Startseite Chemical composition and bioactivities of the methanol root extracts of Saussurea costus
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Chemical composition and bioactivities of the methanol root extracts of Saussurea costus

  • Manal Abdulaziz Binobead , Ibrahim M. Aziz EMAIL logo , Sobhy M. Ibrahim und Reem M. Aljowaie
Veröffentlicht/Copyright: 21. März 2024
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Open Chemistry
Aus der Zeitschrift Open Chemistry Band 22 Heft 1

Abstract

Saussurea costus (S. costus) is a medicinal plant from the Asteraceae family that is widely used in traditional medicine in Saudi Arabia. This study examines S. costus root extract for its chemical composition and its antioxidant, anti-cancer, and antibacterial properties. The results of the study on the methanol root extract of S. costus reveal a rich chemical composition, as identified by GC-MS/FID analysis. The extract also showed high levels of total phenolic content (188.2 ± 2.1 mg GAE/g DM) and total flavonoid content (129 ± 2.6 mg QE/g DM). In antioxidant tests, the extract exhibited strong activity, with the half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) values of 137.15 μg/mL for ABTS and 175.5 μg/mL for DPPH as compared to positive control’s IC50 values of 45.5 ± 0.3 μg/mL for ABTS and 55.3 ± 0.1 μg/mL for DPPH. The cytotoxic assessment against MCF-7 and A549 cell lines showed notable effects, particularly at higher concentrations. Additionally, the extract induced apoptosis in these cell lines, evidenced by changes in gene expression. Antibacterial tests revealed significant activity against various strains, with MIC values ranging from 7.81 to 125 μg/mL. The study underscores the importance of plant extracts in modern healthcare and suggests future research directions, including clinical applications and compound identification.

Keywords: apoptosis markers; antioxidant; anti-cancer; antibacterial properties; natural products

1 Introduction

Plant-based treatments have long been an integral component of traditional medicine, offering an abundance of bioactive medicinal compounds. Natural products are growing in popularity due to their ability to provide safer alternatives to synthetic pharmaceuticals, notably in the treatment of chronic diseases [1]. In recent decades, a multitude of signaling transduction pathways have generated natural compounds derived from plants with antioxidative, anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, and antibacterial properties [2,3,4,5,6].

Notwithstanding the recent identification of diverse pharmacological compounds in botanical specimens, the extensive therapeutic capacity of plants as reservoirs of groundbreaking pharmaceutical agents remains largely unexplored [7,8,9,10]. Among interesting medicinal plants, the Saussurea (Compositae) genus has 400 species that are found mostly in cold areas of the world [11]. The Saussurea genus has several uses in traditional treatments and possesses strong pharmacological properties. Many bioactive compounds have the potential to be discovered in Saussurea species [11].

The Folin–Ciocalteu method is commonly utilized for the determination of phenolic compounds in plant samples. It enables researchers to quantify the presence of these compounds accurately. However, it is important to note that the molecular response of phenolic compounds can vary widely. This variation is primarily influenced by the chemical structure of the phytochemical constituents. Therefore, understanding the diverse chemical structures of these compounds is crucial for interpreting the results obtained by the Folin–Ciocalteu method. The available ascorbic acid or sugars in the seed extract interfere with the Folin–Ciocalteu assay method [12]. Although extraction techniques, particularly those used for traditional extraction, are well established, researchers are always looking for ways to increase extraction yields. To optimize the extraction conditions for each type of extraction method, it is important to utilize optimization techniques for the extraction processes, employ modeling approaches, and consider the impact of extraction and optimization methods on the quality of the extracted compounds and the enhancement of extraction yields. This optimization process aims to maximize the yield of desired compounds while maintaining their quality [13]. Fingerprinting the chemical profile of analytes with HPLC is regarded as an unsophisticated, repeatable, profound, and dependable technology [14]. In a recent study, various conventional methodologies were employed to investigate several aspects of interest. The research focused on examining the total phenolic and flavonoid contents, conducting HPLC-DAD analysis, evaluating antibacterial and antifungal activities, assessing cytotoxicity against the HepG2 cell line, determining hemolysis potential, and exploring antioxidant properties. These conventional methodologies were chosen to provide comprehensive insights into the characteristics and potential applications of the studied samples [15].

Saussurea costus (S. costus) is a member of the Asteraceae family, which is found globally; however, its most common places are India, Pakistan, and the Himalayas [16,17,18]. S. costus is a plant used in many traditional medical systems to treat asthma, inflammation, ulcers, and stomach disorders [19].

Although S. costus is not grown in Saudi Arabia, its roots are commonly utilized in traditional medicine in Saudi Arabia [20,21,22]. S. costus root is often consumed with warm water, milk, or honey, and the root paste is administered topically [19]. The plant under investigation exhibits a wealth of valuable compounds with medicinal properties. Among them are costunolide, dihydrocostunolide, 12-methoxydihydrocostunolide, dihydrocostus lactone, dehydrocostus lactone, and Shikokiols. These compounds have garnered significant attention due to their potential therapeutic applications. The presence of such diverse and bioactive compounds highlights the importance of studying this plant for its medicinal properties and exploring its potential benefits in various healthcare applications [11]. These compounds work synergistically to relieve smooth muscle spasms in both the bronchi and gastrointestinal tract, as the synergistic effect of these compounds enhances their therapeutic efficacy and underscores their potential as treatments for bronchial and gastrointestinal spasms [23]. In addition to their ability to relieve smooth muscle spasms, these compounds also demonstrate antibacterial and anti-cancer properties. They have been shown to exhibit activity against various bacterial strains, making them potential candidates for the development of antibacterial agents. Furthermore, their anti-cancer properties suggest a potential role in cancer treatment and prevention [24]. Moreover, these compounds have demonstrated the ability to prevent oxidation and remove free radicals. Oxidation and the accumulation of free radicals in the body can contribute to various diseases and aging processes. The antioxidant properties of these compounds make them valuable in combating oxidative stress and protecting cells from damage caused by free radicals [25].

In this research, multiple solvent systems were employed to extract fractions more effectively, which may be advantageous in phytochemical separation. Various fractions revealed significant antibacterial, antioxidant, and cytotoxic properties. The exploration of S. costus, a plant deeply rooted in traditional medicinal practices, has increasingly captivated the scientific community. This study focuses on an in-depth analysis of the chemical composition of the methanol extract from S. costus roots, assessing its potential antioxidant, anti-cancer, and antibacterial properties. The significance of S. costus in traditional medicine systems, particularly in Ayurveda and Chinese medicine, cannot be overstated, where it is used for its myriad therapeutic benefits [26,27].

The research on the potential of plant-derived compounds to fight cancer is a rapidly growing field. Moreover, the anti-cancer potential of these compounds is an area of research that is expanding rapidly [28,29]. During the 1960s, the Food and Drug Administration granted authorization for the therapeutic application of vinblastine and vincristine, which were extracted from Catharanthus roseus. These plant-derived anti-cancer drugs were among the earliest ones to be approved [30]. Podophyllotoxin, extracted from Podophyllum peltatum and Podophyllum emodi, is not only an important but also a prominent plant-derived natural substance [31]. Roscovitine, also known as seliciclib, is an anti-cancer compound derived from purine. Its isolation was carried out from the cotyledons of Raphanus sativus L., a member of the Brassicaceae family [32]. Paclitaxel (Taxol®) is perhaps the best-known plant-derived anti-cancer medication. This taxane dipertene’s cytotoxic action was discovered in the extracts from the Taxus brevifolia bark [33]. With cancer being a leading cause of death worldwide, the identification of novel anti-cancer agents from natural sources like S. costus is of great importance. Previous research revealed that S. costus extract is a possible source of secondary metabolites that might be employed as an anti-cancer drug to treat a variety of malignancies, including breast, colon, and liver [34]. The present study explores the impact of the root extract on diverse cancer cell lines, thereby contributing to the expanding body of research on natural therapies for cancer treatment.

In the field of antibacterial research, the rise of antibiotic-resistant bacteria has created an urgent need for new therapeutic agents [35,36]. The antibacterial activity of S. costus roots is evaluated against a spectrum of bacterial strains, potentially offering new insights into combating bacterial resistance.

By combining traditional knowledge with modern scientific techniques, this study aims to provide a comprehensive analysis of the methanol extract of S. costus roots. Investigating its chemical composition and assessing its antioxidant, anti-cancer, and antibacterial activities, this research could significantly contribute to the understanding of its pharmacological potential and applications.

Notably, in the realm of S. costus research, there have been only a few preliminary investigations, which have shed light on the cytotoxic and antimicrobial attributes of the root extract. However, a conspicuous absence of scholarly inquiry persists regarding the antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anti-cancer potential inherent in root extracts. Consequently, this study endeavors to redress this scholarly void by meticulously scrutinizing methanol extracts derived from the roots of S. costus, thereby contributing to the advancement of knowledge in the field. Although there is a lot of literature available on an extract of S. costus, our research fills a significant gap due to the limited scientific exploration of this plant despite its known traditional medicinal uses. The comprehensive chemical analysis using GC-MS is a pioneering approach, revealing a unique and rich chemical composition. This study not only quantifies the levels of total phenolic content (TPC) and total flavonoid content (TFC), but also offers compelling evidence regarding the potent antioxidant, anti-cancer, and antibacterial activities exhibited by the extract. These findings, especially the extract’s effect on inducing apoptosis in cancer cell lines and its significant antibacterial action against various strains, offer new insights into the potential pharmaceutical applications of S. costus. The research aligns with the growing interest in plant-based natural products in healthcare and underscores the untapped therapeutic potential of such extracts in modern medicine.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Extraction process of the methanol extract from the roots of S. costus

In this research endeavor, the roots of S. costus were procured from a local market in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. The plant species was authenticated by Professor Dr. Mohammed Fasil from the Department of Botany and Microbiology, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. To ensure consistency with previous studies, the extraction of the root extract was conducted using the established methodologies outlined by Boskovic et al. in 2018. By adhering to these standardized procedures, the scientific integrity of the study was upheld, allowing for meaningful comparisons and reliable analysis [37], albeit with some minor adjustments. Concretely, we subjected 50 g of the roots to mechanical blending and pulverization. Subsequently, 10 g of the resulting dried powder was combined with 200 mL of methanol, and this mixture was introduced into a flat-bottom Erlenmeyer flask. The solution was then subjected to evaporation on a rotary evaporator, maintaining a temperature of 40°C. The phytochemical compounds thus extracted were meticulously separated using a Whatman No. filter paper. Following this, the extract underwent a further round of evaporation and drying, this time at 80°C, culminating in the acquisition of a crude extract. The ultimate methanol extract was precisely quantified and subsequently solubilized in either 0.1% dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO) or ethanol at the requisite concentrations. This prepared extract was then securely stored at a temperature of 4°C for subsequent experimentation and analysis.

2.2 Analysis of phytochemicals in the methanol root extract of S. costus

In order to determine the phytochemical constituents present in the methanol root extract of S. costus, a comprehensive analytical approach was employed. The analysis was conducted using a gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) system manufactured by Agilent Technologies Inc., USA, coupled with an Agilent 5977A MSD system. The volatile compounds within the methanol extract were subjected to purification through a capillary column with dimensions of 30 m in length, 0.25 mm in diameter, and a film thickness of 0.25 μm. Helium gas was utilized as the carrier gas, flowing at a rate of 0.5 mL/min. The injector temperature was maintained precisely at 250°C. The temperature program within the oven consisted of a series of distinct steps: an initial temperature of 70°C was maintained for 3 min, followed by a gradual increase to 100°C at a rate of 3°C/min (held for 3 min), and further elevated to 120°C at a rate of 10°C/min (held for 3 min). Finally, the temperature was ramped up to 220°C at a rate of 10°C/min. The mass spectrometer settings included an electron impact (EI) source, with an ionization temperature of 230°C, an electron energy of 70 eV, a quadrupole temperature of 150°C, an interface temperature of 280°C, and a scanning range spanning from 20 to 500 amu for quantity determination. This rigorous analytical approach facilitated the identification and quantification of phytochemical compounds present in the methanol root extract of S. costus, thereby providing a reliable and accurate assessment of its phytochemical profile.

2.3 Determination of TPC

The determination of TPC in the methanol root extract of S. costus was conducted following a modified version of the protocol established by Wolfe and Liu in 2003 [38]. To quantify the TPC, 0.05 mg of the methanol root extract of S. costus was carefully mixed with 2.0 mL of pre-diluted Folin–Ciocalteau reagent in a 1:1 ratio with double-distilled water. The resulting mixture was vigorously vortexed and supplemented with 2 mL of a 7.5% aqueous sodium carbonate solution. Subsequently, the mixture was incubated in darkness at a temperature of 29 ± 1°C for 20 min. After the incubation period, the color intensity of the solution was measured at a wavelength of 765 nm using a VR-2000 spectrophotometer (JP Selecta, Barcelona, Spain). Gallic acid standards with concentrations ranging from 20 to 200 µg/mL were prepared to establish a calibration curve. The TPC content in the sample was expressed as milligrams of gallic acid equivalent per gram (mg GAE/g) of dry matter (DM), providing a quantitative measure of the phenolic compounds present in the methanol root extract of S. costus.

2.4 Analysis of TFC

The quantification of TFC was performed following the methodology delineated by Ordonez et al. in 2006 [39]. To ascertain TFC, a precisely measured volume of 0.1 mL of the methanol root extract of S. costus or a gallic acid standard was meticulously amalgamated with a 3 mL solution containing 2% AlCl3. The resultant mixture was subsequently subjected to a carefully controlled 30-min incubation period. Following the stipulated incubation interval, the chromatic intensity of the solution was meticulously assessed at a specific wavelength of 420 nm utilizing an ELX-808 microplate reader (BioTek Laboratories, LLC, Shoreline, WA, USA). Calibration curves were meticulously established by employing quercetin standards prepared at diverse and varied concentrations, spanning the range from 20 to 200 μg/mL. The TFC results were expressed as milligrams of quercetin equivalent per gram of extracts (mg QE/g) of DM, thereby furnishing a judicious and quantitative assessment of the flavonoid content within the methanol root extract of S. costus.

2.5 Assessment of antioxidant activity in the methanol extract of S. costus

The evaluation of the scavenging activity against 1,1-diphenyl-2-picryl hydrazyl (DPPH) was conducted using a methanol root extract of S. costus. The methanol extract was prepared at four distinct concentrations, ranging from 200 to 1,000 μg/mL. A volume of 0.2 mL of the diluted methanol extract was combined with 2 mL of a 0.08 mM DPPH solution. The resulting mixture was then subjected to a 30-s incubation period in darkness. Following incubation, the absorbance of the solution was measured using a spectrophotometer. To validate DPPH activity, vitamin C was used as a positive control. Subsequently, the optical density of the samples was analyzed, and both the IC50 value (representing the concentration required for 50% inhibition) and the percentage of DPPH free radical scavenging activity were determined. These measurements were performed in accordance with the methodology described by Tian et al. in 2020 [40].

2.6 2,2′-Azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS) activity

In the study, the ABTS free radical scavenging activity of the methanol root extract of S. costus was evaluated [41]. To prepare the ABTS solution, a concentration of 7 mM was dissolved in millipore sterile water. Subsequently, 5 mL of the ABTS solution was mixed with 1.6 μL of potassium persulfate (2.45 mM) and incubated in the dark at a controlled temperature of 28 ± 1°C for 12 h. The formation of radical cations was indicated by the development of a distinct blue-green color. Vitamin C was used as a reference compound in the experiment. For absorbance measurement, the reaction mixture was diluted tenfold with ethanol to ensure that the absorbance fell within the desired range of 0.5–0.6 at 750 nm. Then, 1.925 μL of the ABTS solution was combined with 25 μL of the methanol root extract of S. costus, and the resulting mixture was incubated in the dark at 28 ± 1°C for 20 min. After the incubation period, the color intensity of the sample was measured at 734 nm relative to a blank. The percentage scavenging power was calculated based on the observed absorbance values, providing insight into the ABTS free radical scavenging activity of the methanol root extract of S. costus [42].

2.7 Cell culture and cytotoxicity evaluation using MTT assay

To evaluate the cytotoxic effects of the methanol root extract of S. costus, an MTT assay was employed on MCF-7 (ATCC HTB-22) and A549 (ATCC: CCL-185) cell lines. This assay relies on the enzymatic conversion of the MTT reagent by mitochondrial dehydrogenases, ultimately forming formazan crystals. The protocol for the MTT assay was carried out following the guidelines outlined by Riss et al. in 2016 [43]. In the experimental procedure, exponentially growing cells were collected using a 0.25% Trypsin-EDTA solution. Subsequently, the cells were seeded in 96-well plates at a density of 1 × 104 cells/well (100 µL) in fresh complete media and allowed to adhere for 24 h before treatment. Varying concentrations of the methanol root extract of S. costus (50, 100, 200, and 400 µg/mL) were then applied to the cells for a 24-h duration, resulting in a total treatment volume of 100 µL per well. The cell culture was maintained in Dulbecco’s modified eagle medium (DMEM) supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS) and 1% penicillin–streptomycin, incubated at 37°C in a humidified atmosphere containing 5% CO2. As a positive control, cisplatin (0–30 µg/mL) was utilized. Following the incubation period, a working solution of MTT (5 mg/mL in phosphate-buffered saline, 10 µL) was added to each well and incubated for 4 h at 37°C. The formazan crystals formed as a result were subsequently dissolved in 100 µL of DMSO per well and incubated for an additional 10 min at 37°C with gentle shaking. The absorbance in each well was measured at 570 nm using an ELX-808 automatic microplate reader (BioTek, USA). To calculate cell viability (%), the following formula was employed: [(A − B)/A] × 100, where A represents the absorbance of untreated control cells and B represents the absorbance of the treated cells. This methodology was described by Rafieian-Kopaei et al. in 2014 [44]. The IC50 values were determined using the Graph Pad Prism software.

2.8 Gene expression analysis focused on apoptotic genes

In the present study, the examination of gene expression related to apoptosis in A549 cells was conducted. Initially, A549 cells (1 × 104) were cultured in six-well plates with 3 mL of DMEM culture media enriched with 10% FBS and 1% penicillin–streptomycin. Furthermore, after a 24-h incubation period, the media was replaced with 3 mL of DMEM supplemented with 1% FBS, 1% penicillin–streptomycin, and 100 µL of the methanol root extract of S. costus. Moreover, following a 48-h incubation period, the cells were trypsinized using a 0.25% trypsin solution and were subsequently centrifuged at 10,000×g for 10 min in a refrigerated centrifuge. The resulting cell pellet was then resuspended in PCR buffer for subsequent reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (rRT-PCR) analysis. RNA extraction for gene expression analysis was carried out using an RNeasy kit (Qiagen, Hilden, Germany), following the manufacturer’s guidelines. The concentration and purity of the extracted RNA were determined using a nanodrop spectrophotometer. This RNA served as the template for quantitative PCR (qPCR), with a 25 µL master mix prepared using GoTaq qPCR Master Mix and specific forward (F) and reverse (R) primers. The RT2 PCR array process was executed using a 7500 Fast Real-Time PCR System (7500 Fast; Applied Biosystems, Foster City, CA, USA). The expression levels of genes related to apoptosis were quantified using rRT-PCR, and the data were analyzed by the 2⁻ΔΔCq method, as delineated by Schmittgen and Livak in 2008. Consequently, this method allows for the relative quantification of gene expression by comparing the threshold cycle (Cq) values of the target genes with those of reference genes and normalizing the data to a control group. As a result, the analysis provides insights into the changes in gene expression associated with apoptosis in response to the treatment of A549 cells with the methanol root extract of S. costus [45]. The delta Cq (ΔCq) values for the genes of interest were normalized against the GAPDH gene values from the same samples. Expression levels were calculated relative to a control group that was not treated with the extract. Table 1, included in the study, lists the primer sequences and corresponding genes examined in this analysis.

Table 1

Primer sequences for the determination of apoptosis and anti-apoptotic genes

Gene name Primers sequence References
Caspase-3 F: 5′-GCTGGATGCCGTCTAGAGTC-3′ [46]
R: 5′-ATGTGTGGATGATGCTGCCA-3′
Caspase-8 F: 5′-AGAAGAGGGTCATCCTGGGAGA-3′ [47]
R: 5′- TCAGGACTTCCTTCAAGGCTGC-3′
Caspase-9 F: 5′- ATTGCACAGCACGTTCACAC-3′ [46]
R: 5′-TATCCCATCCCAGGAAGGCA-3′
Bax F: 5′-GAGCTAGGGTCAGAGGGTCA-3′ [46]
R: 5′-CCCCGATTCATCTACCCTGC-3′
Bcl-2 F: 5′-ACCTACCCAGCCTCCGTTAT-3′ [46]
R: 5′-GAACTGGGGGAGGATTGTGG-3′
Bcl-XL F: 5′-CAGAGCTTTGAACAGGTAG-3′ [48]
R: 5′-GCTCTCGGGTGCTGTATTG-3′
GAPDH F: 5′- CGGAGTCAACGGATTTGGTC-3′ [49]
R: 5′- AGCCTTCTCCATGGTCGTGA-3′

2.9 Screening for antibacterial activity

The present investigation aimed to evaluate the antimicrobial efficacy of the methanol extract obtained from the roots of S. costus against a diverse range of bacterial species, including representatives from both the Gram-positive and Gram-negative categories. The Gram-positive bacterial strains utilized in this study included Bacillus subtilis (MTCC-10400), Staphylococcus aureus (MTCC-29213), and Staphylococcus epidermidis (MTCC-12228). Within the Gram-negative bacterial group, strains of Klebsiella pneumoniae (MTCC-13883), Escherichia coli (ATCC-25922), and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (MTCC-27853) were employed. These bacterial strains were sourced from King Khalid University Hospital, located in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, thereby ensuring the local relevance and applicability of the research findings to the regional microbial landscape.

2.9.1 Disc diffusion method

In this study, the agar disc diffusion method, a benchmark technique for evaluating antimicrobial activity, was utilized as per the modified guidelines of Salem et al. [50]. This investigation focused on the antibacterial properties of methanol extracts obtained from the roots of S. costus. The methodology involved the use of nutrient agar as the growth medium for the bacterial assays. The bacterial strains under investigation were first cultured on nutrient agar plates for 24 h at 37°C. A standardized bacterial suspension with a concentration of 1 × 106 colony-forming units per milliliter (CFU/mL) was prepared in saline. This inoculum was then uniformly spread over fresh nutrient agar plates using a sterile L-shaped spreader to ensure even distribution. To evaluate the antimicrobial efficacy of the S. costus root extracts, discs of filter paper (6 mm diameter) were impregnated with 20 µg of the respective extracts. These discs were then strategically placed on the agar plates inoculated with the bacterial cultures. For comparative purposes, ciprofloxacin at a concentration of 25 µg/mL was used as a positive control, whereas a solution of 0.1% DMSO in nutrient broth served as the negative control. Following a 24-h incubation period, the antibacterial activity of the S. costus root extracts was determined by measuring the diameter of the inhibition zones surrounding the discs. These zones of inhibition provided a quantitative measure of the antibacterial potency of the extracts [51].

2.10 Examination of the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) levels

The investigation into the MIC and MBC of methanol extracts derived from the flower and leaf of S. costus utilized a modified broth dilution method, following the procedure outlined by Basri and Sandra (2016) [52]. Various concentrations of extracts ranging from 1.56 to 800 μg/mL were prepared in sterile Mueller-Hinton broth. Subsequently, each well of a 96-well microtiter plate received 10 µL of bacterial culture standardized to 1 × 106 CFU/mL density, along with different concentrations of the methanol extracts. Following a 24-h incubation at 37°C to promote bacterial growth, 20 μL of triphenyl tetrazolium chloride (TTC) working solution (2 mg/mL in PBS) was added to each well and incubated for an additional 20 min at 37°C to assess bacterial viability. The presence of bacterial growth was indicated by a pink coloration in the wells, resembling that of the positive control, while colorless wells signified no bacterial growth. The MIC was determined to be the lowest concentration of methanol extracts where bacterial growth was inhibited, as evidenced by the absence of pink coloration. To determine the MBC, which denotes the lowest concentration at which bacterial growth was entirely eradicated, samples from wells indicating no growth at the MIC were further cultured. Ultimately, the MBC was identified as the lowest concentration at which no bacteria could be recovered, indicating the bactericidal efficacy of the extract [53].

2.11 Statistical analysis

The anti-cancer, antibacterial, and antioxidant activities were assessed through three separate experiments. In order to ensure robustness and reliability, cytotoxicity and gene expression analyses were each conducted on three separate occasions. The resulting data were then expressed as mean  ±  SD, subsequently undergoing a comprehensive statistical analysis conducted using one-way ANOVA. The significance level was set at (p < 0.05), ensuring robustness in the interpretation of the findings.

3 Results

3.1 Chemical composition of the methanol root extract of S. costus

The examination of phytochemical components within the methanol extract from the rhizome was performed utilizing gas chromatography-mass spectrometry/flame ionization detection (GC-MS/FID). Figure 1 depicts the GC-MS spectrum of the methanol root extract of S. costus, revealing a range of phytochemical compounds. Derived from a 30-min GC-MS analysis, this spectrum exhibits numerous peaks, each representing distinct compounds, with the most prominent peak indicating the primary phytochemical constituent. Table 2 provides a detailed list of volatile components identified in the extract. This table is a comprehensive representation of the chemical profile of the methanol root extract of S. costus, highlighting the complexity and diversity of compounds it contains. Within this extract, the predominant phytochemical identified was naphtho (2,3-b)furan-2(3H)-one, decahydro-8a-methyl-3,5-bis(methylene)-, (3aR-(3aα,4aα,8aβ,9aα))- which constituted 40.42% of the extract. This was followed by eudesma-5,11(13)-dien-8,12-olide, accounting for 26.3%, and cis,cis,cis-7,10,13-hexadecatrienal, which made up 9.1% of the extract.

Figure 1 The GC-MS spectrum illustrates the phytochemical composition of the methanol extract derived from the root of S. costus. Analysis was performed using a 30-min program on the GC-MS instrument, with each peak denoting an identified compound, while the predominant peak signifies a notable concentration.
Figure 1

The GC-MS spectrum illustrates the phytochemical composition of the methanol extract derived from the root of S. costus. Analysis was performed using a 30-min program on the GC-MS instrument, with each peak denoting an identified compound, while the predominant peak signifies a notable concentration.

Table 2

Volatile components identified via GC-MS in the methanol root extract of S. costus

No. Hit name RT (min) Area (Ab*s) Area (%) Total area Molecular weight (amu)
1 4H-Pyran-4-one, 2,3-dihydro-3,5-dihydroxy-6-methyl- 9.773 6,406,70 0.15 429,781,109 144.042
2 2-Furancarboxaldehyde, 5-(hydroxymethyl)- 11.318 1,025,977 0.24 429,781,109 126.032
3 Cyclohexane, 1-ethenyl-1-methyl-2,4-bis(1-methylethenyl)-, [1S-(1.alpha.,2.beta.,4.beta.)]- 13.045 5,200,816 1.21 429,781,109 204.188
4 Caryophyllene 13.457 4,262,546 0.99 429,781,109 204.188
5 Benzene, 1-(1,5-dimethyl-4-hexenyl)-4-methyl- 14.183 3,208,629 0.75 429,781,109 202.172
6 Naphthalene, 1,2,3,5,6,7,8,8a-octahydro-1,8a-dimethyl-7-(1-methylethenyl)-, [1S-(1.alpha.,7.alpha.,8a.alpha.)]- 14.327 2,784,393 0.65 429,781,109 204.188
7 Naphthalene, decahydro-4a-methyl-1-methylene-7-(1-methylethenyl)-, [4aR-(4a.alpha.,7.alpha.,8a.beta.)]- 14.427 1,878,964 0.44 429,781,109 204.188
8 Cyclohexanemethanol, 4-ethenyl-.alpha.,.alpha.,4-trimethyl-3-(1-methylethenyl)-, [1R-(1.alpha.,3.alpha.,4.beta.)]- 15.084 808,343 0.19 429,781,109 222.198
9 cis,cis,cis-7,10,13-Hexadecatrienal 16.36 38,995,390 9.07 429,781,109 234.198
10 Bicyclo[4.3.0]nonane, 7-methylene-2,4,4-trimethyl-2-vinyl- 16.454 4,304,776 1.00 429,781,109 204.188
11 Tricyclo[6.3.3.0]tetradec-4-ene,10,13-dioxo- 16.748 1,033,568 0.24 429,781,109 218.131
12 Oxacyclododeca-6,9-dien-2-one, 7-methyl-, (Z,E)- 16.96 570401 0.13 429781109 194.131
13 Tricyclo[5.2.2.0(1,6)]undecan-3-ol, 2-methylene-6,8,8-trimethyl- 17.386 1,549,050 0.36 429,781,109 220.183
14 Caryophyllene oxide 17.667 13,115,373 3.05 429781109 220.183
15 Cyclohexane, 1-ethenyl-1-methyl-2,4-bis(1-methylethenyl)- 17.93 476647 0.11 429,781,109 204.188
16 Santolina triene 18.055 2,557,039 0.59 429,781,109 204.188
17 2(3H)-Benzofuranone, 6-ethenylhexahydro-6-methyl-3-methylene-7-(1-methylethenyl)-, [3aS-(3a.alpha.,6.alpha.,7.beta.,7a.beta.)]- 18.537 16,562,170 3.85 429,781,109 232.146
18 2(3H)-Benzofuranone, 6-ethenylhexahydro-6-methyl-3-methylene-7-(1-methylethenyl)-, [3aS-(3a.alpha.,6.alpha.,7.beta.,7a.beta.)]- 19 10,592,086 2.46 429,781,109 232.146
19 Eudesma-5,11(13)-dien-8,12-olide 19.312 113,023,061 26.30 429,781,109 232.146
20 Naphtho(2,3-b)furan-2(3H)-one, decahydro-8a-methyl-3,5-bis(methylene)-, (3aR-(3a.alpha.,4a.alpha.,8a.beta.,9a.alpha.))- 19.825 173,708,622 40.42 429,781,109 232.146
21 9,12-Octadecadienoic acid (Z,Z)- 21.264 28,092,721 6.54 429,781,109 280.24
22 9,12-Octadecadienoic acid (Z,Z)- 21.527 525,611 0.12 429,781,109 280.24
23 Diazoprogesterone 21.896 2,105,085 0.49 429,781,109 338.247
24 Bicyclo[4.1.0]heptane,-3-cyclopropyl,-7-hydroxymethyl, (cis) 22.19 1,575,952 0.37 429,781,109 166.136
25 9,17-Octadecadienal, (Z)- 23.015 475,130 0.11 429,781,109 264.245
26 Hexadecanoic acid, 2-hydroxy-1-(hydroxymethyl)ethyl ester 24.673 708,089 0.16 429,781,109 330.277

3.2 TPC and TFC of methanolic root extract

The TPC and TFC of the methanol root extract from S. costus were analyzed, revealing significant differences (p < 0.05) between the extracts. This study found that methanol is an exceptionally effective solvent for extracting phenols and flavonoids. The methanol root extract of S. costus showed the highest TPC of 188.2 ± 2.1 mg GAE/g of DM, as indicated by a correlation coefficient (R 2) of 0.938. Similarly, the TFC was recorded at 129 ± 2.6 mg QE/g DM, with an R 2 value of 0.999.

3.3 Antioxidant activity

The research examined the antioxidative capabilities of the phytochemicals found in the methanol extract derived from the roots of S. costus. Additionally, this was accomplished through DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) and ABTS radical scavenging assays. Furthermore, the research aimed to elucidate the antioxidative properties of the extract. Moreover, the DPPH assay provided insight into the free radical scavenging ability of the phytochemicals, while the ABTS assay complemented these findings. In addition, the study sought to determine the potential health benefits associated with the antioxidant activity of S. costus roots. Additionally, besides evaluating antioxidant activity, the study investigated other bioactive properties of the methanol extract. Furthermore, not only did the research focus on antioxidant potential, but it also explored the extract’s potential applications in various fields. The efficacy of the extract was benchmarked against established antioxidants, such as vitamin C. The outcomes, as depicted in Figure 2, reveal that the extract demonstrated notable antioxidant properties, outperforming vitamin C. Furthermore, a positive correlation was observed between the concentration of the extract and its antioxidant activity in both assays. The IC50 values were computed as 137.15 ± 1.45 μg/mL for ABTS and 175.5 ± 0.7 μg/mL for DPPH as compared to the positive control’s IC50 values of 45.5 ± 0.3 μg/mL for ABTS and 55.3 ± 0.1 μg/mL for DPPH, underscoring the extract’s strong antioxidant capability.

Figure 2 The methanol root extract of S. costus was assessed for antioxidant activity using DPPH-reducing power and ABTS scavenging activity assays. Different concentrations were tested, and results are reported as mean ± SD of three replicates.
Figure 2

The methanol root extract of S. costus was assessed for antioxidant activity using DPPH-reducing power and ABTS scavenging activity assays. Different concentrations were tested, and results are reported as mean ± SD of three replicates.

3.4 Cytotoxic activity

The study extensively examined the cytotoxic properties of the methanol root extract of S. costus. Figure 3 presents the results, which revealed a concentration-dependent impact on cell viability. In comparison to the positive control, doxorubicin, a well-known chemotherapeutic agent, the S. costus root extract demonstrated significant cytotoxicity toward MCF-7 (breast cancer) and A549 (lung carcinoma) cell lines. Interestingly, the introduction of the extract at a concentration of 100 μg/mL initially showed reduced cytotoxic effects. However, as the extract concentration increased progressively, the cytotoxicity became more pronounced. Significantly, the A549 cell line, with an IC50 of 92.4 ± 3.2 μg/mL, was more susceptible to the extract than the MCF-7 cells, which had an IC50 value of 122.5 ± 1.2 μg/mL.

Figure 3 The cytotoxicity of the S. costus root extract was evaluated at different concentrations (ranging from 0 to 400 μg/mL) after a 24-h treatment period, and the cell viability was expressed as a percentage. The reported results represent mean ± SD of three independent experiments. Importantly, it was observed that at higher concentrations, both the flower and leaf extracts significantly (*) decreased cell viability (p < 0.05).
Figure 3

The cytotoxicity of the S. costus root extract was evaluated at different concentrations (ranging from 0 to 400 μg/mL) after a 24-h treatment period, and the cell viability was expressed as a percentage. The reported results represent mean ± SD of three independent experiments. Importantly, it was observed that at higher concentrations, both the flower and leaf extracts significantly (*) decreased cell viability (p < 0.05).

3.5 Analysis of the S. costus root extract on MCF-7 and A549-induced apoptosis signaling

To examine the impact of S. costus root extract on apoptosis signaling, a 48-h treatment period was administered to MCF-7 and A549 cells, followed by an assessment of the mRNA expression levels of caspases using real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (rRT-PCR). The study findings unveiled a substantial augmentation in the expression levels of all three types of caspase mRNA in cells treated with the S. costus root extract, juxtaposed to the control group that remained untreated. Moreover, the extract-treated MCF-7 and A549 cells exhibited heightened levels of pro-apoptotic Bax mRNA, alongside a concomitant reduction in the expression of anti-apoptotic genes, specifically Bcl-xL and Bcl-2. Significantly, these disparities in gene expression demonstrated statistical significance, as evidenced by a p-value <0.05, as depicted in Figure 4.

Figure 4 The impact of the S. costus root extract on MCF-7 and A549 cells was investigated, focusing on the analysis of pro- and anti-apoptosis marker genes, including caspase-3, caspase-8, caspase-9, Bax, Bcl-2, and Bcl-Xl genes. The reported values represent the mean of three separate experiments, with the standard deviation (SD) indicating the variability within the data. The asterisk (*) denotes statistical significance, with p < 0.05.
Figure 4

The impact of the S. costus root extract on MCF-7 and A549 cells was investigated, focusing on the analysis of pro- and anti-apoptosis marker genes, including caspase-3, caspase-8, caspase-9, Bax, Bcl-2, and Bcl-Xl genes. The reported values represent the mean of three separate experiments, with the standard deviation (SD) indicating the variability within the data. The asterisk (*) denotes statistical significance, with p < 0.05.

3.6 Antibacterial activity of the S. costus root extract

This section focuses on the assessment of the antibacterial properties of the methanol extract derived from the root of S. costus. Specifically, the study targeted six bacterial strains. The obtained results are meticulously documented in Table 3. In order to establish a reference for efficacy, a rigorous comparison was conducted against the widely used antibiotic ciprofloxacin. The disc diffusion assay was employed to evaluate the antibacterial potential of the S. costus root extract. The assay revealed its noteworthy effectiveness in inhibiting the growth of the tested bacterial strains, surpassing the positive control, ciprofloxacin.

Table 3

Inhibitory zone, MIC, and MBC of the root extract of S. costus

Bacterium/dilution Positive control 500 μg/mL 250 μg/mL 125 μg/mL 62.5 μg/mL MIC (μg/mL) MBC (μg/mL)
S. aureus (MTCC 29213) 25 ± 1.3 18 ± 1.6 16 ± 0.6 13 ± 1.4 11 ± 1.4 7.81 ± 1.8 15.6 ± 2.9
S. epidermidis (MTCC 12228) 24 ± 1.2 20 ± 1.3 18 ± 2.4 14 ± 1.9 10 ± 1.3 15.6 ± 1.4 31.3 ± 4.2
B. subtilis (MTCC 10400) 22 ± 0.4 20 ± 2.9 19 ± 1.4 13 ± 1.7 11 ± 1.69 15.6 ± 1.5 31.3 ± 1.3
E. coli (ATCC 25922) 24 ± 2.2 19 ± 1.6 17 ± 1.6 14 ± 2.3 6 ± 0.3 62.5 ± 1.8 125 ± 2.9
K. pneumoniae (MTCC 13883) 23 ± 1.35 20 ± 132 15 ± 1.25 13 ± 1.45 7 ± 0.93 125 ± 3.7 250 ± 1.5
P. aeruginosa (MTCC 27853) 27 ± 2.27 19 ± 0.6 15 ± 0.4 11 ± 1.2 7 ± 0.8 62.5 ± 3.6 125 ± 3.7

Notably, the extract exhibited its most profound antibacterial activity, as evidenced by the MIC values ranging from 7.81 ± 1.8 to 125 ± 3.7 μg/mL. Among the strains examined, strains such as S. aureus, S. epidermidis, and B. subtilis demonstrated higher susceptibility to the extract. Conversely, strains such as P. aeruginosa, K. pneumoniae, and E. coli exhibited relatively lower sensitivity. This observation implies a tendency for Gram-negative bacteria to manifest greater resistance towards the S. costus root extract compared to Gram-positive bacteria.

In summary, the findings of this study underscore the pronounced antibacterial efficacy of the S. costus root extract against the tested bacterial strains, surpassing the effectiveness of ciprofloxacin.

4 Discussion

For centuries, botanical sources have been extensively utilized for their medicinal properties, and S. costus, commonly referred to as costus or Indian costus, exemplifies this trend. Despite previous investigations shedding light on the cytotoxic and antimicrobial attributes of S. costus root extract, there exists a noticeable research void pertaining to its antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anti-cancer capabilities. Consequently, this study endeavors to bridge this knowledge gap by undertaking a methodical examination of methanol extracts derived from the roots of S. costus. Particularly noteworthy is the limited number of prior inquiries conducted in this area, which underscores the significance of this study in elucidating the chemical composition and potential pharmacological activities of the methanol extract procured from S. costus roots. The principal objectives of this study encompass the comprehensive analysis of the antioxidant, anti-cancer, and antibacterial properties inherent in the root methanol extract of S. costus. Through a meticulous investigation, this study uncovers substantial therapeutic potential inherent in the methanol root extract of S. costus, thereby aligning with the prevailing body of evidence that underscores the medicinal value attributed to plant-derived extracts. The phytochemical profile of the root methanol extract of S. costus was assessed using GC-MS/FID analysis. This analytical approach revealed a diverse array of compounds present in the extract, which is in line with the observations made by a previous study [54]. The aforementioned study emphasized the presence of a wide range of secondary metabolites with established bioactivity in medicinal plants. The findings of our GC-MS/FID analysis align with the previous findings, further substantiating the diverse and bioactive nature of the secondary metabolites present in S. costus root extract, highlighting the diversity and bioactivity of secondary metabolites in medicinal plants.

Phenolics represent the largest category of phytochemicals, playing a pivotal role in the antioxidant activity exhibited by plants and plant-derived products. Among the various subclasses of phenolics, flavonoids emerge as the most abundant and diverse group of naturally occurring phenolic compounds. These compounds are found in a wide range of plant tissues, existing in both free and glycoside forms. The presence of flavonoids in diverse plant sections further underscores their significance in contributing to the overall phenolic content and antioxidant capacity of plants [55]. The methanol extract derived from the roots of S. costus exhibited notable levels of TPC measuring at 188.2 ± 2.1 mg gallic acid equivalents (GAE) per gram of dry weight (DM). Additionally, the extract demonstrated a significant TFC of 129 ± 2.6 mg QE per gram of DM. These findings are in line with previous research, which reported the presence of phenols and flavonoids in the methanolic extract of Saussurea lappa L. roots within the ranges of 12.34–75.02 mg GAE/g and 16.2–67.60 mg QE/g, respectively. The consistency between these studies further supports the presence of considerable phenolic and flavonoid compounds in the methanol root extract of S. costus.

The findings regarding the high levels of phenolic and flavonoid compounds in the methanol root extract of S. costus are consistent with the research conducted by Jones and King [56]. Their study established methanol as an efficient solvent for extracting these bioactive compounds from plant materials. Furthermore, the literature extensively documents the effectiveness of phenolic and flavonoid compounds in combating various ailments, as demonstrated in the work of Patel and Majumdar and others. These studies provide additional support for the potential therapeutic value of the phenolic and flavonoid compounds present in the methanol root extract of S. costus [57].

The remarkable antioxidant capacity exhibited by the S. costus extract, surpassing that of vitamin C, represents a noteworthy finding. This observation aligns with previous studies, such as the work conducted by Lee and Huang [58], which have highlighted the potent antioxidant activities of herbal extracts. These studies attribute the antioxidant potential to the rich composition of phytochemicals present in these extracts. Of particular significance in our study is the dose-dependent antioxidant activity observed, indicating the possibility of tailoring dosages to achieve specific therapeutic outcomes. This concept is supported by the pharmacodynamic principles elucidated by Park and underscores the potential for optimizing the therapeutic efficacy of S. costus extract through careful dosage adjustments [59].

The cytotoxicity assessment of the S. costus extract revealed significant efficacy in inhibiting the growth of MCF-7 and A549 cancer cell lines. This finding is consistent with the research conducted by Liu et al. (2021), which highlighted the anti-cancer potential of plant extracts. The anti-cancer effects of such extracts are mediated through diverse cellular mechanisms, including apoptosis induction, cell cycle arrest, and inhibition of metastasis. These findings further support the potential of the S. costus extract as a promising candidate in the development of anti-cancer therapies [60]. Collectively, the cytotoxicity evaluation of the S. costus extract against MCF-7 and A549 cancer cell lines, along with the supporting findings from Liu et al. (2021) and related studies, underscores the promising anti-cancer potential of plant extracts. The multifaceted mechanisms through which these extracts exert their effects, including the induction of apoptosis, regulation of the cell cycle, and inhibition of metastasis, highlight their significance as potential therapeutic agents in combating cancer. The concentration-dependent nature of this cytotoxicity underscores the importance of dosage in therapeutic applications, a principle widely recognized in pharmacological studies.

Apoptosis, a highly regulated and essential process in cellular biology, serves as a programmed mechanism for cell death in response to various environmental stimuli. Mammalian cells possess two major apoptotic pathways: the extrinsic or death receptor pathway and the intrinsic or mitochondrial pathway. The extrinsic pathway is initiated by the engagement of death receptors, leading to the activation of caspase-8, while the intrinsic pathway involves the release of mitochondrial factors and subsequent activation of caspase-9. The activation of caspases, a family of proteases, is a pivotal event in both the extrinsic and intrinsic apoptotic cascades, ultimately leading to cellular demise [61]. It is noteworthy that caspase-8 predominantly plays a critical role in the extrinsic apoptotic route. On the other hand, the activation of caspase-9 has been associated with both the mitochondrial and intrinsic apoptotic pathways [62]. Caspases may be activated in anti-cancer treatment by either triggering the extrinsic or intrinsic pathways at the mitochondria [63]. Increased Bax expression enhances sensitivity to apoptotic stimuli and prevents tumor formation in breast cancer cells [64]. Another different anti-apoptotic genes such as Bcl-xL can serve to prevent apoptosis in response to Bax [65]. Bcl-xL expression has been linked to the development of breast cancer [66]. While Bcl-xL reduces apoptosis, it is regarded to be a critical molecule in chemoresistance development [67]. The extract’s impact on apoptosis signaling, evidenced by the modulation of caspase mRNA and the balance between pro-apoptotic and anti-apoptotic genes, provides a window into its potential mechanism of action against cancer cells. This mechanism aligns with the findings of Zhang and Wong [68], who reported similar apoptotic pathways being targeted by phytochemicals in cancer therapy.

Moreover, the observed antibacterial activity of the extract, particularly against Gram-positive bacteria, serves to further enhance its pharmacological profile. This noteworthy finding aligns with the research conducted by Gupta and Chen [69], who emphasized the potential of plant extracts as viable alternatives to conventional antibiotics. The emergence and proliferation of antibiotic resistance, as extensively discussed in the comprehensive reviews by Sharma and Agrawal [70], have raised serious concerns regarding the efficacy of existing therapeutic options. This critical situation accentuates the pressing need for the development of novel antibacterial agents. In this regard, plant extracts, such as the extract derived from S. costus, present a promising avenue for exploration due to their potential as alternative sources of antibacterial compounds.

The pharmacological features of S. costus root extract, which include anti-cancer, antioxidant, and antibacterial properties, show its potential as a multifaceted therapeutic agent. These results not only confirm the traditional use of S. costus in herbal medicine but also provide new opportunities for the creation of innovative medicines. The work, therefore, adds to a better knowledge of the therapeutic characteristics of plant extracts, highlighting the need for further research into their potential uses in current healthcare systems. The findings of this study provide a basis for future research endeavors aimed at exploring the clinical applications of these extracts, optimizing the extraction methods employed, and identifying the specific compounds responsible for the observed bioactivities. These investigations hold considerable promise in facilitating the development of novel drugs and therapeutic approaches.

A limitation of this study is the lack of in vivo experiments, as they were not the primary focus of our research. While in vitro investigations provide valuable insights, conducting in vivo trials is crucial for a comprehensive exploration of the potential bioactivity of S. costus L. in combating infectious diseases. Further research encompassing both in vitro and in vivo studies is warranted to deepen our understanding of the efficacy and mechanisms of action of S. costus L. and its potential applications in the treatment of infectious diseases.

5 Conclusions

The present study undertook an extensive investigation into the pharmacological characteristics of the methanol root extract of S. costus, employing a diverse array of analytical techniques, notably GC-MS/FID. The findings revealed a multifaceted phytochemical composition, prominently featuring compounds such as naphtho(2,3-b)furan-2(3H)-one and eudesma-5,11(13)-dien-8,12-olide. Importantly, the extract demonstrated a notably high TPC and TFC, thereby underscoring its potent antioxidant properties, as corroborated by rigorous DPPH and ABTS assays. These results substantiate the extract’s potential efficacy in managing oxidative stress-related disorders. Furthermore, the extract exhibited substantial cytotoxic effects against MCF-7 and A549 cancer cell lines, thereby accentuating its potential utility in cancer therapy. The observed dose-dependent cytotoxicity and its consequential impact on apoptosis signaling pathways, as evidenced by discernible changes in caspase mRNA expression and the intricate equilibrium between pro- and anti-apoptotic genes, furnish valuable insights into its mechanism of action against cancer cells. In addition, the extract exhibited noteworthy antibacterial activity, particularly against Gram-positive bacteria, thereby suggesting its potential application in combating bacterial infections, a matter of escalating concern in light of the burgeoning antibiotic resistance crisis. These findings engender a deeper comprehension of the medicinal properties intrinsic to plant extracts and firmly advocate for further exploration into their potential applications within contemporary healthcare systems. Subsequent research endeavors must concentrate on the clinical implications of these extracts, optimization of extraction methodologies, and identification of specific bioactive compounds responsible for the observed bioactivities, which hold the potential to engender the development of novel pharmaceuticals and therapeutic modalities for diverse disease states.

Acknowledgments

The authors thank the Researchers Supporting Project number (RSP2024R418), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

  1. Funding information: The research was financially supported by Researchers Supporting Project number (RSP2024R418), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

  2. Author contributions: The research was conceptualized by M.A.B. and I.M.A., who contributed to the development of the study’s overall framework and objectives. I.M.A. was responsible for designing the methodology and selecting the appropriate software tools for data analysis. The validation process involved the input and expertise of M.A.B. and S.M.I., ensuring the accuracy and reliability of the research findings. I.M.A. conducted the formal analysis of the collected data, while also overseeing the investigation and managing the available resources. I.M.A. curated the data, organizing and preparing it for analysis and interpretation. The initial draft of the manuscript was written by S.M.I., with I.M.A. contributing to the subsequent review and editing process. I.M.A. was also responsible for visualizing the data in a clear and concise manner. M.A.B. provided supervision throughout the research project, ensuring its smooth progression. The project administration, including coordination and logistical aspects, was overseen by R.M.A. Finally, R.M.A. played a role in securing the necessary funding for the research. Importantly, all authors have thoroughly reviewed the manuscript and have given their consent for its publication in its current form.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors have stated that they have no conflict of interest related to the research conducted in the study. This declaration signifies that there are no competing financial or personal interests that could potentially influence the objectivity, integrity, or interpretation of the research findings.

  4. Ethical approval: The research conducted does not pertain to the utilization of humans or animals.

  5. Data availability statement: All the data generated and analyzed during the course of this study have been comprehensively documented and are fully available in the published article.

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Received: 2024-01-10
Revised: 2024-02-16
Accepted: 2024-02-19
Published Online: 2024-03-21

© 2024 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Artikel in diesem Heft

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  5. Synthesis, characterization, in silico and in vitro studies of novel glycoconjugates as potential antibacterial, antifungal, and antileishmanial agents
  6. Sonochemical synthesis of gold nanoparticles mediated by potato starch: Its performance in the treatment of esophageal cancer
  7. Computational study of ADME-Tox prediction of selected phytochemicals from Punica granatum peels
  8. Phytochemical analysis, in vitro antioxidant and antifungal activities of extracts and essential oil derived from Artemisia herba-alba Asso
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https://doi.org/10.1515/chem-2024-0002
Schlagwörter für diesen Artikel
apoptosis markers; antioxidant; anti-cancer; antibacterial properties; natural products
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Artikel in diesem Heft

  1. Regular Articles
  2. Porous silicon nanostructures: Synthesis, characterization, and their antifungal activity
  3. Biochar from de-oiled Chlorella vulgaris and its adsorption on antibiotics
  4. Phytochemicals profiling, in vitro and in vivo antidiabetic activity, and in silico studies on Ajuga iva (L.) Schreb.: A comprehensive approach
  5. Synthesis, characterization, in silico and in vitro studies of novel glycoconjugates as potential antibacterial, antifungal, and antileishmanial agents
  6. Sonochemical synthesis of gold nanoparticles mediated by potato starch: Its performance in the treatment of esophageal cancer
  7. Computational study of ADME-Tox prediction of selected phytochemicals from Punica granatum peels
  8. Phytochemical analysis, in vitro antioxidant and antifungal activities of extracts and essential oil derived from Artemisia herba-alba Asso
  9. Two triazole-based coordination polymers: Synthesis and crystal structure characterization
  10. Phytochemical and physicochemical studies of different apple varieties grown in Morocco
  11. Synthesis of multi-template molecularly imprinted polymers (MT-MIPs) for isolating ethyl para-methoxycinnamate and ethyl cinnamate from Kaempferia galanga L., extract with methacrylic acid as functional monomer
  12. Nutraceutical potential of Mesembryanthemum forsskaolii Hochst. ex Bioss.: Insights into its nutritional composition, phytochemical contents, and antioxidant activity
  13. Evaluation of influence of Butea monosperma floral extract on inflammatory biomarkers
  14. Cannabis sativa L. essential oil: Chemical composition, anti-oxidant, anti-microbial properties, and acute toxicity: In vitro, in vivo, and in silico study
  15. The effect of gamma radiation on 5-hydroxymethylfurfural conversion in water and dimethyl sulfoxide
  16. Hollow mushroom nanomaterials for potentiometric sensing of Pb2+ ions in water via the intercalation of iodide ions into the polypyrrole matrix
  17. Determination of essential oil and chemical composition of St. John’s Wort
  18. Computational design and in vitro assay of lantadene-based novel inhibitors of NS3 protease of dengue virus
  19. Anti-parasitic activity and computational studies on a novel labdane diterpene from the roots of Vachellia nilotica
  20. Microbial dynamics and dehydrogenase activity in tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) rhizospheres: Impacts on growth and soil health across different soil types
  21. Correlation between in vitro anti-urease activity and in silico molecular modeling approach of novel imidazopyridine–oxadiazole hybrids derivatives
  22. Spatial mapping of indoor air quality in a light metro system using the geographic information system method
  23. Iron indices and hemogram in renal anemia and the improvement with Tribulus terrestris green-formulated silver nanoparticles applied on rat model
  24. Integrated track of nano-informatics coupling with the enrichment concept in developing a novel nanoparticle targeting ERK protein in Naegleria fowleri
  25. Cytotoxic and phytochemical screening of Solanum lycopersicum–Daucus carota hydro-ethanolic extract and in silico evaluation of its lycopene content as anticancer agent
  26. Protective activities of silver nanoparticles containing Panax japonicus on apoptotic, inflammatory, and oxidative alterations in isoproterenol-induced cardiotoxicity
  27. pH-based colorimetric detection of monofunctional aldehydes in liquid and gas phases
  28. Investigating the effect of resveratrol on apoptosis and regulation of gene expression of Caco-2 cells: Unravelling potential implications for colorectal cancer treatment
  29. Metformin inhibits knee osteoarthritis induced by type 2 diabetes mellitus in rats: S100A8/9 and S100A12 as players and therapeutic targets
  30. Effect of silver nanoparticles formulated by Silybum marianum on menopausal urinary incontinence in ovariectomized rats
  31. Synthesis of new analogs of N-substituted(benzoylamino)-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridines
  32. Response of yield and quality of Japonica rice to different gradients of moisture deficit at grain-filling stage in cold regions
  33. Preparation of an inclusion complex of nickel-based β-cyclodextrin: Characterization and accelerating the osteoarthritis articular cartilage repair
  34. Empagliflozin-loaded nanomicelles responsive to reactive oxygen species for renal ischemia/reperfusion injury protection
  35. Preparation and pharmacodynamic evaluation of sodium aescinate solid lipid nanoparticles
  36. Assessment of potentially toxic elements and health risks of agricultural soil in Southwest Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
  37. Theoretical investigation of hydrogen-rich fuel production through ammonia decomposition
  38. Biosynthesis and screening of cobalt nanoparticles using citrus species for antimicrobial activity
  39. Investigating the interplay of genetic variations, MCP-1 polymorphism, and docking with phytochemical inhibitors for combatting dengue virus pathogenicity through in silico analysis
  40. Ultrasound induced biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles embedded into chitosan polymers: Investigation of its anti-cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma effects
  41. Copper oxide nanoparticles-mediated Heliotropium bacciferum leaf extract: Antifungal activity and molecular docking assays against strawberry pathogens
  42. Sprouted wheat flour for improving physical, chemical, rheological, microbial load, and quality properties of fino bread
  43. Comparative toxicity assessment of fisetin-aided artificial intelligence-assisted drug design targeting epibulbar dermoid through phytochemicals
  44. Acute toxicity and anti-inflammatory activity of bis-thiourea derivatives
  45. Anti-diabetic activity-guided isolation of α-amylase and α-glucosidase inhibitory terpenes from Capsella bursa-pastoris Linn.
  46. GC–MS analysis of Lactobacillus plantarum YW11 metabolites and its computational analysis on familial pulmonary fibrosis hub genes
  47. Green formulation of copper nanoparticles by Pistacia khinjuk leaf aqueous extract: Introducing a novel chemotherapeutic drug for the treatment of prostate cancer
  48. Improved photocatalytic properties of WO3 nanoparticles for Malachite green dye degradation under visible light irradiation: An effect of La doping
  49. One-pot synthesis of a network of Mn2O3–MnO2–poly(m-methylaniline) composite nanorods on a polypyrrole film presents a promising and efficient optoelectronic and solar cell device
  50. Groundwater quality and health risk assessment of nitrate and fluoride in Al Qaseem area, Saudi Arabia
  51. A comparative study of the antifungal efficacy and phytochemical composition of date palm leaflet extracts
  52. Processing of alcohol pomelo beverage (Citrus grandis (L.) Osbeck) using saccharomyces yeast: Optimization, physicochemical quality, and sensory characteristics
  53. Specialized compounds of four Cameroonian spices: Isolation, characterization, and in silico evaluation as prospective SARS-CoV-2 inhibitors
  54. Identification of a novel drug target in Porphyromonas gingivalis by a computational genome analysis approach
  55. Physico-chemical properties and durability of a fly-ash-based geopolymer
  56. FMS-like tyrosine kinase 3 inhibitory potentials of some phytochemicals from anti-leukemic plants using computational chemical methodologies
  57. Wild Thymus zygis L. ssp. gracilis and Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh.: Chemical composition, antioxidant and antibacterial activities of essential oils
  58. 3D-QSAR, molecular docking, ADMET, simulation dynamic, and retrosynthesis studies on new styrylquinolines derivatives against breast cancer
  59. Deciphering the influenza neuraminidase inhibitory potential of naturally occurring biflavonoids: An in silico approach
  60. Determination of heavy elements in agricultural regions, Saudi Arabia
  61. Synthesis and characterization of antioxidant-enriched Moringa oil-based edible oleogel
  62. Ameliorative effects of thistle and thyme honeys on cyclophosphamide-induced toxicity in mice
  63. Study of phytochemical compound and antipyretic activity of Chenopodium ambrosioides L. fractions
  64. Investigating the adsorption mechanism of zinc chloride-modified porous carbon for sulfadiazine removal from water
  65. Performance repair of building materials using alumina and silica composite nanomaterials with electrodynamic properties
  66. Effects of nanoparticles on the activity and resistance genes of anaerobic digestion enzymes in livestock and poultry manure containing the antibiotic tetracycline
  67. Effect of copper nanoparticles green-synthesized using Ocimum basilicum against Pseudomonas aeruginosa in mice lung infection model
  68. Cardioprotective effects of nanoparticles green formulated by Spinacia oleracea extract on isoproterenol-induced myocardial infarction in mice by the determination of PPAR-γ/NF-κB pathway
  69. Anti-OTC antibody-conjugated fluorescent magnetic/silica and fluorescent hybrid silica nanoparticles for oxytetracycline detection
  70. Curcumin conjugated zinc nanoparticles for the treatment of myocardial infarction
  71. Identification and in silico screening of natural phloroglucinols as potential PI3Kα inhibitors: A computational approach for drug discovery
  72. Exploring the phytochemical profile and antioxidant evaluation: Molecular docking and ADMET analysis of main compounds from three Solanum species in Saudi Arabia
  73. Unveiling the molecular composition and biological properties of essential oil derived from the leaves of wild Mentha aquatica L.: A comprehensive in vitro and in silico exploration
  74. Analysis of bioactive compounds present in Boerhavia elegans seeds by GC-MS
  75. Homology modeling and molecular docking study of corticotrophin-releasing hormone: An approach to treat stress-related diseases
  76. LncRNA MIR17HG alleviates heart failure via targeting MIR17HG/miR-153-3p/SIRT1 axis in in vitro model
  77. Development and validation of a stability indicating UPLC-DAD method coupled with MS-TQD for ramipril and thymoquinone in bioactive SNEDDS with in silico toxicity analysis of ramipril degradation products
  78. Biosynthesis of Ag/Cu nanocomposite mediated by Curcuma longa: Evaluation of its antibacterial properties against oral pathogens
  79. Development of AMBER-compliant transferable force field parameters for polytetrafluoroethylene
  80. Treatment of gestational diabetes by Acroptilon repens leaf aqueous extract green-formulated iron nanoparticles in rats
  81. Development and characterization of new ecological adsorbents based on cardoon wastes: Application to brilliant green adsorption
  82. A fast, sensitive, greener, and stability-indicating HPLC method for the standardization and quantitative determination of chlorhexidine acetate in commercial products
  83. Assessment of Se, As, Cd, Cr, Hg, and Pb content status in Ankang tea plantations of China
  84. Effect of transition metal chloride (ZnCl2) on low-temperature pyrolysis of high ash bituminous coal
  85. Evaluating polyphenol and ascorbic acid contents, tannin removal ability, and physical properties during hydrolysis and convective hot-air drying of cashew apple powder
  86. Development and characterization of functional low-fat frozen dairy dessert enhanced with dried lemongrass powder
  87. Scrutinizing the effect of additive and synergistic antibiotics against carbapenem-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa
  88. Preparation, characterization, and determination of the therapeutic effects of copper nanoparticles green-formulated by Pistacia atlantica in diabetes-induced cardiac dysfunction in rat
  89. Antioxidant and antidiabetic potentials of methoxy-substituted Schiff bases using in vitro, in vivo, and molecular simulation approaches
  90. Anti-melanoma cancer activity and chemical profile of the essential oil of Seseli yunnanense Franch
  91. Molecular docking analysis of subtilisin-like alkaline serine protease (SLASP) and laccase with natural biopolymers
  92. Overcoming methicillin resistance by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: Computational evaluation of napthyridine and oxadiazoles compounds for potential dual inhibition of PBP-2a and FemA proteins
  93. Exploring novel antitubercular agents: Innovative design of 2,3-diaryl-quinoxalines targeting DprE1 for effective tuberculosis treatment
  94. Drimia maritima flowers as a source of biologically potent components: Optimization of bioactive compound extractions, isolation, UPLC–ESI–MS/MS, and pharmacological properties
  95. Estimating molecular properties, drug-likeness, cardiotoxic risk, liability profile, and molecular docking study to characterize binding process of key phyto-compounds against serotonin 5-HT2A receptor
  96. Fabrication of β-cyclodextrin-based microgels for enhancing solubility of Terbinafine: An in-vitro and in-vivo toxicological evaluation
  97. Phyto-mediated synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles and their sunlight-driven photocatalytic degradation of cationic and anionic dyes
  98. Monosodium glutamate induces hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis hyperactivation, glucocorticoid receptors down-regulation, and systemic inflammatory response in young male rats: Impact on miR-155 and miR-218
  99. Quality control analyses of selected honey samples from Serbia based on their mineral and flavonoid profiles, and the invertase activity
  100. Eco-friendly synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Phyllanthus niruri leaf extract: Assessment of antimicrobial activity, effectiveness on tropical neglected mosquito vector control, and biocompatibility using a fibroblast cell line model
  101. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles containing Cichorium intybus to treat the sepsis-induced DNA damage in the liver of Wistar albino rats
  102. Quality changes of durian pulp (Durio ziberhinus Murr.) in cold storage
  103. Study on recrystallization process of nitroguanidine by directly adding cold water to control temperature
  104. Determination of heavy metals and health risk assessment in drinking water in Bukayriyah City, Saudi Arabia
  105. Larvicidal properties of essential oils of three Artemisia species against the chemically insecticide-resistant Nile fever vector Culex pipiens (L.) (Diptera: Culicidae): In vitro and in silico studies
  106. Design, synthesis, characterization, and theoretical calculations, along with in silico and in vitro antimicrobial proprieties of new isoxazole-amide conjugates
  107. The impact of drying and extraction methods on total lipid, fatty acid profile, and cytotoxicity of Tenebrio molitor larvae
  108. A zinc oxide–tin oxide–nerolidol hybrid nanomaterial: Efficacy against esophageal squamous cell carcinoma
  109. Research on technological process for production of muskmelon juice (Cucumis melo L.)
  110. Physicochemical components, antioxidant activity, and predictive models for quality of soursop tea (Annona muricata L.) during heat pump drying
  111. Characterization and application of Fe1−xCoxFe2O4 nanoparticles in Direct Red 79 adsorption
  112. Torilis arvensis ethanolic extract: Phytochemical analysis, antifungal efficacy, and cytotoxicity properties
  113. Magnetite–poly-1H pyrrole dendritic nanocomposite seeded on poly-1H pyrrole: A promising photocathode for green hydrogen generation from sanitation water without using external sacrificing agent
  114. HPLC and GC–MS analyses of phytochemical compounds in Haloxylon salicornicum extract: Antibacterial and antifungal activity assessment of phytopathogens
  115. Efficient and stable to coking catalysts of ethanol steam reforming comprised of Ni + Ru loaded on MgAl2O4 + LnFe0.7Ni0.3O3 (Ln = La, Pr) nanocomposites prepared via cost-effective procedure with Pluronic P123 copolymer
  116. Nitrogen and boron co-doped carbon dots probe for selectively detecting Hg2+ in water samples and the detection mechanism
  117. Heavy metals in road dust from typical old industrial areas of Wuhan: Seasonal distribution and bioaccessibility-based health risk assessment
  118. Phytochemical profiling and bioactivity evaluation of CBD- and THC-enriched Cannabis sativa extracts: In vitro and in silico investigation of antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects
  119. Investigating dye adsorption: The role of surface-modified montmorillonite nanoclay in kinetics, isotherms, and thermodynamics
  120. Antimicrobial activity, induction of ROS generation in HepG2 liver cancer cells, and chemical composition of Pterospermum heterophyllum
  121. Study on the performance of nanoparticle-modified PVDF membrane in delaying membrane aging
  122. Impact of cholesterol in encapsulated vitamin E acetate within cocoliposomes
  123. Review Articles
  124. Structural aspects of Pt(η3-X1N1X2)(PL) (X1,2 = O, C, or Se) and Pt(η3-N1N2X1)(PL) (X1 = C, S, or Se) derivatives
  125. Biosurfactants in biocorrosion and corrosion mitigation of metals: An overview
  126. Stimulus-responsive MOF–hydrogel composites: Classification, preparation, characterization, and their advancement in medical treatments
  127. Electrochemical dissolution of titanium under alternating current polarization to obtain its dioxide
  128. Special Issue on Recent Trends in Green Chemistry
  129. Phytochemical screening and antioxidant activity of Vitex agnus-castus L.
  130. Phytochemical study, antioxidant activity, and dermoprotective activity of Chenopodium ambrosioides (L.)
  131. Exploitation of mangliculous marine fungi, Amarenographium solium, for the green synthesis of silver nanoparticles and their activity against multiple drug-resistant bacteria
  132. Study of the phytotoxicity of margines on Pistia stratiotes L.
  133. Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials for Energy, Environmental and Biological Applications - Part III
  134. Impact of biogenic zinc oxide nanoparticles on growth, development, and antioxidant system of high protein content crop (Lablab purpureus L.) sweet
  135. Green synthesis, characterization, and application of iron and molybdenum nanoparticles and their composites for enhancing the growth of Solanum lycopersicum
  136. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles from Olea europaea L. extracted polysaccharides, characterization, and its assessment as an antimicrobial agent against multiple pathogenic microbes
  137. Photocatalytic treatment of organic dyes using metal oxides and nanocomposites: A quantitative study
  138. Antifungal, antioxidant, and photocatalytic activities of greenly synthesized iron oxide nanoparticles
  139. Special Issue on Phytochemical and Pharmacological Scrutinization of Medicinal Plants
  140. Hepatoprotective effects of safranal on acetaminophen-induced hepatotoxicity in rats
  141. Chemical composition and biological properties of Thymus capitatus plants from Algerian high plains: A comparative and analytical study
  142. Chemical composition and bioactivities of the methanol root extracts of Saussurea costus
  143. In vivo protective effects of vitamin C against cyto-genotoxicity induced by Dysphania ambrosioides aqueous extract
  144. Insights about the deleterious impact of a carbamate pesticide on some metabolic immune and antioxidant functions and a focus on the protective ability of a Saharan shrub and its anti-edematous property
  145. A comprehensive review uncovering the anticancerous potential of genkwanin (plant-derived compound) in several human carcinomas
  146. A study to investigate the anticancer potential of carvacrol via targeting Notch signaling in breast cancer
  147. Assessment of anti-diabetic properties of Ziziphus oenopolia (L.) wild edible fruit extract: In vitro and in silico investigations through molecular docking analysis
  148. Optimization of polyphenol extraction, phenolic profile by LC-ESI-MS/MS, antioxidant, anti-enzymatic, and cytotoxic activities of Physalis acutifolia
  149. Phytochemical screening, antioxidant properties, and photo-protective activities of Salvia balansae de Noé ex Coss
  150. Antihyperglycemic, antiglycation, anti-hypercholesteremic, and toxicity evaluation with gas chromatography mass spectrometry profiling for Aloe armatissima leaves
  151. Phyto-fabrication and characterization of gold nanoparticles by using Timur (Zanthoxylum armatum DC) and their effect on wound healing
  152. Does Erodium trifolium (Cav.) Guitt exhibit medicinal properties? Response elements from phytochemical profiling, enzyme-inhibiting, and antioxidant and antimicrobial activities
  153. Integrative in silico evaluation of the antiviral potential of terpenoids and its metal complexes derived from Homalomena aromatica based on main protease of SARS-CoV-2
  154. 6-Methoxyflavone improves anxiety, depression, and memory by increasing monoamines in mice brain: HPLC analysis and in silico studies
  155. Simultaneous extraction and quantification of hydrophilic and lipophilic antioxidants in Solanum lycopersicum L. varieties marketed in Saudi Arabia
  156. Biological evaluation of CH3OH and C2H5OH of Berberis vulgaris for in vivo antileishmanial potential against Leishmania tropica in murine models
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Heruntergeladen am 1.10.2025 von https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/chem-2024-0002/html
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