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Investigations of metallic elements and phenolics in Chinese medicinal plants

  • Pawel Konieczynski EMAIL logo , Aleksej Zarkov , Agnieszka Viapiana , Mateusz Kaszuba , Lukasz Bielski and Marek Wesolowski
Published/Copyright: November 27, 2020
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Open Chemistry
From the journal Open Chemistry Volume 18 Issue 1

Abstract

Traditional Chinese Medicines (TCM) can be contaminated with heavy metals, and therefore, the aim of this study is to analyze the Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, Cd, Pb, Cr, and phenolic compounds contents in TCM plants used against civilization diseases. Metals were determined by flame atomic absorption spectroscopy (FAAS) for Fe, Mn, Zn, and Cu and inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES) for Pb, Cd, and Cr. The total phenolic, flavonoid, and phenolic acid contents were determined by HPLC and UV/vis spectrometry. The contents of the studied elements were highest in Radix Rehmanniae, whereas lowest in Fructus Lycii and Fructus Crataegi. The studied metals were assayed in the decreasing order: Fe, Zn, Mn, Cu, Cr, Pb, and Cd. Radix Rehmanniae Glutinosae Preparata showed the lowest phenolic composition, while Fructus Lycii showed the richest content. Principal component analysis (PCA) revealed that the contents of ferulic acid, caffeic acid, rutin, and Cu, Cr, and Cd were among the most important factors responsible for the differentiation between the investigated medicinal plants. Cluster analysis (CA) showed that the TCM samples originating from the same botanical plant species were often found in the same cluster, which confirms the similar level of studied elements determined within the samples.

Graphical abstract

Keywords: TCM; civilization diseases; metallic elements; phenolics; statistical methods

1 Introduction

Natural drugs prepared from medicinal plants have been known in human populations for centuries. There is written evidence that in China, several plants have been used to treat various diseases, dating back to 5,000 BC [1]. Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) comprises the use of not only herbs, but also animal parts and minerals, in addition to acupuncture, physical exercise, and special diets. Therefore, the need to standardize medicinal plant materials used in TCM is growing [2].

Currently, in modern society, there is an increasing tendency to fight against a growing number of civilization diseases. A literature report stated that “civilization diseases kill and invalidate more people than all wars and ethnic conflicts” [3]. As consequences of civilization development, many diseases have appeared in higher numbers, such as hypertension, insomnia, stress, alcoholism, obesity, allergies, mental disorders including depression, and diabetes [4]. The use of TCM may help to act against civilization stress and/or to prevent humans from numerous diseases mentioned above.

Among TCMs used against civilization diseases are goji berries and hawthorn fruits. Goji berries are recommended for weakness in organisms because they increase yin according to TCM principles, have a positive impact on the eyes, and contain significant amounts of microelements, such as Mn [1]. Hawthorn fruits support blood circulation, release phlegm, and are used as agents to provide sweet and sour tastes to food [1]. Fleece flower roots have been applied in TCM to nourish blood and yin, stimulate the intestines, and eliminate itching of the skin and they are believed to rejuvenate humans and help with sexual problems, especially erection [1]. Rehmanniae roots nourish yin and stimulate the secretion of body fluids, improve blood parameters, and decrease side effects during chemotherapy, and they are applied for exasperation and insomnia. These roots also decrease fever and are used to reduce flushing of the face caused by malaria [1]. Numerous studies have examined the total levels of essential and toxic elements in Chinese medicinal plants and tea samples, including several speciation analyses, performed mainly by applications of analytical techniques, such as atomic absorption or emission spectroscopy, and by the use of inductively coupled plasma as the excitement source [5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12].

A problem of the application of TCMs has been associated with their contamination with heavy metals and organic compounds. This can pose a severe risk to human health. Recent studies investigated TCMs in terms of their contamination with metallic elements [13] and pesticides [14,15].

Phenolic compounds are phytochemicals with both well-known functional and health-promoting properties [16,17]. They have been mainly considered as secondary plant metabolites and are among the largest classes of bioactive compounds containing one or more aromatic rings along with one or more hydroxyl groups in their backbone structure [18,19,20]. They are classified into various groups of phenolic acids, flavonoids, tannins, and their hydrolyzed products, as well as derivatives. Phenolic compounds are acknowledged as strong natural antioxidants having key role in wide range of biological and pharmacological properties such as anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antimicrobial, antiallergic, antiviral, antithrombotic, hepatoprotective, food additive, signaling molecules, and many more [21,22].

Taking this into consideration, the aim of the study was to quantitatively analyze the concentrations of Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, Cd, Pb, and Cr as well as phenolic compounds in medicinal plant materials originating from China that are used against civilization diseases. Fe, Mn, Zn, and Cu are indispensable elements for human organism, and Cd, Pb, and Cr are the most common toxic elements; therefore, these elements were determined. The study was also undertaken to find TCMs rich in the analyzed elements and to monitor the levels of toxic elements contained within them.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Preparation of samples prior to analysis

TCM products were purchased from importing companies in dry form, as shown in Table 1, ground using a sample mill (Foss Tecator, Sweden), and kept in glass jars in dark until analysis. Next, the TCM materials were digested with a microwave digestion unit (Jupiter B, Sineo, China) and the following digestion program: step I – 150°C, 10 min; step II – 160°C, 5 min; step III – 180°C, 5 min; and step IV – 190°C, 15 min. The digestion mixture consisted of 11 mL of a concentrated HNO3 solution + 1 mL of a 30% H2O2 solution for 0.5 g of plant sample. Each TCM sample was digested and later analyzed in triplicate (three samples were obtained from the same plant: therefore, n = 3).

Table 1

The list of TCM materials under analysis

Sample no.Chinese name (pin yin)Latin nameEnglish nameOriginImporter
1Gou Qi ZiFructus LyciiGoji berry (wolfberry)ChinaCMC Polska, Brzeg, Poland
2Shan Zha (Sheng)Fructus CrataegiHawthorn fruitChina, ShandongCMC Polska, Brzeg, Poland
3He Shou Wu (Sheng)Radix Polygoni MultifloriFleeceflower rootChina, SichuanMedboom, Green Nature, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
4He Shou Wu (Sheng)Radix Polygoni Multiflori
5He Shou Wu (Zhi)Radix Polygoni Multiflori preparataFleeceflower root (prepared)China, SichuanMedboom, Green Nature, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
6He Shou Wu (Zhi)Radix Polygoni Multiflori preparata
7Di Huang (Sheng)Radix Rehmanniae GlutinosaeRehmannia rootChinaCMC Polska, Brzeg, Poland
8Di Huang (Shu)Radix Rehmanniae Glutinosae preparataRehmannia root (prepared)ChinaCMC Polska, Brzeg, Poland

2.2 Determination of the elements

The contents of four essential elements, namely, Fe, Mn, Zn, and Cu, were determined in the obtained digests by the flame atomic absorption technique (SpectrAA 250 Plus, Varian, Australia) using standard analytical procedures and an external calibration method. An air–acetylene mixture was used during the measurements along with the following analytical wavelengths (nm) for the particular metallic elements: 248 (Fe), 280 (Mn), 214 (Zn), and 325 (Cu).

The other analyzed elements (Pb, Cd, and Cr) were assayed by the inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES) technique using a PerkinElmer Optima 7000DV and inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometer.

2.3 HPLC analysis

The chromatographic separation and quantitation of the phenolic compounds were performed on a Hypersil Gold C18 column (250 × 4.6 mm, 5 µm particles) (Thermo Scientific, Runcorn, UK), maintained at 25°C, using acetonitrile–0.1% acetic acid solution (solvent A) and a water–0.1% acetic acid solution (solvent B) as the mobile phase [23]. The separation was performed at a constant flow rate (1 mL/min) with the following conditions: linear gradient from 5 to 25% of A in 30 min, from 25 to 40% in 10 min, from 40 to 63% in 10 min, and from 65 to 5% in 10 min. The absorbance was monitored at 280 nm for gallic acid; 320 nm for caffeic, chlorogenic, and ferulic acids; and 370 nm for quercetin and rutin. Chromatographic separation of selected phenolic compounds is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1 HPLC profile of the extract prepared from Fructus Crataegi (samples no. 2) recorded with UV-Vis detector: for gallic acid (5.12 min, GA), chlorogenic acid (7.54 min, CGA), caffeic acid (8.85 min, CGA), ferulic acid (25.76 min, FA), rutin (27.98 min, RUT), and quercetin (30.89 min, Q).
Figure 1

HPLC profile of the extract prepared from Fructus Crataegi (samples no. 2) recorded with UV-Vis detector: for gallic acid (5.12 min, GA), chlorogenic acid (7.54 min, CGA), caffeic acid (8.85 min, CGA), ferulic acid (25.76 min, FA), rutin (27.98 min, RUT), and quercetin (30.89 min, Q).

Identification of the analytes was based on comparison of the retention times to those of their standard compounds. Additionally, a selected sample was spiked with the standard compounds and analyzed again. Calibration curves of known concentrations (10–100 µg/mL) for each phenolic standard were used to estimate the phenolic compound contents.

2.4 Total phenolic content

The Total phenolic content (TPC) of the white mulberry extracts was determined using the Folin–Ciocalteu method as previously described by Singleton [24] with some modifications. Briefly, an appropriate amount of the extract was mixed with 0.4 mL of Folin–Ciocalteu reagent. The mixture was left to settle for 3 min, and then 2 mL of 7% (w/v) Na2CO3 solution was added followed by incubation in the dark at room temperature for 1 h. The absorbance of the mixture was measured at 760 nm using an SP-870 Metertek UV-Vis spectrophotometer (South Korea). The gallic acid calibration curve (0.1–0.154 mg/mL) was used to express the results as milligrams of gallic acid equivalents (GAE) per gram of dry weight (mg GAE/g DW).

2.5 Total flavonoid content

The total flavonoid content (TFC) of the TCMs extracts was determined according to the method described in the European Pharmacopeia [25] with some modifications. An appropriate amount of the extract was mixed with 0.1 mL of 5% (w/v) AlCl3 solution. The mixture was incubated for 30 min in the dark at room temperature and the absorbance was then measured at 430 nm using an SP-870 Metertek UV-Vis spectrophotometer (South Korea). The TFC is expressed in milligrams of quercetin equivalents (QE) per gram of dry weight (mg QE/g DW) using a calibration curve constructed from quercetin standard solutions (5–50 µg/mL).

2.6 Total phenolic acid content

The procedure described in the Polish Pharmacopeia VI [26] was used for Total phenolic acid content (TPAC) determination with Arnov’s reagent. An appropriate amount of the extract was mixed with 0.2 mL of 0.5 M HCl, 0.2 mL of Arnov’s reagent, and 0.2 mL of 1 M NaOH. The absorbance was measured at 490 nm using an SP-870 Metertek UV-Vis spectrophotometer (South Korea). The results are expressed in milligrams of caffeic acid equivalents (CAE) per gram of dry weight (mg CAE/g DW) based on a calibration curve constructed for caffeic acid (5–40 µg/mL).

For statistical evaluation of experimental data, the Statistica 7.1 program (Tulsa, USA) was used.

  1. Ethical approval: The conducted research is not related to either human or animal use.

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Metallic element determination

The metallic element determination results are presented in Tables 2 and 3. The first table shows the range of concentrations of the elements in all 8 TCM materials together with their basic evaluation, including values such as the arithmetic mean, median, standard deviation (SD), and relative standard deviation (RSD). Based on these data, the order in which the studied metals were assayed was as follows: Fe, Zn, Mn, Cu, Cr, Pb, and Cd, taking into consideration both the mean and median values. The SD calculated for the determination of Fe together with the RSD value for this element showed large difference between the Fe levels in TCM analyzed samples. This fact is supported by Figure 2, which presents the average concentration of iron in all samples. The Fe content was the highest among all samples in Radix Rehmanniae, especially Rehmanniae preparata, where its content was determined to be approximately 780 mg/kg of dry weight (DW). The levels of the other metallic elements did not show as wide a spread among the studied samples; therefore, the results were presented graphically only for that microelement.

Table 2

Statistical evaluation of results of metals determination using flame atomic absorption spectroscopy (FAAS) (a) and ICP-OES (b). Concentrations are shown as mg/kg DW (n = 3)

ElementRangeArithmetic meanMedianSDRSD [%]
Fea66.39–778.44216.10135.31236.72109.5
Zna16.50–31.3323.6022.875.2322.2
Mna2.12–17.278.056.706.2777.9
Cua1.38–5.272.581.751.5660.5
Pbb0.67–2.911.221.050.7259.0
Cdb0.09–0.250.160.150.0637.5
Crb0.61–9.362.541.612.83111.4
Table 3

Results of elements determination. The arithmetic mean [mg/kg DW] ± SD is given (n = 3)

Sample no.Latin nameFeaMnaZnaCuaPbbCdbCrb
1Fructus Lycii80.05 ± 2.7516.47 ± 2.4622.07 ± 0.665.27 ± 0.690.93 ± 0.050.19 ± 0.010.61 ± 0.05
2Fructus Crataegi66.39 ± 8.962.12 ± 0.3623.67 ± 1.324.82 ± 0.222.91 ± 0.050.09 ± 0.022.82 ± 0.05
3Radix Polygoni Multiflori98.32 ± 5.099.77 ± 0.6228.63 ± 2.331.76 ± 0.180.67 ± 0.060.25 ± 0.011.06 ± 0.06
4Radix Polygoni Multiflori155.65 ± 2.0010.29 ± 1.9227.70 ± 2.451.74 ± 0.171.13 ± 0.080.13 ± 0.021.56 ± 0.06
5Radix Polygoni Multiflori preparata119.19 ± 2.436.97 ± 0.4516.50 ± 0.971.66 ± 0.261.32 ± 0.050.21 ± 0.011.65 ± 0.06
6Radix Polygoni Multiflori preparata151.43 ± 8.236.41 ± 1.2218.31 ± 1.591.38 ± 0.261.19 ± 0.060.18 ± 0.011.22 ± 0.05
7Radix Rehmanniae Glutinosae279.36 ± 12.434.86 ± 0.2320.59 ± 2.751.59 ± 0.060.97 ± 0.080.11 ± 0.012.06 ± 0.05
8Radix Rehmanniae Glutinosae preparata778.44 ± 17.3917.27 ± 2.0831.33 ± 4.752.41 ± 0.060.67 ± 0.070.10 ± 0.019.36 ± 0.05

Determined by using FAAS (a) and ICP-OES (b).

Figure 2 Fe content in the studied TCM materials [mg/kg DW].
Figure 2

Fe content in the studied TCM materials [mg/kg DW].

The results for the other TCM materials presented in Table 3 show that Fe levels above 100 mg/kg DW were found in the samples of Radix Polygoni multiflori preparata (samples 5 and 6) and in one sample of Radix Polygonii multiflori (sample 4). The lowest Fe concentration was determined in both fruits: 80.05 mg/kg DW in Fructus Lycii and 66.39 mg/kg DW in Fructus Crataegi. The highest Mn levels were found in Radix Rehmanniae preparata in an amount above 17 mg/kg DW and in Fructus Lycii at 16.47 mg/kg DW.

Zinc was found in all TCM samples at a more balanced level, from 16.50 mg/kg DW in Radix Polygoni multiflori preparata (sample 5) to 31.33 mg/kg DW in Radix Rehmanniae preparata (sample 8), as shown in Table 3. Taking the Cu level in all studied medicinal plant samples into consideration, the highest concentration of this microelement was found in TCM fruits: 5.27 mg/kg DW in Fructus Lycii and 4.82 mg/kg DW in Fructus Crataegi.

Table 3 shows that based on the concentrations of toxic elements (Pb, Cd, and Cr), the TCM material with the highest Pb level and the lowest Cr concentration was Fructus Lycii. The highest Cr level was found in Radix Rehmanniae preparata (sample 8), while the highest Cd concentration was determined to be in one sample of Radix Polygonii multiflori (sample 3). From Table 2, the difference between the mean and median values for Pb was not very large, and for Cd, these values were practically the same. However, in the case of Cr, the difference between the mean and median values was large, which points to a diversification in the level of this metal in the studied TCM materials.

Comparing the results of the metallic elements obtained in this study with other research, it can be stated that, for example, the Pb level determined in the TCMs in our study was approximately 2 times higher than that reported in Chinese medicinal plants, such as Angelica sinensis, Bacopa monnieri, Bupleurum sinensis, and others [27]. Previously reported cadmium concentration results, on the other hand, were found to be very similar to those found in our research, in amounts from less than 0.1 to above 0.2 mg/kg DW [27]. Another study on seabuckthorn leaves, a plant material used in TCM, showed that the Pb level was 1.8 mg/kg DW and the Cd level was 0.007 mg/kg DW, which is higher than the Pb concentration found in our study, but much lower than our results for Cd [28]. Further comparison of the results obtained for other metallic elements (Fe, Zn, Mn, and Cu) in our study with the levels of these elements determined by other researchers was carried out. For example, the Fe level in medicinal plants growing in Serbia ranged from less than 100 mg/kg DW to amounts above 300 mg/kg DW [28], which is quite similar to our study, with the exception of Radix Rehmanniae, where the Fe level was much higher. Next, the Zn, Mn, and Cu levels in Serbian medicinal plants [29] represent similar range of concentrations, as those determined in the TCM materials in our study, and the accumulation of metals depended on the analyzed plant species among other factors. These factors comprise climatic conditions, rainfall, contamination of soils with heavy metals, and other impacts of industrial or agricultural activity in the area of plant growth.

The correlation analysis revealed that the element that was most frequently correlated with other metals appeared to be iron. This element was highly correlated with the Cr and Pb levels in the studied TCM materials. The weaker correlation, with the correlation coefficients of approximately 0.5, was found for relations Fe–Zn and Fe–Mn. Analysis of other correlations revealed that Cu was negatively correlated with Pb and Cd levels. Zn was positively correlated with the Cr concentration, and Mn was negatively correlated with Cd. It must be stressed that in earlier research, several significant correlations were also found between the levels of essential elements, including Mn–Zn and other pairs of metallic elements crucial for biochemical transitions in living organisms [30,31]. These correlations point to the cooperation of metal ions in the physiological processes that occur in plants [32].

3.2 Phenolic compound analysis

Since polyphenols are considered among the most biologically active constituents that contribute greatly to antioxidant activity, the TPC, TFC, and TPAC in the studied Chinese medicinal plants were determined. The results shown in Table 4 reveal that the TPCs ranged from 0.58 (sample 8) to 3.91 mg GAE/g DW (sample 1), while the TFCs and TPACs were 0.66 mg QE/g DW and 1.31 mg CAE/g DW, respectively. In all cases, sample 8 (Radix Rehmanniae Glutinosae Preparata) displayed the lowest TPC, while sample 1 (Fructus Lycii) had the highest TPC. The TPCs, TFCs, and TPACs obtained in this study differ from those in the literature. Lin et al. [33] found higher TPCs in the extracts of Crataegi Fructus, Polygoni Multiflori Radix, and Lycii Fructus at 11.43, 4,580, and 6,172 µmol GAE/100 g DW, respectively. Kostic et al. [34] detected TPCs and TFCs in the extracts of Crataegus oxycantha L. in the range of 2.12 to 30.63 mg GAE/g fresh sample and 0.556 to 0.990 mg QE/g fresh sample, respectively. These results are in agreement with those obtained in this study.

Table 4

Results of analysis of phenolic compounds

SampleGARUTFACACGAQTPCTFCTPAC
µg/gmg GAE/gmg QE/gmg CAE/g
1664.1488.986.6834.9246.40320.873.911.645.55
2874.4986.878.4556.9456.97538.112.810.981.28
396.1577.693.5720.266.19124.532.550.651.25
4230.6880.463.7421.474.14113.902.620.640.70
5289.5380.693.5721.605.09200.721.380.420.87
6368.0180.553.6321.136.64241.611.030.410.43
7519.3881.764.1621.8743.68211.340.770.380.37
8474.8181.944.1922.1843.68301.370.580.120.20

GA – gallic acid; RUT – rutin; FA – ferulic acid; CA – caffeic acid, CGA – chlorogenic acid; Q – quercetin; TPC – total phenolic contents; TFC – total flavonoid contents; TPAC – total phenolic acid contents.

Based on the data summarized in Table 4, the concentrations of phenolic acids and flavonoids in the Chinese medicinal plants can be represented in the following order: gallic acid > quercetin > rutin > caffeic acid > chlorogenic acid > ferulic acid. Among the analyzed samples, sample 1 was the richest in determined phenolic constituents. Magiera and Zareba [35] found lower levels of rutin, ferulic acid, and caffeic acid in Lycium barbarum L. fruits, ranging from 2.24 to 11.5, from 10.2 to 27.0, and from 5.45 to 12.3 µg/g DW, respectively.

3.3 Statistical evaluation of the results

To achieve a more complex interpretation of the obtained TCM metallic element concentration results, cluster analysis (CA) and principal component analysis (PCA) were applied. As indicated by earlier studies, these statistical methods can help to answer many questions that arise when a relatively large dataset must be interpreted [30,31]. Moreover, these methods can be useful for the classification of the studied TCM materials and in searching for the elements that are mostly responsible for the differentiation of the studied medicinal plant material. The CA results shown in Figure 3 clearly present the linkage of the studied plant samples based on their elemental content similarity. On the left portion of the dendrogram presented in Figure 3, it can be noted that both Radix Rehmanniae glutinosae samples, especially sample 8 (Radix Rehmanniae preparata), are well-separated from the other. This is due to the high Fe level in this TCM. On the other hand, in the right portion of the dendrogram, two samples (1 and 2) representing the analyzed fruits – Fructus Lycii and Fructus Crataegi, are grouped into one cluster, which illustrates their similar elemental contents.

Figure 3 CA dendrogram for the studied TCM materials obtained based on their metallic elements content.
Figure 3

CA dendrogram for the studied TCM materials obtained based on their metallic elements content.

PCA has confirmed the tendencies noticed in the CA results of the studied TCMs. The distribution of samples shown in Figure 4 indicates characteristic TCM materials. For example, in the left area of the two-dimensional plots, PC1 and PC2, there are two characteristic plant materials, Fructus Lycii and Fructus Crataegi. All four samples of Radix Polygoni multiflori are located in the right lower corner of the plot. In the right upper portion of the plot, there is Radix Rehmanniae preparata sample, which is very much well-separated from the other TCMs, and below there is Radix Rehmanniae sample. These observations are similar to those observed in the CA plot. PCA also revealed that the contents of ferulic acid, caffeic acid, rutin, Cu, and Cd, associated with PC1, and Cr and Fe, associated with PC2, were among the most important factors responsible for the differentiation among the investigated medicinal plants. These results are shown in Figure 5.

Figure 4 PCA score plot obtained for the studied TCM materials in two-dimensional plain PC1 and PC2.
Figure 4

PCA score plot obtained for the studied TCM materials in two-dimensional plain PC1 and PC2.

Figure 5 PCA loading plot obtained for the studied TCM materials in two-dimensional plain W1 and W2.
Figure 5

PCA loading plot obtained for the studied TCM materials in two-dimensional plain W1 and W2.

4 Conclusions

This study on selected TCMs used against civilization diseases enabled the selection of medicinal products rich in the studied elements – Radix Rehmanniae and Radix Rehmanniae preparata, and one product containing high amounts of phenolics – Fructus Lycii. PCA also revealed that the contents of ferulic acid, caffeic acid, rutin, Cu, Cr, and Cd were among the most important factors responsible for the differentiation of the investigated medicinal plant materials.

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  1. Conflict of interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Received: 2020-05-25
Revised: 2020-09-17
Accepted: 2020-09-27
Published Online: 2020-11-27

© 2020 Pawel Konieczynski et al., published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Regular Articles
  2. Electrochemical antioxidant screening and evaluation based on guanine and chitosan immobilized MoS2 nanosheet modified glassy carbon electrode (guanine/CS/MoS2/GCE)
  3. Kinetic models of the extraction of vanillic acid from pumpkin seeds
  4. On the maximum ABC index of bipartite graphs without pendent vertices
  5. Estimation of the total antioxidant potential in the meat samples using thin-layer chromatography
  6. Molecular dynamics simulation of sI methane hydrate under compression and tension
  7. Spatial distribution and potential ecological risk assessment of some trace elements in sediments and grey mangrove (Avicennia marina) along the Arabian Gulf coast, Saudi Arabia
  8. Amino-functionalized graphene oxide for Cr(VI), Cu(II), Pb(II) and Cd(II) removal from industrial wastewater
  9. Chemical composition and in vitro activity of Origanum vulgare L., Satureja hortensis L., Thymus serpyllum L. and Thymus vulgaris L. essential oils towards oral isolates of Candida albicans and Candida glabrata
  10. Effect of excess Fluoride consumption on Urine-Serum Fluorides, Dental state and Thyroid Hormones among children in “Talab Sarai” Punjab Pakistan
  11. Design, Synthesis and Characterization of Novel Isoxazole Tagged Indole Hybrid Compounds
  12. Comparison of kinetic and enzymatic properties of intracellular phosphoserine aminotransferases from alkaliphilic and neutralophilic bacteria
  13. Green Organic Solvent-Free Oxidation of Alkylarenes with tert-Butyl Hydroperoxide Catalyzed by Water-Soluble Copper Complex
  14. Ducrosia ismaelis Asch. essential oil: chemical composition profile and anticancer, antimicrobial and antioxidant potential assessment
  15. DFT calculations as an efficient tool for prediction of Raman and infra-red spectra and activities of newly synthesized cathinones
  16. Influence of Chemical Osmosis on Solute Transport and Fluid Velocity in Clay Soils
  17. A New fatty acid and some triterpenoids from propolis of Nkambe (North-West Region, Cameroon) and evaluation of the antiradical scavenging activity of their extracts
  18. Antiplasmodial Activity of Stigmastane Steroids from Dryobalanops oblongifolia Stem Bark
  19. Rapid identification of direct-acting pancreatic protectants from Cyclocarya paliurus leaves tea by the method of serum pharmacochemistry combined with target cell extraction
  20. Immobilization of Pseudomonas aeruginosa static biomass on eggshell powder for on-line preconcentration and determination of Cr (VI)
  21. Assessment of methyl 2-({[(4,6-dimethoxypyrimidin-2-yl)carbamoyl] sulfamoyl}methyl)benzoate through biotic and abiotic degradation modes
  22. Stability of natural polyphenol fisetin in eye drops Stability of fisetin in eye drops
  23. Production of a bioflocculant by using activated sludge and its application in Pb(II) removal from aqueous solution
  24. Molecular Properties of Carbon Crystal Cubic Structures
  25. Synthesis and characterization of calcium carbonate whisker from yellow phosphorus slag
  26. Study on the interaction between catechin and cholesterol by the density functional theory
  27. Analysis of some pharmaceuticals in the presence of their synthetic impurities by applying hybrid micelle liquid chromatography
  28. Two mixed-ligand coordination polymers based on 2,5-thiophenedicarboxylic acid and flexible N-donor ligands: the protective effect on periodontitis via reducing the release of IL-1β and TNF-α
  29. Incorporation of silver stearate nanoparticles in methacrylate polymeric monoliths for hemeprotein isolation
  30. Development of ultrasound-assisted dispersive solid-phase microextraction based on mesoporous carbon coated with silica@iron oxide nanocomposite for preconcentration of Te and Tl in natural water systems
  31. N,N′-Bis[2-hydroxynaphthylidene]/[2-methoxybenzylidene]amino]oxamides and their divalent manganese complexes: Isolation, spectral characterization, morphology, antibacterial and cytotoxicity against leukemia cells
  32. Determination of the content of selected trace elements in Polish commercial fruit juices and health risk assessment
  33. Diorganotin(iv) benzyldithiocarbamate complexes: synthesis, characterization, and thermal and cytotoxicity study
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  35. Anticancer, antioxidant, and acute toxicity studies of a Saudi polyherbal formulation, PHF5
  36. LaCoO3 perovskite-type catalysts in syngas conversion
  37. Comparative studies of two vegetal extracts from Stokesia laevis and Geranium pratense: polyphenol profile, cytotoxic effect and antiproliferative activity
  38. Fragmentation pattern of certain isatin–indole antiproliferative conjugates with application to identify their in vitro metabolic profiles in rat liver microsomes by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry
  39. Investigation of polyphenol profile, antioxidant activity and hepatoprotective potential of Aconogonon alpinum (All.) Schur roots
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  41. Physicochemical evaluation of the fruit pulp of Opuntia spp growing in the Mediterranean area under hard climate conditions
  42. Electronic structural properties of amino/hydroxyl functionalized imidazolium-based bromide ionic liquids
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  65. Saliva proteomic analysis reveals possible biomarkers of renal cell carcinoma
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https://doi.org/10.1515/chem-2020-0130
Keywords for this article
TCM; civilization diseases; metallic elements; phenolics; statistical methods
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Regular Articles
  2. Electrochemical antioxidant screening and evaluation based on guanine and chitosan immobilized MoS2 nanosheet modified glassy carbon electrode (guanine/CS/MoS2/GCE)
  3. Kinetic models of the extraction of vanillic acid from pumpkin seeds
  4. On the maximum ABC index of bipartite graphs without pendent vertices
  5. Estimation of the total antioxidant potential in the meat samples using thin-layer chromatography
  6. Molecular dynamics simulation of sI methane hydrate under compression and tension
  7. Spatial distribution and potential ecological risk assessment of some trace elements in sediments and grey mangrove (Avicennia marina) along the Arabian Gulf coast, Saudi Arabia
  8. Amino-functionalized graphene oxide for Cr(VI), Cu(II), Pb(II) and Cd(II) removal from industrial wastewater
  9. Chemical composition and in vitro activity of Origanum vulgare L., Satureja hortensis L., Thymus serpyllum L. and Thymus vulgaris L. essential oils towards oral isolates of Candida albicans and Candida glabrata
  10. Effect of excess Fluoride consumption on Urine-Serum Fluorides, Dental state and Thyroid Hormones among children in “Talab Sarai” Punjab Pakistan
  11. Design, Synthesis and Characterization of Novel Isoxazole Tagged Indole Hybrid Compounds
  12. Comparison of kinetic and enzymatic properties of intracellular phosphoserine aminotransferases from alkaliphilic and neutralophilic bacteria
  13. Green Organic Solvent-Free Oxidation of Alkylarenes with tert-Butyl Hydroperoxide Catalyzed by Water-Soluble Copper Complex
  14. Ducrosia ismaelis Asch. essential oil: chemical composition profile and anticancer, antimicrobial and antioxidant potential assessment
  15. DFT calculations as an efficient tool for prediction of Raman and infra-red spectra and activities of newly synthesized cathinones
  16. Influence of Chemical Osmosis on Solute Transport and Fluid Velocity in Clay Soils
  17. A New fatty acid and some triterpenoids from propolis of Nkambe (North-West Region, Cameroon) and evaluation of the antiradical scavenging activity of their extracts
  18. Antiplasmodial Activity of Stigmastane Steroids from Dryobalanops oblongifolia Stem Bark
  19. Rapid identification of direct-acting pancreatic protectants from Cyclocarya paliurus leaves tea by the method of serum pharmacochemistry combined with target cell extraction
  20. Immobilization of Pseudomonas aeruginosa static biomass on eggshell powder for on-line preconcentration and determination of Cr (VI)
  21. Assessment of methyl 2-({[(4,6-dimethoxypyrimidin-2-yl)carbamoyl] sulfamoyl}methyl)benzoate through biotic and abiotic degradation modes
  22. Stability of natural polyphenol fisetin in eye drops Stability of fisetin in eye drops
  23. Production of a bioflocculant by using activated sludge and its application in Pb(II) removal from aqueous solution
  24. Molecular Properties of Carbon Crystal Cubic Structures
  25. Synthesis and characterization of calcium carbonate whisker from yellow phosphorus slag
  26. Study on the interaction between catechin and cholesterol by the density functional theory
  27. Analysis of some pharmaceuticals in the presence of their synthetic impurities by applying hybrid micelle liquid chromatography
  28. Two mixed-ligand coordination polymers based on 2,5-thiophenedicarboxylic acid and flexible N-donor ligands: the protective effect on periodontitis via reducing the release of IL-1β and TNF-α
  29. Incorporation of silver stearate nanoparticles in methacrylate polymeric monoliths for hemeprotein isolation
  30. Development of ultrasound-assisted dispersive solid-phase microextraction based on mesoporous carbon coated with silica@iron oxide nanocomposite for preconcentration of Te and Tl in natural water systems
  31. N,N′-Bis[2-hydroxynaphthylidene]/[2-methoxybenzylidene]amino]oxamides and their divalent manganese complexes: Isolation, spectral characterization, morphology, antibacterial and cytotoxicity against leukemia cells
  32. Determination of the content of selected trace elements in Polish commercial fruit juices and health risk assessment
  33. Diorganotin(iv) benzyldithiocarbamate complexes: synthesis, characterization, and thermal and cytotoxicity study
  34. Keratin 17 is induced in prurigo nodularis lesions
  35. Anticancer, antioxidant, and acute toxicity studies of a Saudi polyherbal formulation, PHF5
  36. LaCoO3 perovskite-type catalysts in syngas conversion
  37. Comparative studies of two vegetal extracts from Stokesia laevis and Geranium pratense: polyphenol profile, cytotoxic effect and antiproliferative activity
  38. Fragmentation pattern of certain isatin–indole antiproliferative conjugates with application to identify their in vitro metabolic profiles in rat liver microsomes by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry
  39. Investigation of polyphenol profile, antioxidant activity and hepatoprotective potential of Aconogonon alpinum (All.) Schur roots
  40. Lead discovery of a guanidinyl tryptophan derivative on amyloid cascade inhibition
  41. Physicochemical evaluation of the fruit pulp of Opuntia spp growing in the Mediterranean area under hard climate conditions
  42. Electronic structural properties of amino/hydroxyl functionalized imidazolium-based bromide ionic liquids
  43. New Schiff bases of 2-(quinolin-8-yloxy)acetohydrazide and their Cu(ii), and Zn(ii) metal complexes: their in vitro antimicrobial potentials and in silico physicochemical and pharmacokinetics properties
  44. Treatment of adhesions after Achilles tendon injury using focused ultrasound with targeted bFGF plasmid-loaded cationic microbubbles
  45. Synthesis of orotic acid derivatives and their effects on stem cell proliferation
  46. Chirality of β2-agonists. An overview of pharmacological activity, stereoselective analysis, and synthesis
  47. Fe3O4@urea/HITh-SO3H as an efficient and reusable catalyst for the solvent-free synthesis of 7-aryl-8H-benzo[h]indeno[1,2-b]quinoline-8-one and indeno[2′,1′:5,6]pyrido[2,3-d]pyrimidine derivatives
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  49. Enhancement of thermal properties of bio-based microcapsules intended for textile applications
  50. Exploring the effect of khat (Catha edulis) chewing on the pharmacokinetics of the antiplatelet drug clopidogrel in rats using the newly developed LC-MS/MS technique
  51. A green strategy for obtaining anthraquinones from Rheum tanguticum by subcritical water
  52. Cadmium (Cd) chloride affects the nutrient uptake and Cd-resistant bacterium reduces the adsorption of Cd in muskmelon plants
  53. Removal of H2S by vermicompost biofilter and analysis on bacterial community
  54. Structural cytotoxicity relationship of 2-phenoxy(thiomethyl)pyridotriazolopyrimidines: Quantum chemical calculations and statistical analysis
  55. A self-breaking supramolecular plugging system as lost circulation material in oilfield
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  60. DFT investigations on arylsulphonyl pyrazole derivatives as potential ligands of selected kinases
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  62. New derivatives of a natural nordentatin
  63. Fluorescence biomarkers of malignant melanoma detectable in urine
  64. Study of the remediation effects of passivation materials on Pb-contaminated soil
  65. Saliva proteomic analysis reveals possible biomarkers of renal cell carcinoma
  66. Withania frutescens: Chemical characterization, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and healing activities
  67. Design, synthesis and pharmacological profile of (−)-verbenone hydrazones
  68. Synthesis of magnesium carbonate hydrate from natural talc
  69. Stability-indicating HPLC-DAD assay for simultaneous quantification of hydrocortisone 21 acetate, dexamethasone, and fluocinolone acetonide in cosmetics
  70. A novel lactose biosensor based on electrochemically synthesized 3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene/thiophene (EDOT/Th) copolymer
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  78. Polyphenol content and antioxidant activities of Prunus padus L. and Prunus serotina L. leaves: Electrochemical and spectrophotometric approach and their antimicrobial properties
  79. The combined use of GC, PDSC and FT-IR techniques to characterize fat extracted from commercial complete dry pet food for adult cats
  80. MALDI-TOF MS profiling in the discovery and identification of salivary proteomic patterns of temporomandibular joint disorders
  81. Concentrations of dioxins, furans and dioxin-like PCBs in natural animal feed additives
  82. Structure and some physicochemical and functional properties of water treated under ammonia with low-temperature low-pressure glow plasma of low frequency
  83. Mesoscale nanoparticles encapsulated with emodin for targeting antifibrosis in animal models
  84. Amine-functionalized magnetic activated carbon as an adsorbent for preconcentration and determination of acidic drugs in environmental water samples using HPLC-DAD
  85. Antioxidant activity as a response to cadmium pollution in three durum wheat genotypes differing in salt-tolerance
  86. A promising naphthoquinone [8-hydroxy-2-(2-thienylcarbonyl)naphtho[2,3-b]thiophene-4,9-dione] exerts anti-colorectal cancer activity through ferroptosis and inhibition of MAPK signaling pathway based on RNA sequencing
  87. Synthesis and efficacy of herbicidal ionic liquids with chlorsulfuron as the anion
  88. Effect of isovalent substitution on the crystal structure and properties of two-slab indates BaLa2−xSmxIn2O7
  89. Synthesis, spectral and thermo-kinetics explorations of Schiff-base derived metal complexes
  90. An improved reduction method for phase stability testing in the single-phase region
  91. Comparative analysis of chemical composition of some commercially important fishes with an emphasis on various Malaysian diets
  92. Development of a solventless stir bar sorptive extraction/thermal desorption large volume injection capillary gas chromatographic-mass spectrometric method for ultra-trace determination of pyrethroids pesticides in river and tap water samples
  93. A turbidity sensor development based on NL-PI observers: Experimental application to the control of a Sinaloa’s River Spirulina maxima cultivation
  94. Deep desulfurization of sintering flue gas in iron and steel works based on low-temperature oxidation
  95. Investigations of metallic elements and phenolics in Chinese medicinal plants
  96. Influence of site-classification approach on geochemical background values
  97. Effects of ageing on the surface characteristics and Cu(ii) adsorption behaviour of rice husk biochar in soil
  98. Adsorption and sugarcane-bagasse-derived activated carbon-based mitigation of 1-[2-(2-chloroethoxy)phenyl]sulfonyl-3-(4-methoxy-6-methyl-1,3,5-triazin-2-yl) urea-contaminated soils
  99. Antimicrobial and antifungal activities of bifunctional cooper(ii) complexes with non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, flufenamic, mefenamic and tolfenamic acids and 1,10-phenanthroline
  100. Application of selenium and silicon to alleviate short-term drought stress in French marigold (Tagetes patula L.) as a model plant species
  101. Screening and analysis of xanthine oxidase inhibitors in jute leaves and their protective effects against hydrogen peroxide-induced oxidative stress in cells
  102. Synthesis and physicochemical studies of a series of mixed-ligand transition metal complexes and their molecular docking investigations against Coronavirus main protease
  103. A study of in vitro metabolism and cytotoxicity of mephedrone and methoxetamine in human and pig liver models using GC/MS and LC/MS analyses
  104. A new phenyl alkyl ester and a new combretin triterpene derivative from Combretum fragrans F. Hoffm (Combretaceae) and antiproliferative activity
  105. Erratum
  106. Erratum to: A one-step incubation ELISA kit for rapid determination of dibutyl phthalate in water, beverage and liquor
  107. Review Articles
  108. Sinoporphyrin sodium, a novel sensitizer for photodynamic and sonodynamic therapy
  109. Natural products isolated from Casimiroa
  110. Plant description, phytochemical constituents and bioactivities of Syzygium genus: A review
  111. Evaluation of elastomeric heat shielding materials as insulators for solid propellant rocket motors: A short review
  112. Special Issue on Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology 2019
  113. An overview of Monascus fermentation processes for monacolin K production
  114. Study on online soft sensor method of total sugar content in chlorotetracycline fermentation tank
  115. Studies on the Anti-Gouty Arthritis and Anti-hyperuricemia Properties of Astilbin in Animal Models
  116. Effects of organic fertilizer on water use, photosynthetic characteristics, and fruit quality of pear jujube in northern Shaanxi
  117. Characteristics of the root exudate release system of typical plants in plateau lakeside wetland under phosphorus stress conditions
  118. Characterization of soil water by the means of hydrogen and oxygen isotope ratio at dry-wet season under different soil layers in the dry-hot valley of Jinsha River
  119. Composition and diurnal variation of floral scent emission in Rosa rugosa Thunb. and Tulipa gesneriana L.
  120. Preparation of a novel ginkgolide B niosomal composite drug
  121. The degradation, biodegradability and toxicity evaluation of sulfamethazine antibiotics by gamma radiation
  122. Special issue on Monitoring, Risk Assessment and Sustainable Management for the Exposure to Environmental Toxins
  123. Insight into the cadmium and zinc binding potential of humic acids derived from composts by EEM spectra combined with PARAFAC analysis
  124. Source apportionment of soil contamination based on multivariate receptor and robust geostatistics in a typical rural–urban area, Wuhan city, middle China
  125. Special Issue on 13th JCC 2018
  126. The Role of H2C2O4 and Na2CO3 as Precipitating Agents on The Physichochemical Properties and Photocatalytic Activity of Bismuth Oxide
  127. Preparation of magnetite-silica–cetyltrimethylammonium for phenol removal based on adsolubilization
  128. Topical Issue on Agriculture
  129. Size-dependent growth kinetics of struvite crystals in wastewater with calcium ions
  130. The effect of silica-calcite sedimentary rock contained in the chicken broiler diet on the overall quality of chicken muscles
  131. Physicochemical properties of selected herbicidal products containing nicosulfuron as an active ingredient
  132. Lycopene in tomatoes and tomato products
  133. Fluorescence in the assessment of the share of a key component in the mixing of feed
  134. Sulfur application alleviates chromium stress in maize and wheat
  135. Effectiveness of removal of sulphur compounds from the air after 3 years of biofiltration with a mixture of compost soil, peat, coconut fibre and oak bark
  136. Special Issue on the 4th Green Chemistry 2018
  137. Study and fire test of banana fibre reinforced composites with flame retardance properties
  138. Special Issue on the International conference CosCI 2018
  139. Disintegration, In vitro Dissolution, and Drug Release Kinetics Profiles of k-Carrageenan-based Nutraceutical Hard-shell Capsules Containing Salicylamide
  140. Synthesis of amorphous aluminosilicate from impure Indonesian kaolin
  141. Special Issue on the International Conf on Science, Applied Science, Teaching and Education 2019
  142. Functionalization of Congo red dye as a light harvester on solar cell
  143. The effect of nitrite food preservatives added to se’i meat on the expression of wild-type p53 protein
  144. Biocompatibility and osteoconductivity of scaffold porous composite collagen–hydroxyapatite based coral for bone regeneration
  145. Special Issue on the Joint Science Congress of Materials and Polymers (ISCMP 2019)
  146. Effect of natural boron mineral use on the essential oil ratio and components of Musk Sage (Salvia sclarea L.)
  147. A theoretical and experimental study of the adsorptive removal of hexavalent chromium ions using graphene oxide as an adsorbent
  148. A study on the bacterial adhesion of Streptococcus mutans in various dental ceramics: In vitro study
  149. Corrosion study of copper in aqueous sulfuric acid solution in the presence of (2E,5E)-2,5-dibenzylidenecyclopentanone and (2E,5E)-bis[(4-dimethylamino)benzylidene]cyclopentanone: Experimental and theoretical study
  150. Special Issue on Chemistry Today for Tomorrow 2019
  151. Diabetes mellitus type 2: Exploratory data analysis based on clinical reading
  152. Multivariate analysis for the classification of copper–lead and copper–zinc glasses
  153. Special Issue on Advances in Chemistry and Polymers
  154. The spatial and temporal distribution of cationic and anionic radicals in early embryo implantation
  155. Special Issue on 3rd IC3PE 2020
  156. Magnetic iron oxide/clay nanocomposites for adsorption and catalytic oxidation in water treatment applications
  157. Special Issue on IC3PE 2018/2019 Conference
  158. Exergy analysis of conventional and hydrothermal liquefaction–esterification processes of microalgae for biodiesel production
  159. Advancing biodiesel production from microalgae Spirulina sp. by a simultaneous extraction–transesterification process using palm oil as a co-solvent of methanol
  160. Topical Issue on Applications of Mathematics in Chemistry
  161. Omega and the related counting polynomials of some chemical structures
  162. M-polynomial and topological indices of zigzag edge coronoid fused by starphene
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