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Effectiveness of removal of sulphur compounds from the air after 3 years of biofiltration with a mixture of compost soil, peat, coconut fibre and oak bark

  • Anna Chmielowiec-Korzeniowska EMAIL logo , Leszek Tymczyna , Bożena Nowakowicz-Dębek and Magdalena Dobrowolska
Published/Copyright: December 31, 2020
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Open Chemistry
From the journal Open Chemistry Volume 18 Issue 1

Abstract

The aim of the study was to assess the impact of the duration of the use of a biofiltration bed on the efficiency of biofiltration of sulphur compounds and on the physicochemical and microbiological properties of the bed. The study was carried out at an animal waste treatment plant. Two biofiltration chambers (beds A and B) filled with different organic mixtures (compost soil, peat, coconut fibre and oak bark) were used in the biofilter. Chromatographic analysis showed a very high rate of effectiveness in the first study period, irrespective of the packaging material used. The best effects were obtained for inorganic sulphur compounds (above 99%). The duration of use of the bed material was shown to affect the efficiency of biofiltration. After 3 years of operation, thiol degradation efficiency fell below 50%. The biological decomposition of inorganic compounds (H2S + SO2) was 73% and 59.6% in beds A and B, respectively. Analysis of the biofiltration material indicated stabilization of its physicochemical parameters. Numbers of bacteria were not found to be depend on the duration of use or the type of filtering media.

Keywords: animal waste treatment plant; biofiltration; sulphur compounds; compost soil; peat; coconut fibres; oak bark

1 Introduction

An important environmental problem associated with the disposal of animal waste is the emission of gases and odorous compounds. These compounds are released mainly from waste material storage sites. They are also formed in the technological process, i.e. during the condensation of vapours generated by sterilization and drying of waste in what is known as destructors [1]. Heating of animal tissues initiates the Maillard and Strecker degradation reactions, which result in the release of odorous compounds such as thiols, sulphur oxides, sulphides, amines, ammonia, ketones, aldehydes, alcohols, and others. According to Luo and Agnew [2], over 300 volatile chemical compounds may be released into the air during the destruction processes. Most of these are formed during heating and anaerobic breakdown of organic matter, including hydrogen sulphide, methanethiol, dimethyl sulphide, and dimethyl disulphide [3]. Hesam et al. [4] additonally identified carbon disulphide, dimethyl disulphide, dimethyl tetrasulphide, methyl methane sulphonate, ethanethiol, methanethiol, and propanethiol.

The volume of emissions of these compounds varies depending on the amount and type of material processed as well as the degree of its degradation, which proceeds more rapidly in the summer [5]. Defoer et al. [6] have shown that organic sulphur compounds predominate in the air of animal waste processing plants (44%), followed by hydrocarbons (28%), organochlorine compounds (15%), ketones (16%), aldehydes (7%), and alcohols (2%). Analysing the results of olfactometric and chromatographic tests, the authors found that the odour concentration was positively correlated with the concentration of volatile sulphur compounds in the air (r2 = 0.954) and the total content of volatile organic compounds (r2 = 0.904).

These compounds, apart from odorous properties, are toxic to living organisms and degrade the natural environment, and for this reason their emissions are restricted in many countries [7].

Volatile sulphur compounds are often emitted as mixtures from a variety of industries, such as animal husbandry, wastewater treatment, and animal rendering, in concentrations that are well suited for treatment with biological technologies such as biofiltration [8,9].

Biofiltration is currently recognized as one of the most popular and efficient technologies for the treatment of odorous gases [10]. This is confirmed by previous research conducted in animal waste treatment plants [11].

Sironi et al. [12], in their assessment of the effectiveness of odour emission reduction systems, showed that combustion chambers are the most effective type of system in these plants. However, this is one of the most expensive technologies for reducing emissions of pollutants. The authors consider biofiltration techniques to be environmentally and economical friendly, owing to zero-waste technology, the possibility of removing gases that are poorly soluble in water, and their low investment and operating costs.

Capital costs of installing a biofilter include the cost of the materials, i.e. fans, media, ductwork, and plenum. Typically, the cost of a new biofilter will be between $150 and $250 per 1,000 cfm (cubic foot per minute). Annual operation and maintenance of the biofilter is estimated to be $5–10 per 1,000 cfm. This includes the increase in electrical costs for fans to push the air through the biofilter and the cost of replacing the media after 5 years [13].

Biofiltration systems exploit the ability of aerobic sulphur-oxidizing microbes to transform pollutants into less polluting compounds or to incorporate them into biomass. In these systems, pollutants diffuse from the gas phase to a biofilm, where they are oxidized by microbes and used as a carbon or energy source [14].

Particularly good biofiltration effects are obtained for hydrogen sulphide. Biological oxidation of H2S by sulphur-oxidizing bacteria takes place according to the following reaction:

2H2S+O2→2S+2H2

The products of the reactions are elemental sulphur and sulphates. The pH ranges for optimal growth of sulphur-oxidizing bacteria vary (1.8–7.4) depending on the type of bacteria. The optimum pH is 7.4 for Thiobacillus denitrificans and below 1 for Acidithiobacillus thiooxidans [15].

Efficient biofiltration always depends on a heterotrophic population of microbes that use organic compounds as an energy and carbon source. Autotrophic sulphur bacteria, such as Beggiatoa sp., Thiothrix sp., Thiophysa sp., and Thiobacillus sp., play a major role in the distribution of H2S [16].

Natural organic materials such as soil, peat, or tree bark have an advantage over synthetic media due to the presence of complex microbial communities (bacteria and fungi) capable of degrading numerous pollutants. The high water retention capacity and access to organic matter and nutrients allow bacteria to function in a biofilm that surrounds the particles forming the filter material.

Compost usually contains a sufficient number and variety of microorganisms capable of biochemically degrading complex pollutants. At the same time, microorganisms have a great ability to adapt to specific compounds contained in waste gases [17].

This is confirmed by research carried out on poultry farms [18], which found that organic material consisting of a mixture of compost soil and peat had the best properties in terms of filtering odorous groups of pollutants, including sulphur compounds. A study by Krawczyk et al. [19] testing various filter beds used to clean the air of a piggery showed that mixtures containing an increased amount of sawdust had better filtration properties than beds consisting mainly of peat or straw. Luo and Lindsey [20] demonstrated that biological beds composed of compost and bark maintain suitable gas flow conditions and good odour removal efficiency. Coconut fibre, which has a unique capillary system, enables even distribution of water throughout the bed and ensures optimal moisture conditions, which translates into measurable biofiltration efficiency [11].

However, the lifespan of organic materials is often lower than that of inorganic materials such as polyurethane foam, activated carbon, or lava rock [21]. Lebrero et al. [21] showed that biofiltration destroys the structure of the organic material. An important disadvantage of nutrient-rich beds is their loose structure, which undergoes aggregation over time due to moisture, leading to loss of porosity. Structural changes in the material, caking, and thus a decrease in pressure in the bed may limit its use in the long-term, necessitating its replacement [20]. It is estimated that an organic biofilter bed can be used for 3–5 years [17,20] although Dorado et al. [22] reduces this time to 2 years. Nanda et al. [23] report that the use of compost as a filling results in varying temperature gradients in different areas of the filter bed and thus to a decrease in the efficiency of biofiltration. According to the authors, the compost bed should be replaced every 5 years.

A description of the biofiltration technology used to eliminate gaseous compounds generated in animal waste processing plants can be found in several publications [2,6,7,11,20,24,25,26], but these works do not analyse the changes in efficiency occurring during the long-term use of the filtering material. Hence, the aim of the research was to assess the effect of the duration of use of the bed on (1) the efficiency of biofiltration of sulphur compounds and (2) its physicochemical and microbiological properties.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Rendering plant and biofilter configuration

The study was carried out at a plant treating animal waste primarily from the meat industry (92.4%), including slaughterhouses and butcheries as well as the poultry (3.4%) and dairy (2.2%) industries [11].

A closed biofilter was connected to a duct that drained the leachate from destructors in which the waste material was sterilized and dried. Gases collected from the leachate of the destructors (the main source of gaseous compounds), which were directed through airtight ducts to the biofilter, were subjected to biological treatment (Figure 1).

Figure 1 Schematic of the rendaring process and biofiltration unit.
Figure 1

Schematic of the rendaring process and biofiltration unit.

The biofiltration device consisted of a high-pressure blower of 800 m3/h capacity, an air humidifier, and a biofiltration chamber. The biofiltration chamber was divided into two independent parts (Table 1) to facilitate the simultaneous assessment of the biofiltration properties of two different materials (beds A and B). Bed A was composed of compost soil (40%), peat (40%), and coconut fibres (20%); however, in bed B oak bark was used instead of coconut fibres (20%). The stabilization time was 30 days after the components were mixed.

Table 1

Dimensions of the biofiltration device

Chamber dimensions1.5 × 2.0 × 2.5 m
Embankment height1.5 m
Filter surface2.5 m2
Loading of the bed surface160 m3/h/m2

The efficiency of biofiltration of sulphur compounds and the physicochemical properties of the filter media were determined in two periods, i.e. the first and fourth years of operation of the biofilter. The analyses were carried out in months with positive temperatures, from July to September (period 1) and from May to October (period 2). Five series of tests were performed in each period.

2.2 Gas sampling and analyses

Air samples for chromatographic analysis were taken twice at three measuring points (in each series), i.e. before biofiltration over the leachate of the destructors, and after biofiltration over bed A and bed B. A total of 60 air samples were taken.

Air samples were collected into Tedlar bags (2–3 l; Sensdidyne, Inc., Clearwater, USA) using an electric pump. The compounds contained in the air samples were condensed by adsorption on MX-06-2131 sorbent tubes (SKC Inc., Pennsylvania, USA). Then they were desorbed using a model 890 TDU thermal desorption unit (Dynatherm, Analytical Instruments, Inc., Oxford, USA) for injection into the gas chromatograph with a selective flame photometric detector (FPD), operating with an S-filter with a wavelength of 393 nm (HP 5890 series II; Hewlett Packard, Santa Clara, USA). Two parallel tracks were used for collecting data from the chromatographic analysis: a digital track equipped with a 3,396 series II integrator and an analogue track with an A/D converter. SRI PeakSimple interface and software and Dynacal® Permeation Tubes and Devices from VICI Metronics (Houston, USA) were used.

Biofiltration efficiency was calculated according to the following formula:

η=c1−c2c1×100%

where ƞ – biofiltration efficiency, c1 – concentration of compounds before biofiltration, c2 – concentration of compounds after biofiltration.

2.3 Collection and analysis of packing materials

In parallel with the chromatographic analysis of the air, the physicochemical and microbiological properties of the filter media were monitored. The samples of packing material for analyses were collected into sterile containers.

The temperature of the material was measured with a thermohygrometer (model RT811E, Technik, Warsaw, Poland), and the pH was determined with a CP-104 pH meter (Elmetron, Zabrze, Poland). The dry matter content was determined by the gravimetric method in accordance with PN, by drying the sample at 105°C and weighing it.

Microbiological enumeration was carried out by the plate dilution method using the spread plate technique on appropriate agar media (mesophilic and psychrophilic bacteria), agar with starch (amylolytic bacteria) or fat (lipolytic bacteria), Frazier agar (proteolytic bacteria), and Sabouraud agar (fungi; BTL Łódź, Poland). Following incubation, the colonies were counted on the assumption that one bacterial cell produces one colony.

2.4 Statistical analysis

The results of the determination and the biofiltration efficiency are presented in the tables, which give the arithmetic mean (M) and the range of values (min–max). The concentrations determined in each period and at each sampling point, as well as the properties of the biofiltration media, were compared by the non-parametric Wilcoxon test.

The correlations between the reduction in compounds and the physicochemical and microbiological parameters of the filtering media were determined by the Pearson test, using the Statistica v.5.0 statistics package (StatSoft).

  1. Ethical approval: The conducted research is not related to either human or animal use.

3 Results

3.1 The effect of the duration of use of the bed on the efficiency of biofiltration of sulphur compounds

The chromatographic analysis of the air taken from above the destructor leachate showed that the average concentration of sulphur compounds exceeded 116 mg/m3 in the first period and 67 mg/m3 in the second period (Table 2). The mean values for the two periods did not differ statistically (p > 0.05), which was due to large fluctuations in the concentrations determined in individual samples. Among 15 identified sulphur compounds, sulphides, including diethyl and methyl propyl sulphide, reached the highest levels. High concentrations were also determined for thiols. These pollutants underwent microbiological treatment in the biofilter, so the average concentration of sulphur compounds in the air samples taken after biofiltration decreased. The differences were statistically significant (p < 0.05) only for certain compounds, i.e. diethyl sulphide, methyl propyl sulphide, and butanethiol, in the first period.

Table 2

Mean concentrations of sulphur compounds before and after biofiltration [µg/m3]

CompoundTime of biofilter use
Period 1Period 2
Before biofiltrationBed ABed BBefore biofiltrationBed ABed B
M (min–max)M (min–max)M (min–max)M (min–max)M (min–max)M (min–max)
Methyl sulphide4188.2 (nd–28083.6)3.1 (nd–20.3)0.8 (nd–5.9)12.8 (nd–127.5)ndnd
Dimethyl sulphide47911.4abc (nd–142953.0)5075.0a (nd–27947.7)452.7b (nd–840.1)1603.3c (nd–9239.9)17.2 (nd–92.8)10.7 (nd–88.7)
Methyl ethyl sulphide1991.1 (nd–18499.9)657.3 (nd–6563.6)0.2 (nd–1.7)13810.2 (nd–62824.7)2871.8 (nd–16910.1)121.9 (nd–732.4)
Methyl propyl sulphide6452.7a (301.0–28761.1)44.3a (nd–134.4)49.0 (0.6–276.3)7478.6 (2.4–38012.0)375.7 (1.5–2650.4)1750.1 (2.4–17381.6)
Dipropyl sulphide26.9 (nd–193.9)1.5 (nd–8.4)0.3 (nd–1.4)115.0 (nd–597.8)2.7 (nd–25.4)nd (nd–0.3)
Dimethyl disulphidend0.1 (nd–1.4)nd2.2 (nd–18.8)ndnd
CS2nd0.2 (nd–2.3)nd12.2 (nd–121.6)0.9 (nd–9.1)0.2 (nd–1.7)
Ethanethiol5395.0 (nd–53885.4)43.3 (nd–19.2)1.5 (nd–10.1)4738.6 (nd–47386.1)1.3 (nd–12.7)0.9 (nd–9.4)
Methanethiol1899.8 (nd–18870.8)1.3 (nd–4.0)5.2 (nd–32.8)6980.1 (29.2–34604.2)405.3 (14.1–3072.2)6337.3 (4.5–62251.9)
Butanethiol112.4a (nd–359.0)2.4a (nd–15.0)127.9 (nd–1263.6)683.7 (nd–3582.7)2.9 (nd 20.3)0.04 (nd–0.4)
Propanethiol4355.3 (nd–19144.8)537.6 (nd–3305.0)84.7 (nd–847.2)9.8 (nd–53.2)3.1 (nd–29.3)100.5 (nd–1005.2)
Isopropanethiol3041.9 (nd–18245.0)nd1.5 (nd–14.5)ndndnd
Hydrogen sulphide0.3 (nd–2.9)2.5 (nd–24.8)0.1 (nd–0.8)30043.9 (5.2–154957.0)56.8 (3.6–220.5)345.2 (5.0–3297.7)
SO240977.9 (nd–375220.6)1.2 (nd–5.9)0.4 (nd–3.3)1691.4 (nd–11326.3)30.7 (nd–227.1)4.3 (nd–43.4)
COS305.6 (nd–3012.4)2.5 (nd–22.4)0.7 (nd–3.0)390.6 (nd–3905.9)1.2 (nd–12.2)0.7 (nd–7.3)
Total116658.5 (7244.9–572955.9)6372.3 (8.3–31794.8)791.1 (13.7–4753.2)67572.5 (1725.0–308223.9)3938.6 (55.4–20185.6)8683.4 (27.3–83936.8)

a–cValues in rows with the same letters differ statistically at p ≤ 0.05; (nd) – below the detection threshold.

After 3 years of operation of the biofilter (period 2), a decrease in biofiltration efficiency was observed in both beds (Table 3). Statistically lower efficiency was found for thiol filtration. The duration of use of the biofiltration material had a decisive impact on the efficiency of removal of thiols and inorganic sulphur compounds from the air, including hydrogen sulphide and SO2, for which the correlation coefficient (r) was −0.620 and −0.494, respectively, at p < 0.01 and p < 0.05. The type of media did not affect biofiltration efficiency.

Table 3

Average biofiltration efficiency for groups of sulphur compounds [%]

Group of compoundsTime of biofilter use
Period 1Period 2Correlation coefficient r for
Bed ABed BBed ABed B
M (min–max)M (min–max)M (min–max)M (min–max)TimeBed
Organic
Sulphides95.8 (79.8–100)99.1 (97.9–100)92.7 (81.4–99.2)77.5 (b.r.–100)−0.285−0.137
Disulphidesb.r.b.r.38.7 (b.r.–100)39.8 (b.r.–100)0.2240.229
Thiols94 (86.9–100)96.3ab (91.4–100)48.9b (2.0–99.6)44.0a (b.r.–100)−0.620**0.168
Inorganic
H2S + SO299.2 (96.3–100)99.9 (99.6–100)73.3 (b.r.–99.9)59.6 (b.r.–100)−0.494*−0.097
Total96.2 (82.8–100)99.1 (97.9–100)80.5 (46.4–99.0)73.6 (b.r.–99.9)−0.427−0.043

*p ≤ 0.05, **p ≤ 0.01.

Analysis of the results for individual groups revealed slightly better biodegradation effects in bed B, but only in the first year of operation. In the second period, the opposite tendency was observed. The relationship was not confirmed statistically in either case (p > 0.05).

3.2 The effect of the duration of use of the bed on its physicochemical and microbiological properties

The analyses of the biofiltration material showed stabilization of the parameters (Table 4). In both test cycles, the maximum bed temperature did not exceed 30°C, and the average moisture level in the beds was close to 67% in both periods. The pH measurements showed acidification by biodegradation metabolites in the first year of the study (period 1). During further use of the bed, the pH increased slightly (p > 0.05).

Table 4

Physicochemical properties of biofiltration beds

ParameterTime of biofilter use
Period 1Period 2Correlation coefficient r for
Bed ABed BBed ABed B
M (min–max)M (min–max)M (min–max)M (min–max)TimeBed
Temperature (°C)26.5 (25.0–27.3)26.3 (20.7–28.5)28.6 (25.2–30.0)25.6 (23.0–28.0)0.161−0.364
Moisture (%)66.7 (51.8–73.5)67.1 (55.4–75.6)66.8 (62.1–73.9)67.4 (62.4–74.3)0.0180.042
pH6.2 (5.9–6.7)6.1 (6.0–6.3)6.3 (6.1–6.7)6.2 (6.1–6.5)0.0880.098

Comparison of the microbiological results in the second period of the research showed a slight increase in the share of amylolytic and lipolytic bacteria among the bacteria, with a simultaneous decrease in the number of meso- and psychrophilic bacteria (Table 5). The numbers of bacteria of various groups were not found to depend on the duration of use or the type of filtering media.

Table 5

Biological properties of biofiltration beds [CFU/g]

Total number ofTime of biofilter exploitation
Period 1Period 2Correlation coefficient r for
Bed ABed BBed ABed B
M (min–max)M (min–max)M (min–max)M (min–max)TimeBed
Mesophilic bacteria4.5 × 105 (0.0–2.2 × 106)8.5 × 106 (0.1 × 103–4.1 × 107)8.4 × 103 (0.0–4.1 × 104)5.3 × 104 (0.1 × 103–2.4 × 105−0.2510.228
Psychrophilic bacteria2.9 × 104 (2.2 × 103–1.0 × 105)5.7 × 107 (1.9 × 103–2.8 × 109)5.4 × 103 (1.9 × 103–13.2 × 103)1.0 × 105 (1.0 × 103–5.0 × 105)−0.2290.230
Fungi2.6 × 102 (1.7 × 101–4.4 × 102)6.1 × 102 (5.9 × 101–1.2 × 103)6.2 × 102 (5.9 × 101–1.2 × 103)1.5 × 102 (2.4 × 101–4.0 × 102)−0.063−0.078
Amylolytic bacteria1.5 × 105 (0.5 × 103–6.0 × 105)5.3 × 104 (0.0–2.0 × 105)5.4 × 104 (0.0–2.0 × 105)1.0 × 105 (0.0–4.0 × 105)−0.082−0.085
Lipolytic bacteria2.1 × 108 (0.0–1.1 × 109)2.4 × 108 (1.8 × 105–1.2 × 109)4.5 × 108 (3.1 × 106–1.2 × 109)4.2 × 108 (2.3 × 105–2.1 × 109)0.177−0.003
Proteolytic bacteria3.3 × 105 (0.0–1.6 × 106)1.1 × 104 (0.3 × 103–3.5 × 103)6.3 × 103 (0.0–2.5 × 103)1.6 × 104 (0.5 × 103–4.6 × 104)−0.235−0.228

4 Discussion

The chromatographic analysis showed very high treatment effectiveness in the first study period, irrespective of the packaging material used. The best effects were obtained for inorganic sulphur compounds. Degradation of inorganic compounds (including H2S) reached a level of 99.9% in bed B and 99.2% in bed A. Slightly lower efficiency was obtained for sulphides and thiols. An increase in the disulphide concentration was observed in the air leaving the biofilter (irrespective of the bed). The lower performance for these compounds was in line with previous research by Anet et al. [5] and Malhautier et al. [26]. Rappert and Müller [27] claim that hydrogen sulphide occurring in a mixture of volatile sulphur compounds is preferentially degraded because it is more soluble and more easily oxidized than other compounds. Cho et al. [28] indicate the following preferential order of biodegradation: hydrogen sulphide → methanetiol → dimethyl sulphide → dimethyl disulphide. Similar results for reduction of sulphur compounds, including hydrogen sulphide, were obtained by Almarcha et al. [24] and Kasperczyk et al. [29], while much lower reduction was reported by Sheridan et al. [30]. During biofiltration of air through a layer of wood chips, the authors found an extreme range of effects in the purification of sulphur compounds, with the reduction ranging from −147% to 51%. Lebrero et al. [31] report that a biofilter was not capable of efficiently removing dimethyl sulphide or acetic acid, with effectiveness fluctuating between 99% and negative values. The authors explain that both odorants were likely formed within the biofilter, probably due to the presence of anaerobic zones in the compost packing.

In the present study, the duration of use of the bed material was shown to affect the efficiency of biofiltration. Just 3 years of use of material consisting of compost soil and peat with coconut fibre (bed A) or oak bark (bed B) may reduce the efficiency of biodegradation of thiols and inorganic sulphur compounds, including hydrogen sulphide.

A greater decrease in biofiltration efficiency was found for thiols, falling below 50% after 3 years of operation. At the same time, the biological decomposition of inorganic compounds (H2S + SO2) was 73% in bed A and 59.6% in bed B. The chromatographic analysis showed that these compounds were present in much higher concentrations in individual samples in the second period of the research. The higher loading of the bed could have resulted in lower biofiltration efficiency.

Monitoring of the physicochemical properties of used material revealed acidification of the beds in the first period, but their further use did not lead to accumulation of hydrogen ions. Jaber et al. [32] reported that the decrease in pH caused by the accumulation of sulphuric acid in the packing material, the most abundant product of the biological oxidation of sulphur compounds, reduced the efficiency of elimination of thiols and disulphides but did not affect hydrogen sulphide reduction.

Microorganisms involved in the decomposition of hydrogen sulphide show a much higher tolerance to changes in the pH of the bed. According to Anet et al. [5], only extreme pH values can significantly affect the operation of the biofilter. On the other hand, results reported by Busca and Pistarino [33] indicate that the pH of the biofiltration bed is the main factor limiting the degradation of hydrogen sulphide, with the optimum pH range established as 6–8.

Liu et al. [34] emphasize that changes in pH depend not only on the composition of the gases undergoing treatment but also largely on the buffer capacity of the media used. The study demonstrated that the properties of the natural media tested in the experiment neutralize acidic metabolites generated during biodegradation.

Besides the increased concentration of biodegradation metabolites, another important factor limiting the biofiltration process is the mutual inhibitory interactions of the gases undergoing treatment. Li et al. [35] report that hydrogen sulphide even inhibits the degradation of other volatile gaseous compounds.

The efficiency of biofiltration depends to a large extent on the quality and quantity of microorganisms growing in the substrate, and their activity depends in turn on the physicochemical properties of the filter media. Control of these parameters has an impact on the adsorption and biological degradation of pollutants. The assessment of the physicochemical properties of the beds indicated stabilization of the parameters tested. The temperature and moisture contents of the two beds were similar in both test periods, at 25.6–28.6°C. The biofiltration temperature is primarily influenced by the temperature of the intake air stream and by exothermic reactions occurring in the bed. As the temperature increases, the metabolic rate and growth of microorganisms increase as well but adsorption of pollutants decreases [16]. Yoon et al. [36] found the highest microbial activity at a higher bed temperature, reaching 32°C. At the same time, they showed that microorganisms involved in biodegradation became less susceptible to toxic compounds as the process temperature increased.

Most well-researched chemolithotrophic sulphide oxidants are mesophilic bacteria that prefer a temperature of 28–35°C [16]. This is confirmed by Zhang et al. [37] who observed a marked decrease in the efficiency of hydrogen sulphide removal at temperatures below 25°C or above 50°C due to a decrease in the number of sulphur-oxidizing bacteria. Tymczyna et al. [11] showed a significant relationship between the efficiency of biofiltration and the number of mesophilic bacteria that inhabit the bed.

The high concentration of toxic hydrogen sulphide in the air subjected to biofiltration in the second study period could have contributed to a reduction in the number of mesophilic and psychrophilic bacteria. Due to large fluctuations in the values in individual samples, this trend was not confirmed statistically. The number and type of microorganisms inhabiting the bed did not depend on either the time of exploitation or the type of filling.

5 Conclusions

The results of the study indicate that biofiltration devices filled with organic material constituting a mixture of compost soil and peat with the addition of coconut fibre or oak bark can be successfully installed in equipment removing waste air from animal waste treatment plants. The high efficiency of the beds ensures deodorizing effects and minimizes the spread of sulphur compounds generated and released during the disposal of animal carcasses. Such materials can be successfully used for 3 years, but the changes observed in the efficiency of degradation of thiols and inorganic sulphur compounds indicate the need to condition the bed in the fourth year of operation of the biofilter.

Although much work has been done on biofilters, further research is necessary to provide a better understanding of them. The key questions to be addressed primarily concern the complex ecology of biofilms. Future studies should focus on the microbial ecology of biofilters, in particular on monitoring microbial population dynamics during these treatments. The development of molecular techniques can be useful in this research.

  1. Authors’ contribution: A. Ch.-K. – conceptualization; M. D. – data curation; B. N.-D. – formal analysis; M. D. – investigation; A. Ch.-K., L. T. – methodology; L. T. – project administration; A. Ch.-K., M. D. – writing.

  2. Conflict of interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

  3. Data availability statement: All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article.

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Received: 2020-07-07
Revised: 2020-09-14
Accepted: 2020-10-19
Published Online: 2020-12-31

© 2020 Anna Chmielowiec-Korzeniowska et al., published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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https://doi.org/10.1515/chem-2020-0179
Keywords for this article
animal waste treatment plant; biofiltration; sulphur compounds; compost soil; peat; coconut fibres; oak bark
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Regular Articles
  2. Electrochemical antioxidant screening and evaluation based on guanine and chitosan immobilized MoS2 nanosheet modified glassy carbon electrode (guanine/CS/MoS2/GCE)
  3. Kinetic models of the extraction of vanillic acid from pumpkin seeds
  4. On the maximum ABC index of bipartite graphs without pendent vertices
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  6. Molecular dynamics simulation of sI methane hydrate under compression and tension
  7. Spatial distribution and potential ecological risk assessment of some trace elements in sediments and grey mangrove (Avicennia marina) along the Arabian Gulf coast, Saudi Arabia
  8. Amino-functionalized graphene oxide for Cr(VI), Cu(II), Pb(II) and Cd(II) removal from industrial wastewater
  9. Chemical composition and in vitro activity of Origanum vulgare L., Satureja hortensis L., Thymus serpyllum L. and Thymus vulgaris L. essential oils towards oral isolates of Candida albicans and Candida glabrata
  10. Effect of excess Fluoride consumption on Urine-Serum Fluorides, Dental state and Thyroid Hormones among children in “Talab Sarai” Punjab Pakistan
  11. Design, Synthesis and Characterization of Novel Isoxazole Tagged Indole Hybrid Compounds
  12. Comparison of kinetic and enzymatic properties of intracellular phosphoserine aminotransferases from alkaliphilic and neutralophilic bacteria
  13. Green Organic Solvent-Free Oxidation of Alkylarenes with tert-Butyl Hydroperoxide Catalyzed by Water-Soluble Copper Complex
  14. Ducrosia ismaelis Asch. essential oil: chemical composition profile and anticancer, antimicrobial and antioxidant potential assessment
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  16. Influence of Chemical Osmosis on Solute Transport and Fluid Velocity in Clay Soils
  17. A New fatty acid and some triterpenoids from propolis of Nkambe (North-West Region, Cameroon) and evaluation of the antiradical scavenging activity of their extracts
  18. Antiplasmodial Activity of Stigmastane Steroids from Dryobalanops oblongifolia Stem Bark
  19. Rapid identification of direct-acting pancreatic protectants from Cyclocarya paliurus leaves tea by the method of serum pharmacochemistry combined with target cell extraction
  20. Immobilization of Pseudomonas aeruginosa static biomass on eggshell powder for on-line preconcentration and determination of Cr (VI)
  21. Assessment of methyl 2-({[(4,6-dimethoxypyrimidin-2-yl)carbamoyl] sulfamoyl}methyl)benzoate through biotic and abiotic degradation modes
  22. Stability of natural polyphenol fisetin in eye drops Stability of fisetin in eye drops
  23. Production of a bioflocculant by using activated sludge and its application in Pb(II) removal from aqueous solution
  24. Molecular Properties of Carbon Crystal Cubic Structures
  25. Synthesis and characterization of calcium carbonate whisker from yellow phosphorus slag
  26. Study on the interaction between catechin and cholesterol by the density functional theory
  27. Analysis of some pharmaceuticals in the presence of their synthetic impurities by applying hybrid micelle liquid chromatography
  28. Two mixed-ligand coordination polymers based on 2,5-thiophenedicarboxylic acid and flexible N-donor ligands: the protective effect on periodontitis via reducing the release of IL-1β and TNF-α
  29. Incorporation of silver stearate nanoparticles in methacrylate polymeric monoliths for hemeprotein isolation
  30. Development of ultrasound-assisted dispersive solid-phase microextraction based on mesoporous carbon coated with silica@iron oxide nanocomposite for preconcentration of Te and Tl in natural water systems
  31. N,N′-Bis[2-hydroxynaphthylidene]/[2-methoxybenzylidene]amino]oxamides and their divalent manganese complexes: Isolation, spectral characterization, morphology, antibacterial and cytotoxicity against leukemia cells
  32. Determination of the content of selected trace elements in Polish commercial fruit juices and health risk assessment
  33. Diorganotin(iv) benzyldithiocarbamate complexes: synthesis, characterization, and thermal and cytotoxicity study
  34. Keratin 17 is induced in prurigo nodularis lesions
  35. Anticancer, antioxidant, and acute toxicity studies of a Saudi polyherbal formulation, PHF5
  36. LaCoO3 perovskite-type catalysts in syngas conversion
  37. Comparative studies of two vegetal extracts from Stokesia laevis and Geranium pratense: polyphenol profile, cytotoxic effect and antiproliferative activity
  38. Fragmentation pattern of certain isatin–indole antiproliferative conjugates with application to identify their in vitro metabolic profiles in rat liver microsomes by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry
  39. Investigation of polyphenol profile, antioxidant activity and hepatoprotective potential of Aconogonon alpinum (All.) Schur roots
  40. Lead discovery of a guanidinyl tryptophan derivative on amyloid cascade inhibition
  41. Physicochemical evaluation of the fruit pulp of Opuntia spp growing in the Mediterranean area under hard climate conditions
  42. Electronic structural properties of amino/hydroxyl functionalized imidazolium-based bromide ionic liquids
  43. New Schiff bases of 2-(quinolin-8-yloxy)acetohydrazide and their Cu(ii), and Zn(ii) metal complexes: their in vitro antimicrobial potentials and in silico physicochemical and pharmacokinetics properties
  44. Treatment of adhesions after Achilles tendon injury using focused ultrasound with targeted bFGF plasmid-loaded cationic microbubbles
  45. Synthesis of orotic acid derivatives and their effects on stem cell proliferation
  46. Chirality of β2-agonists. An overview of pharmacological activity, stereoselective analysis, and synthesis
  47. Fe3O4@urea/HITh-SO3H as an efficient and reusable catalyst for the solvent-free synthesis of 7-aryl-8H-benzo[h]indeno[1,2-b]quinoline-8-one and indeno[2′,1′:5,6]pyrido[2,3-d]pyrimidine derivatives
  48. Adsorption kinetic characteristics of molybdenum in yellow-brown soil in response to pH and phosphate
  49. Enhancement of thermal properties of bio-based microcapsules intended for textile applications
  50. Exploring the effect of khat (Catha edulis) chewing on the pharmacokinetics of the antiplatelet drug clopidogrel in rats using the newly developed LC-MS/MS technique
  51. A green strategy for obtaining anthraquinones from Rheum tanguticum by subcritical water
  52. Cadmium (Cd) chloride affects the nutrient uptake and Cd-resistant bacterium reduces the adsorption of Cd in muskmelon plants
  53. Removal of H2S by vermicompost biofilter and analysis on bacterial community
  54. Structural cytotoxicity relationship of 2-phenoxy(thiomethyl)pyridotriazolopyrimidines: Quantum chemical calculations and statistical analysis
  55. A self-breaking supramolecular plugging system as lost circulation material in oilfield
  56. Synthesis, characterization, and pharmacological evaluation of thiourea derivatives
  57. Application of drug–metal ion interaction principle in conductometric determination of imatinib, sorafenib, gefitinib and bosutinib
  58. Synthesis and characterization of a novel chitosan-grafted-polyorthoethylaniline biocomposite and utilization for dye removal from water
  59. Optimisation of urine sample preparation for shotgun proteomics
  60. DFT investigations on arylsulphonyl pyrazole derivatives as potential ligands of selected kinases
  61. Treatment of Parkinson’s disease using focused ultrasound with GDNF retrovirus-loaded microbubbles to open the blood–brain barrier
  62. New derivatives of a natural nordentatin
  63. Fluorescence biomarkers of malignant melanoma detectable in urine
  64. Study of the remediation effects of passivation materials on Pb-contaminated soil
  65. Saliva proteomic analysis reveals possible biomarkers of renal cell carcinoma
  66. Withania frutescens: Chemical characterization, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and healing activities
  67. Design, synthesis and pharmacological profile of (−)-verbenone hydrazones
  68. Synthesis of magnesium carbonate hydrate from natural talc
  69. Stability-indicating HPLC-DAD assay for simultaneous quantification of hydrocortisone 21 acetate, dexamethasone, and fluocinolone acetonide in cosmetics
  70. A novel lactose biosensor based on electrochemically synthesized 3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene/thiophene (EDOT/Th) copolymer
  71. Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad: Chemical characterization, scavenging and cytotoxic activities
  72. Development and validation of a high performance liquid chromatography/diode array detection method for estrogen determination: Application to residual analysis in meat products
  73. PCSK9 concentrations in different stages of subclinical atherosclerosis and their relationship with inflammation
  74. Development of trace analysis for alkyl methanesulfonates in the delgocitinib drug substance using GC-FID and liquid–liquid extraction with ionic liquid
  75. Electrochemical evaluation of the antioxidant capacity of natural compounds on glassy carbon electrode modified with guanine-, polythionine-, and nitrogen-doped graphene
  76. A Dy(iii)–organic framework as a fluorescent probe for highly selective detection of picric acid and treatment activity on human lung cancer cells
  77. A Zn(ii)–organic cage with semirigid ligand for solvent-free cyanosilylation and inhibitory effect on ovarian cancer cell migration and invasion ability via regulating mi-RNA16 expression
  78. Polyphenol content and antioxidant activities of Prunus padus L. and Prunus serotina L. leaves: Electrochemical and spectrophotometric approach and their antimicrobial properties
  79. The combined use of GC, PDSC and FT-IR techniques to characterize fat extracted from commercial complete dry pet food for adult cats
  80. MALDI-TOF MS profiling in the discovery and identification of salivary proteomic patterns of temporomandibular joint disorders
  81. Concentrations of dioxins, furans and dioxin-like PCBs in natural animal feed additives
  82. Structure and some physicochemical and functional properties of water treated under ammonia with low-temperature low-pressure glow plasma of low frequency
  83. Mesoscale nanoparticles encapsulated with emodin for targeting antifibrosis in animal models
  84. Amine-functionalized magnetic activated carbon as an adsorbent for preconcentration and determination of acidic drugs in environmental water samples using HPLC-DAD
  85. Antioxidant activity as a response to cadmium pollution in three durum wheat genotypes differing in salt-tolerance
  86. A promising naphthoquinone [8-hydroxy-2-(2-thienylcarbonyl)naphtho[2,3-b]thiophene-4,9-dione] exerts anti-colorectal cancer activity through ferroptosis and inhibition of MAPK signaling pathway based on RNA sequencing
  87. Synthesis and efficacy of herbicidal ionic liquids with chlorsulfuron as the anion
  88. Effect of isovalent substitution on the crystal structure and properties of two-slab indates BaLa2−xSmxIn2O7
  89. Synthesis, spectral and thermo-kinetics explorations of Schiff-base derived metal complexes
  90. An improved reduction method for phase stability testing in the single-phase region
  91. Comparative analysis of chemical composition of some commercially important fishes with an emphasis on various Malaysian diets
  92. Development of a solventless stir bar sorptive extraction/thermal desorption large volume injection capillary gas chromatographic-mass spectrometric method for ultra-trace determination of pyrethroids pesticides in river and tap water samples
  93. A turbidity sensor development based on NL-PI observers: Experimental application to the control of a Sinaloa’s River Spirulina maxima cultivation
  94. Deep desulfurization of sintering flue gas in iron and steel works based on low-temperature oxidation
  95. Investigations of metallic elements and phenolics in Chinese medicinal plants
  96. Influence of site-classification approach on geochemical background values
  97. Effects of ageing on the surface characteristics and Cu(ii) adsorption behaviour of rice husk biochar in soil
  98. Adsorption and sugarcane-bagasse-derived activated carbon-based mitigation of 1-[2-(2-chloroethoxy)phenyl]sulfonyl-3-(4-methoxy-6-methyl-1,3,5-triazin-2-yl) urea-contaminated soils
  99. Antimicrobial and antifungal activities of bifunctional cooper(ii) complexes with non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, flufenamic, mefenamic and tolfenamic acids and 1,10-phenanthroline
  100. Application of selenium and silicon to alleviate short-term drought stress in French marigold (Tagetes patula L.) as a model plant species
  101. Screening and analysis of xanthine oxidase inhibitors in jute leaves and their protective effects against hydrogen peroxide-induced oxidative stress in cells
  102. Synthesis and physicochemical studies of a series of mixed-ligand transition metal complexes and their molecular docking investigations against Coronavirus main protease
  103. A study of in vitro metabolism and cytotoxicity of mephedrone and methoxetamine in human and pig liver models using GC/MS and LC/MS analyses
  104. A new phenyl alkyl ester and a new combretin triterpene derivative from Combretum fragrans F. Hoffm (Combretaceae) and antiproliferative activity
  105. Erratum
  106. Erratum to: A one-step incubation ELISA kit for rapid determination of dibutyl phthalate in water, beverage and liquor
  107. Review Articles
  108. Sinoporphyrin sodium, a novel sensitizer for photodynamic and sonodynamic therapy
  109. Natural products isolated from Casimiroa
  110. Plant description, phytochemical constituents and bioactivities of Syzygium genus: A review
  111. Evaluation of elastomeric heat shielding materials as insulators for solid propellant rocket motors: A short review
  112. Special Issue on Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology 2019
  113. An overview of Monascus fermentation processes for monacolin K production
  114. Study on online soft sensor method of total sugar content in chlorotetracycline fermentation tank
  115. Studies on the Anti-Gouty Arthritis and Anti-hyperuricemia Properties of Astilbin in Animal Models
  116. Effects of organic fertilizer on water use, photosynthetic characteristics, and fruit quality of pear jujube in northern Shaanxi
  117. Characteristics of the root exudate release system of typical plants in plateau lakeside wetland under phosphorus stress conditions
  118. Characterization of soil water by the means of hydrogen and oxygen isotope ratio at dry-wet season under different soil layers in the dry-hot valley of Jinsha River
  119. Composition and diurnal variation of floral scent emission in Rosa rugosa Thunb. and Tulipa gesneriana L.
  120. Preparation of a novel ginkgolide B niosomal composite drug
  121. The degradation, biodegradability and toxicity evaluation of sulfamethazine antibiotics by gamma radiation
  122. Special issue on Monitoring, Risk Assessment and Sustainable Management for the Exposure to Environmental Toxins
  123. Insight into the cadmium and zinc binding potential of humic acids derived from composts by EEM spectra combined with PARAFAC analysis
  124. Source apportionment of soil contamination based on multivariate receptor and robust geostatistics in a typical rural–urban area, Wuhan city, middle China
  125. Special Issue on 13th JCC 2018
  126. The Role of H2C2O4 and Na2CO3 as Precipitating Agents on The Physichochemical Properties and Photocatalytic Activity of Bismuth Oxide
  127. Preparation of magnetite-silica–cetyltrimethylammonium for phenol removal based on adsolubilization
  128. Topical Issue on Agriculture
  129. Size-dependent growth kinetics of struvite crystals in wastewater with calcium ions
  130. The effect of silica-calcite sedimentary rock contained in the chicken broiler diet on the overall quality of chicken muscles
  131. Physicochemical properties of selected herbicidal products containing nicosulfuron as an active ingredient
  132. Lycopene in tomatoes and tomato products
  133. Fluorescence in the assessment of the share of a key component in the mixing of feed
  134. Sulfur application alleviates chromium stress in maize and wheat
  135. Effectiveness of removal of sulphur compounds from the air after 3 years of biofiltration with a mixture of compost soil, peat, coconut fibre and oak bark
  136. Special Issue on the 4th Green Chemistry 2018
  137. Study and fire test of banana fibre reinforced composites with flame retardance properties
  138. Special Issue on the International conference CosCI 2018
  139. Disintegration, In vitro Dissolution, and Drug Release Kinetics Profiles of k-Carrageenan-based Nutraceutical Hard-shell Capsules Containing Salicylamide
  140. Synthesis of amorphous aluminosilicate from impure Indonesian kaolin
  141. Special Issue on the International Conf on Science, Applied Science, Teaching and Education 2019
  142. Functionalization of Congo red dye as a light harvester on solar cell
  143. The effect of nitrite food preservatives added to se’i meat on the expression of wild-type p53 protein
  144. Biocompatibility and osteoconductivity of scaffold porous composite collagen–hydroxyapatite based coral for bone regeneration
  145. Special Issue on the Joint Science Congress of Materials and Polymers (ISCMP 2019)
  146. Effect of natural boron mineral use on the essential oil ratio and components of Musk Sage (Salvia sclarea L.)
  147. A theoretical and experimental study of the adsorptive removal of hexavalent chromium ions using graphene oxide as an adsorbent
  148. A study on the bacterial adhesion of Streptococcus mutans in various dental ceramics: In vitro study
  149. Corrosion study of copper in aqueous sulfuric acid solution in the presence of (2E,5E)-2,5-dibenzylidenecyclopentanone and (2E,5E)-bis[(4-dimethylamino)benzylidene]cyclopentanone: Experimental and theoretical study
  150. Special Issue on Chemistry Today for Tomorrow 2019
  151. Diabetes mellitus type 2: Exploratory data analysis based on clinical reading
  152. Multivariate analysis for the classification of copper–lead and copper–zinc glasses
  153. Special Issue on Advances in Chemistry and Polymers
  154. The spatial and temporal distribution of cationic and anionic radicals in early embryo implantation
  155. Special Issue on 3rd IC3PE 2020
  156. Magnetic iron oxide/clay nanocomposites for adsorption and catalytic oxidation in water treatment applications
  157. Special Issue on IC3PE 2018/2019 Conference
  158. Exergy analysis of conventional and hydrothermal liquefaction–esterification processes of microalgae for biodiesel production
  159. Advancing biodiesel production from microalgae Spirulina sp. by a simultaneous extraction–transesterification process using palm oil as a co-solvent of methanol
  160. Topical Issue on Applications of Mathematics in Chemistry
  161. Omega and the related counting polynomials of some chemical structures
  162. M-polynomial and topological indices of zigzag edge coronoid fused by starphene
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