafenib, gefitinib and bosutinib
  58. Synthesis and characterization of a novel chitosan-grafted-polyorthoethylaniline biocomposite and utilization for dye removal from water
  59. Optimisation of urine sample preparation for shotgun proteomics
  60. DFT investigations on arylsulphonyl pyrazole derivatives as potential ligands of selected kinases
  61. Treatment of Parkinson’s disease using focused ultrasound with GDNF retrovirus-loaded microbubbles to open the blood–brain barrier
  62. New derivatives of a natural nordentatin
  63. Fluorescence biomarkers of malignant melanoma detectable in urine
  64. Study of the remediation effects of passivation materials on Pb-contaminated soil
  65. Saliva proteomic analysis reveals possible biomarkers of renal cell carcinoma
  66. Withania frutescens: Chemical characterization, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and healing activities
  67. Design, synthesis and pharmacological profile of (−)-verbenone hydrazones
  68. Synthesis of magnesium carbonate hydrate from natural talc
  69. Stability-indicating HPLC-DAD assay for simultaneous quantification of hydrocortisone 21 acetate, dexamethasone, and fluocinolone acetonide in cosmetics
  70. A novel lactose biosensor based on electrochemically synthesized 3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene/thiophene (EDOT/Th) copolymer
  71. Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad: Chemical characterization, scavenging and cytotoxic activities
  72. Development and validation of a high performance liquid chromatography/diode array detection method for estrogen determination: Application to residual analysis in meat products
  73. PCSK9 concentrations in different stages of subclinical atherosclerosis and their relationship with inflammation
  74. Development of trace analysis for alkyl methanesulfonates in the delgocitinib drug substance using GC-FID and liquid–liquid extraction with ionic liquid
  75. Electrochemical evaluation of the antioxidant capacity of natural compounds on glassy carbon electrode modified with guanine-, polythionine-, and nitrogen-doped graphene
  76. A Dy(iii)–organic framework as a fluorescent probe for highly selective detection of picric acid and treatment activity on human lung cancer cells
  77. A Zn(ii)–organic cage with semirigid ligand for solvent-free cyanosilylation and inhibitory effect on ovarian cancer cell migration and invasion ability via regulating mi-RNA16 expression
  78. Polyphenol content and antioxidant activities of Prunus padus L. and Prunus serotina L. leaves: Electrochemical and spectrophotometric approach and their antimicrobial properties
  79. The combined use of GC, PDSC and FT-IR techniques to characterize fat extracted from commercial complete dry pet food for adult cats
  80. MALDI-TOF MS profiling in the discovery and identification of salivary proteomic patterns of temporomandibular joint disorders
  81. Concentrations of dioxins, furans and dioxin-like PCBs in natural animal feed additives
  82. Structure and some physicochemical and functional properties of water treated under ammonia with low-temperature low-pressure glow plasma of low frequency
  83. Mesoscale nanoparticles encapsulated with emodin for targeting antifibrosis in animal models
  84. Amine-functionalized magnetic activated carbon as an adsorbent for preconcentration and determination of acidic drugs in environmental water samples using HPLC-DAD
  85. Antioxidant activity as a response to cadmium pollution in three durum wheat genotypes differing in salt-tolerance
  86. A promising naphthoquinone [8-hydroxy-2-(2-thienylcarbonyl)naphtho[2,3-b]thiophene-4,9-dione] exerts anti-colorectal cancer activity through ferroptosis and inhibition of MAPK signaling pathway based on RNA sequencing
  87. Synthesis and efficacy of herbicidal ionic liquids with chlorsulfuron as the anion
  88. Effect of isovalent substitution on the crystal structure and properties of two-slab indates BaLa2−xSmxIn2O7
  89. Synthesis, spectral and thermo-kinetics explorations of Schiff-base derived metal complexes
  90. An improved reduction method for phase stability testing in the single-phase region
  91. Comparative analysis of chemical composition of some commercially important fishes with an emphasis on various Malaysian diets
  92. Development of a solventless stir bar sorptive extraction/thermal desorption large volume injection capillary gas chromatographic-mass spectrometric method for ultra-trace determination of pyrethroids pesticides in river and tap water samples
  93. A turbidity sensor development based on NL-PI observers: Experimental application to the control of a Sinaloa’s River Spirulina maxima cultivation
  94. Deep desulfurization of sintering flue gas in iron and steel works based on low-temperature oxidation
  95. Investigations of metallic elements and phenolics in Chinese medicinal plants
  96. Influence of site-classification approach on geochemical background values
  97. Effects of ageing on the surface characteristics and Cu(ii) adsorption behaviour of rice husk biochar in soil
  98. Adsorption and sugarcane-bagasse-derived activated carbon-based mitigation of 1-[2-(2-chloroethoxy)phenyl]sulfonyl-3-(4-methoxy-6-methyl-1,3,5-triazin-2-yl) urea-contaminated soils
  99. Antimicrobial and antifungal activities of bifunctional cooper(ii) complexes with non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, flufenamic, mefenamic and tolfenamic acids and 1,10-phenanthroline
  100. Application of selenium and silicon to alleviate short-term drought stress in French marigold (Tagetes patula L.) as a model plant species
  101. Screening and analysis of xanthine oxidase inhibitors in jute leaves and their protective effects against hydrogen peroxide-induced oxidative stress in cells
  102. Synthesis and physicochemical studies of a series of mixed-ligand transition metal complexes and their molecular docking investigations against Coronavirus main protease
  103. A study of in vitro metabolism and cytotoxicity of mephedrone and methoxetamine in human and pig liver models using GC/MS and LC/MS analyses
  104. A new phenyl alkyl ester and a new combretin triterpene derivative from Combretum fragrans F. Hoffm (Combretaceae) and antiproliferative activity
  105. Erratum
  106. Erratum to: A one-step incubation ELISA kit for rapid determination of dibutyl phthalate in water, beverage and liquor
  107. Review Articles
  108. Sinoporphyrin sodium, a novel sensitizer for photodynamic and sonodynamic therapy
  109. Natural products isolated from Casimiroa
  110. Plant description, phytochemical constituents and bioactivities of Syzygium genus: A review
  111. Evaluation of elastomeric heat shielding materials as insulators for solid propellant rocket motors: A short review
  112. Special Issue on Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology 2019
  113. An overview of Monascus fermentation processes for monacolin K production
  114. Study on online soft sensor method of total sugar content in chlorotetracycline fermentation tank
  115. Studies on the Anti-Gouty Arthritis and Anti-hyperuricemia Properties of Astilbin in Animal Models
  116. Effects of organic fertilizer on water use, photosynthetic characteristics, and fruit quality of pear jujube in northern Shaanxi
  117. Characteristics of the root exudate release system of typical plants in plateau lakeside wetland under phosphorus stress conditions
  118. Characterization of soil water by the means of hydrogen and oxygen isotope ratio at dry-wet season under different soil layers in the dry-hot valley of Jinsha River
  119. Composition and diurnal variation of floral scent emission in Rosa rugosa Thunb. and Tulipa gesneriana L.
  120. Preparation of a novel ginkgolide B niosomal composite drug
  121. The degradation, biodegradability and toxicity evaluation of sulfamethazine antibiotics by gamma radiation
  122. Special issue on Monitoring, Risk Assessment and Sustainable Management for the Exposure to Environmental Toxins
  123. Insight into the cadmium and zinc binding potential of humic acids derived from composts by EEM spectra combined with PARAFAC analysis
  124. Source apportionment of soil contamination based on multivariate receptor and robust geostatistics in a typical rural–urban area, Wuhan city, middle China
  125. Special Issue on 13th JCC 2018
  126. The Role of H2C2O4 and Na2CO3 as Precipitating Agents on The Physichochemical Properties and Photocatalytic Activity of Bismuth Oxide
  127. Preparation of magnetite-silica–cetyltrimethylammonium for phenol removal based on adsolubilization
  128. Topical Issue on Agriculture
  129. Size-dependent growth kinetics of struvite crystals in wastewater with calcium ions
  130. The effect of silica-calcite sedimentary rock contained in the chicken broiler diet on the overall quality of chicken muscles
  131. Physicochemical properties of selected herbicidal products containing nicosulfuron as an active ingredient
  132. Lycopene in tomatoes and tomato products
  133. Fluorescence in the assessment of the share of a key component in the mixing of feed
  134. Sulfur application alleviates chromium stress in maize and wheat
  135. Effectiveness of removal of sulphur compounds from the air after 3 years of biofiltration with a mixture of compost soil, peat, coconut fibre and oak bark
  136. Special Issue on the 4th Green Chemistry 2018
  137. Study and fire test of banana fibre reinforced composites with flame retardance properties
  138. Special Issue on the International conference CosCI 2018
  139. Disintegration, In vitro Dissolution, and Drug Release Kinetics Profiles of k-Carrageenan-based Nutraceutical Hard-shell Capsules Containing Salicylamide
  140. Synthesis of amorphous aluminosilicate from impure Indonesian kaolin
  141. Special Issue on the International Conf on Science, Applied Science, Teaching and Education 2019
  142. Functionalization of Congo red dye as a light harvester on solar cell
  143. The effect of nitrite food preservatives added to se’i meat on the expression of wild-type p53 protein
  144. Biocompatibility and osteoconductivity of scaffold porous composite collagen–hydroxyapatite based coral for bone regeneration
  145. Special Issue on the Joint Science Congress of Materials and Polymers (ISCMP 2019)
  146. Effect of natural boron mineral use on the essential oil ratio and components of Musk Sage (Salvia sclarea L.)
  147. A theoretical and experimental study of the adsorptive removal of hexavalent chromium ions using graphene oxide as an adsorbent
  148. A study on the bacterial adhesion of Streptococcus mutans in various dental ceramics: In vitro study
  149. Corrosion study of copper in aqueous sulfuric acid solution in the presence of (2E,5E)-2,5-dibenzylidenecyclopentanone and (2E,5E)-bis[(4-dimethylamino)benzylidene]cyclopentanone: Experimental and theoretical study
  150. Special Issue on Chemistry Today for Tomorrow 2019
  151. Diabetes mellitus type 2: Exploratory data analysis based on clinical reading
  152. Multivariate analysis for the classification of copper–lead and copper–zinc glasses
  153. Special Issue on Advances in Chemistry and Polymers
  154. The spatial and temporal distribution of cationic and anionic radicals in early embryo implantation
  155. Special Issue on 3rd IC3PE 2020
  156. Magnetic iron oxide/clay nanocomposites for adsorption and catalytic oxidation in water treatment applications
  157. Special Issue on IC3PE 2018/2019 Conference
  158. Exergy analysis of conventional and hydrothermal liquefaction–esterification processes of microalgae for biodiesel production
  159. Advancing biodiesel production from microalgae Spirulina sp. by a simultaneous extraction–transesterification process using palm oil as a co-solvent of methanol
  160. Topical Issue on Applications of Mathematics in Chemistry
  161. Omega and the related counting polynomials of some chemical structures
  162. M-polynomial and topological indices of zigzag edge coronoid fused by starphene
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