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Determination of heavy metals and health risk assessment in drinking water in Bukayriyah City, Saudi Arabia

  • Ibrahim A. Alhagri EMAIL logo , Abuzar E. A. E. Albadri , Faisal Alghriby , Fahad Al-Saqabi , Turki S. Alharbi and Saleh Alglfs
Published/Copyright: October 28, 2024
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Open Chemistry
From the journal Open Chemistry Volume 22 Issue 1

Abstract

Heavy metal levels, including arsenic, lead, cadmium, mercury, chromium, and nickel, were analyzed in 124 samples of tap and filtered water obtained from Bukayriyah city, Saudi Arabia, using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. Additionally, measurements of total dissolved solids, conductivity, and pH were also performed. The study also evaluated the potential non-cancer and cancer risks (CRs) associated with the ingestion of these heavy metals for both children and adults. The results indicated that the average concentrations of heavy metals in both tap and filtered water were found to be below the recommended limits set by the World Health Organization and the Gulf Standard Organization. To assess the non-carcinogenic risks, the chronic daily intake (CDI), hazard quotient (HQ), and hazard index were calculated for analyzed metals present in both tap and filtered water. In both the children and adult populations, the CDI indices for heavy metals in tap and filtered water followed the order of Cr > Hg > Ni > Pb > As > Cd. However, it is worth noting that the CDI values for tap water were higher than those for filtered water for both children and adults. The descending order of HQ values is as follows: Hg > Cr > As > Cd > Pb > Ni. This indicates that the HQ values for all metals are below the acceptable limit of 1. These findings confirm that the exposure to the examined metals from both tap and filtered water in Bukayriyah City is within safe limits and poses no non-carcinogenic risks. To assess the carcinogenic risks, the incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR) and total carcinogenic risk (TCR) were calculated. The order of ILCR values for both children and adults in tap and filtered water is as follows: Ni > Cr > Cd > As > Pb. All ILCR values were below the acceptable limit of 10−6 to 10−4. However, TCR values exceeded this threshold range only for children exposed to tap water, with a value of 1.43 × 10−4. Thus, children exposed to tap water have a potential risk of developing carcinogenic diseases.

Graphical abstract

Keywords: drinking-water; health risk assessment; heavy metals; ICP-MS; Bukayriyah; Saudi Arabia

1 Introduction

Safe drinking water is essential for human existence; however, over 1 billion people worldwide lack access to it [1]. The emergence of heavy metal production has raised significant concerns due to its harmful impact on the environment, especially affecting the quality of drinking water and human well-being. This industrial process results in a considerable daily discharge of metals into the air [2]. Over 50 trace elements fall under the classification of heavy metals, with a subset of 17 being the most prevalent and toxic elements. While these metals exist naturally in small quantities in our diets and can be beneficial for health, increased levels of heavy metals in the environment can pose a danger. When heavy metals surpass acceptable levels, they can enter the food chain, leading to toxic and detrimental effects on the human body [3,4,5]. The accumulation of heavy metals such as mercury, lead, cadmium, arsenic, nickel, chromium, and zinc in the body from water contamination can lead to severe health complications and diseases. These toxic heavy metals cannot be metabolized by the body and instead accumulate in adipose tissue, muscles, bones, and joints. Over time, they can affect various organs and systems, including the brain, lungs, liver, kidneys, and other vital organs [6,7,8,9]. Additionally, heavy metals are known carcinogens, increasing the risk of cancer. The long-lasting health issues caused by the inability to eliminate these metals promptly can have a significant impact on mental and central nervous function [10,11].

A health risk assessment is an essential tool for quantifying the potential dangers associated with exposure to contaminated water. By conducting comprehensive assessments, appropriate measures can be implemented to prevent the risks posed by various contaminants. Among the widely employed health risk assessment models, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) model stands as the most commonly recommended approach in this field [12].

The model incorporates both carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic analyses, taking into account crucial parameters such as chronic daily intake (CDI), hazard quotient (HQ), hazard index (HI), and cancer risk (CR). These parameters enable a complete evaluation of the potential health risks associated with exposure to contaminants [13]. Water quality health risk assessment quantifies the risks associated with exposure to polluted water. By providing a quantitative description of hazards, it enables informed decisions regarding water source protection and management [14,15].

Saudi Arabia heavily relies on groundwater to fulfill its drinking water and irrigation needs. Over the past 30 years, groundwater extraction in the country has significantly increased. In fact, groundwater sources account for 80% of Saudi Arabia’s water demands [16]. The annual depletion of water significantly outweighs the groundwater recharge. The imbalance between groundwater recharge and depletion raises significant concerns due to its potential detrimental effects on water quality. The decline in groundwater levels not only reduces the quantity of available water but also compromises its overall quality. Addressing this issue is of absolute importance to ensure sustainable water resources and uphold optimal water quality standards [17], particularly in desert areas where groundwater often exhibits high salinity levels [18]. Studies have been conducted to estimate the concentrations of metals in various types of water in multiple cities across Saudi Arabia, including Riyadh [19,20,21], Jeddah [22,23,24], Dammam [25], Jizan [26], Al-Asha [27], and Yanbu [28].

The aim of this study is to estimate the concentrations of certain heavy and trace elements in Bukayriyah City, located in the Qassim region, using the ICP-MS technique. This is the first study to investigate the levels of these potentially toxic elements in Bukayriyah city. Additionally, the study aims to assess the risks associated with these elements for both children and adults.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Study area

The study area is the city of Al-Bukayriyah, situated in the Qassim region of Saudi Arabia, north of Riyadh, as shown in the map in Figure 1. It is located at the latitude and longitude coordinates of 26.171766 and 43.563328, respectively. Spanning an area of over 5,000 km2, Al-Bukayriyah is home to a population of 63,551 individuals, according to the latest population census conducted in 2022. In the blistering summers of the Al-Qassim region, where Bukayriyah city is located, the temperatures soar to a scorching 45°C, while the winters bring a chilling chill, with lows dipping to 5°C. Amidst this dramatic temperature swing, the parched and arid region receives a modest 100–150 mm of annual rainfall. In this desert region, groundwater extracted from deep wells serves as the primary water source.

Figure 1 Map of Bukayriyah city, Al-Qassim region, Saudi Arabia.
Figure 1

Map of Bukayriyah city, Al-Qassim region, Saudi Arabia.

2.2 Collection and preparation of the samples

A total of 62 samples of tap water and 62 samples of filtered water, derived from the same tap water source using house water filters, were collected from household kitchens in Bukayriyah city in October 2023. The samples were collected in 200 mL polypropylene scintillation containers from various locations within the area. Prior to sampling, the tap and filter waters were allowed to run until any sediment on the tap was cleared. The containers were also rinsed three times with the respective water to be sampled, ensuring proper cleanliness. After the samples were collected, each sample was divided into two parts. The first part of each sample was promptly transported to the laboratory for the measurement of pH, conductivity, and total dissolved solid (TDS) salts on the same day. The second part of each sample, comprising 100 mL, was acidified using 3 mL of concentrated nitric acid (HNO3, 69%) to prevent the precipitation and crystallization of metals. The samples were then stored at 4°C until laboratory analysis.

2.3 Materials

By dilution of a 10 mg/L stock solution of an inductively coupled plasma (ICP) multi-element standard solution, a daily calibration procedure was carried out. The aforementioned standard solution, obtained from Agilent Technologies (Palo Alto, CA, USA), contained elements including As, Pb, Hg, Cd, Cr, and Ni. In order to calibrate the ICP-MS instrument, standard solutions ranging in concentrations from 0.1 to 150 μg/L were utilized. Throughout the analysis, argon gas was employed as the plasma, nebulization, and auxiliary gas. This gas had a purity level of 99.9999% and was supplied by the air-liquid company in Saudi Arabia.

2.4 Analytical methods

With a conductivity level of 0.055 μS/cm, ultra-purified water was acquired via a Barnstead water purification system ASTM Type II manufactured by Thermo Electron LED GmbH, Germany. The physiochemical parameters were assessed utilizing an Orion Star A215 pH/conductivity meter manufactured by Thermo Scientific, USA. The parameters measured were electrical conductivity, TDS, and pH. Arsenic, lead, mercury, cadmium, chromium, and nickel were analyzed by an Agilent ICP-MS 7800 instrument manufactured by Agilent, USA. Table 1 details the precise operational conditions of the ICP-MS.

Table 1

Operational parameters utilized in the ICP-MS analysis of heavy metals

ICP-MS parameters Value
Operation power 1,550
Plasma gas flow rate 30 mL/min
Nebulizer mode MicroMist
Carrier gas flow rate 5 L/min
Makeup gas flow rate 0.15 L/min
Plasma gas flow rate 15 L/min
Nebulizer pump 0.1 rps
Points/peak 3
Repetitions 3
Integration time/mass 0.3 s

2.5 Analytical quality assurance

Three replicates of the assessment of heavy metal concentrations in acidified samples were performed in order to ensure accuracy through the utilization of calibration curves derived from standard solutions analyzed by ICP-MS. Multiple parameters, such as accuracy (recovery level) and limit of detection (LOD), were utilized to validate the method implemented in the research. The LOD was computed by multiplying the formula 3 by σ/S, where S denotes the slope of the calibration line and σ represents the residual standard deviation of the linear regression (as shown in Table 6). In order to assess the precision of the method, recovery experiments were conducted wherein samples of drinking water were supplemented with increasing amounts of each analyte at three concentrations of spiking (10, 25, and 50 µg/L). As shown in Table 2, the mean recovery percentages for the elements ranged from 89.5 to 107%.

Table 6

Concentration values (μg/L; mean ± relative standard deviation) of the heavy metals analyzed in tap water and filtered water

Tap water Filtered water LOD WHO GSO
Mean ± RSD Range Mean ± RSD Range
As 0.06 ± 20 0.01–0.22 0.02 ± 16 0.01–0.05 1.0 × 10−3 10 10
Pb 0.24 ± 1.8 0.08–0.54 0.21 ± 1.6 0.11–0.60 0.5 × 10−3 10 10
Hg 1.56 ± 19 0.77–5.5 0.94 ± 19 0.43–2.6 28 × 10−2 6 6
Cd 0.06 ± 7.8 0.01–0.12 0.02 ± 6.0 0.01–0.04 1.3 × 10−3 3 3
Cr 2.02 ± 0.55 0.10–4.9 0.14 ± 2.0 0.05–0.45 0.7 × 10−3 50 50
Ni 1.01 ± 5.0 0.01–3.5 0.71 ± 16 0.03–2.46 1.0 × 10−3 70 70
Table 2

Average recovery of elements from drinking water samples and percent relative standard deviation (RSD%)

Element/concentration (µg/L) As Pb Hg Cd Cr Ni
Spike level 10 10 10 10 10 10
Mean result 9.99 9.02 9.09 10.5 9.45 10.7
Mean recovery (%) 99.9 90.2 90.9 105 94.5 107
RSD% 2.7 1.5 3.6 1.8 1.2 2.5
Spike level 25 25 25 25 25 25
Mean result 25.2 23.6 24.4 25.6 22.7 25.8
Mean recovery (%) 101 94.4 97.5 103 91.0 103
RSD% 2.6 1.3 2.8 1.4 1.4 1.6
Spike level 50 50 50 50 50 50
Mean result 50.0 49.6 49.3 50.2 44.8 50.2
Mean recovery (%) 100 101 98.7 100 89.5 100
RSD% 0.47 0.52 4.8 0.54 0.79 0.47

2.6 Human health risk assessment

Health risk assessment is a method used to estimate the potential risks of exposure to a pollutant and its harmful effects on human health. It involves analyzing both carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic factors to provide a comprehensive evaluation [29].

2.6.1 Exposure assessment

In order to evaluate the risks associated with both non-cancer and cancer effects in children and adults, the CDI of heavy metals was employed. The CDI, calculated using equation (1), represents the average daily dose of exposure to a contaminant over a person’s lifetime, also known as the lifetime average daily dose (LADD). This approach allows for a comprehensive assessment of the potential health risks posed by the presence of THMs in drinking water [30,31,32].

(1) CDI = C × IR × EF × ED BW × AT ,

where CDI is the chronic daily intake (mg/kg/day), C is the concentration of the contaminant in the water sample (mg/L), IR is the ingestion rate per unit time, ED is the exposure duration, EF is the exposure frequency, BW is the body, and AT is the average exposure time. The parameters used for the assessment of health risks associated with the ingestion of As, Pb, Hg, and Cd through drinking water are given in Table 3 [29,33,34].

Table 3

Parameters used to assess health risk assessment of As, Pb, Hg, Cd, Cr, and Ni ingestion through drinking water

Parameters Non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic risk assessment Unit
Children Adults
IR 1 2 L/day
ED 6 30 year
EF 365 365 day/year
AT(ED X EF) 2,190 25,550 day
BW 15 70 kg

2.6.2 Non-CRs

Non-CRs associated with the non-carcinogenic effects of THMs in drinking water were evaluated using the non-cancer HQ, as shown in equation (2).

(2) HQ = CDI RFD ,

where HQ is the non-cancer hazard quotient; CDI is the chronic daily intake (mg metal/kg/day); and RFD is the reference dose, in mg/kg/day. The reference dose represents the tolerable daily intake of the metal via ingestion, and is listed in Table 4 [30,35].

Table 4

RFD and CSF of the heavy metals

CSF/RFD factor Metals
As Pb Hg Cd Cr Ni
RFD (mg/kg/day) 3 × 10−4 3.6 × 10−4 3 × 10−4 5 × 10−4 3 × 10−3 2 × 10−2
CSF (mg/kg/day)−1 1.5 85 × 10−4 — 6.3 0.41 0.84

In the case of multiple heavy metals, the combined non-carcinogenic effect on the population is determined by summing up the HQs of each individual heavy metal. This cumulative value is referred to as the HI, as defined in the USEPA document [36]. The HI can be calculated using the following equation:

(3) HI = HQ As + HQ Pb + HQ Hg + HQ Cd + HQ Cr + HQ Ni ,

where HQAs, HQPb, HQHg, HQCd, HQCr, and HQNi represent the HQ of As, Pb, Hg, Cd, Cr, and Ni, respectively.

If the calculated value of HQ or HI is less than 1, it indicates that there are no significant non-CRs. However, if the value is equal to or greater than 1, it suggests the presence of significant non-CRs. Furthermore, the level of risk tends to increase with higher values of HQ or HI [37].

2.6.3 CRs

The CR is determined by the exposure to a pollutant at a lifetime average dose of 1 mg/kg body weight per day. This risk is quantified as the incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR), which represents the probability of developing cancer over a 6 or 30-year lifetime due to a 24-h exposure to a potential carcinogen [38]. The calculation of CR involves multiplying the CDI in mg/kg/day by the cancer slope factor (CSF) measured in (mg/kg/day)−1, as described in equation (4).

(4) ILCR = CDI × CSF .

The total cancer risk (TCR) resulting from exposure to multiple contaminants through the consumption of a specific type of water was estimated by summing up the incremental risks of each metal (∑ILCR). The USEPA defines the minimum or acceptable CR for regulatory purposes to be within the range of 1 × 10−6 to 1 × 10−4 [31,39]. The RFD and CSF of the heavy metals [38,40] are presented in Table 4.

3 Results and discussion

3.1 TDS, conductivity, pH, and metal concentrations in the analyzed water

Table 5 presents information about the levels of TDS, conductivity, and pH in tap and filtered water. The average TDS level in tap water is 5.80 × 102mg/L, exceeding the GSO recommended range but falling within the WHO recommended range. In contrast, the average TDS level in filtered water is 10.8 × 102 mg/L, which falls within the recommended ranges of both WHO and GSO. Regarding conductivity, tap water has an average value of 1.06 × 102 μS/cm, ranging from 9.62 × 102 to 28.6 × 102 μS/cm. In contrast, filtered water has an average conductivity of 2.08 × 102 μS/cm, ranging from 20.6 to 16.1 × 102 μS/cm. The average pH of tap water is 7.91, while the average pH of filtered water is 6.97. Both of these values fall within the recommended range of 6.5–8.5 set by both the WHO and the GSO.

Table 5

TDS, conductivity, and pH of tap and filtered water

TDS (mg/L) Conductivity (μS/cm) pH
WHO 1 × 102 – 1 × 103 — 6.5–8.5
GSO 1 × 102 – 5 × 102 — 6.5–8.5
Mean Ranges Mean Ranges Mean Ranges
Tap water 5.80 × 102 4.88 × 102 – 14.0 × 102 1.06 × 102 9.62 × 102 – 28.6 × 102 7.91 6.35–8.51
Filtered water 10.8 × 102 10.5 – 7.87 × 102 2.08 × 102 20.6 – 16.1 × 102 6.97 6.05–8.10

In order to present a clear understanding of the large number of results obtained (124 samples × 6 elements = 744 analyses), Figure 2 and Table 6 display the minimum and maximum values, as well as the mean and median values, for all the metals that were analyzed.

Figure 2 A Box plot of heavy metals in tap and filtered water in Bukayriyah city.
Figure 2

A Box plot of heavy metals in tap and filtered water in Bukayriyah city.

When comparing tap and filtered water samples, the concentration of As in both types remains below the WHO and GSO standards of 10 μg/L. In tap water, the mean concentration of arsenic is 0.06 μg/L, with a range of 0.01–0.22 μg/L. Concentrations below the LOD were found in approximately 11.3% of the samples, with the LOD for As set at 1.0 × 10−3 μg/L. In contrast, in filtered water, the mean concentration of As is 0.02 μg/L, with a range of 0.01–0.05 μg/L. Around 59.7% of the samples had concentrations below the LOD. Thus, both tap and filtered water meet the safety standards for arsenic levels in drinking water. The mean concentrations of Pb in tap and filtered water are 0.24 and 0.21 μg/L, respectively, with ranges of 0.08–0.54 μg/L and 0.11–0.60 μg/L. The LOD for Pb is 0.05 × 10−3 μg/L. It is worth noting that both tap and filtered water comply with the WHO and GSO standards, which set the maximum allowable concentration of Pb in drinking water at 10 μg/L. The average concentrations of Hg in tap and filtered water were found to be 1.56 and 0.94 μg/L, respectively, with ranges spanning from 0.77 to 5.5 μg/L and 0.43 to 2.6 μg/L. Approximately 56.45% of the tap water samples and 53.22% of the filtered water samples exhibited Hg concentrations below the LOD. The LOD for Hg is determined to be 28 × 10−2 μg/L. Importantly, both tap and filtered water meet the WHO and GSO standards, which allow a maximum concentration of 6 μg/L for Hg in drinking water. The mean concentrations of cadmium in tap and filtered water samples from Bukayriyah City are 0.06 and 0.02 μg/L, respectively, indicating low levels of cadmium in both sources. The range of cadmium concentrations in tap water is 0.01–0.12 μg/L, while in filtered water, it is 0.01–0.04 μg/L. A significant percentage of tap water samples (14.5%) and filtered water samples (62.90%) had concentrations below the LOD. The LOD for cadmium is 1.3 × 10−3 μg/L in both cases. Importantly, these mean concentrations and ranges of cadmium in both tap and filtered water are well below the WHO and GSO standards of 3 μg/L for cadmium in drinking water. Cr concentrations were measured in both tap and filtered water samples from Al-Bukayriyah City. In tap water, the mean concentration of Cr was found to be 2.02 μg/L, with a range of 0.10–4.9 μg/L. None of the samples had concentrations below the LOD, which is 0.7 × 10−3 μg/L. Similarly, in filtered water, the mean concentration of Cr was 0.14 μg/L, with a range of 0.05–0.45 μg/L. Both tap and filtered water samples exhibited Cr concentrations that were below the drinking water standards set by both WHO and the GSO, which are 50 μg/L. This indicates that the levels of Cr in both types of water are within the acceptable limits as defined by these regulatory bodies. The mean concentration of Ni in tap water was determined to be 1.01 μg/L, with a range of 0.01–3.46 μg/L. For filtered water, the mean concentration of Ni was 0.71 μg/L, with a range of 0.03–2.5 μg/L. It is worth noting that both tap and filtered water samples had concentrations within the acceptable limits set by the WHO and the GSO, which define the maximum allowable concentration of nickel in drinking water as 70 μg/L.

The mean concentrations of As, Pb, Cd, Hg, Cr, and Ni in filtered water are generally lower than those in tap water. Moreover, all mean concentrations for each element in both tap and filtered water are below the standards set by the WHO and the GSO. This indicates that the concentrations of these elements in the water samples meet the permissible limits for drinking water.

3.2 Health risk assessment

Table 7 presents the results of the CDI through the ingestion pathway for both children and adults in tap and filtered water samples. The results showed that CDI values were much lower than the reference dose as recommended by USEPA. In both the children and adult populations, the CDI indices for heavy metals in tap and filtered water followed the order of Cr > Hg > Ni > Pb > As > Cd. However, it is worth noting that the CDI values for tap water were higher than those for filtered water for both children and adults. These findings demonstrate that utilizing filtered water significantly decreases the CDI values for all metals, underscoring the advantages of water filtration systems in reducing metal exposure. Additionally, it is noteworthy that the CDI values for children were higher than those for adults in both types of water.

Table 7

CDI and HQ for children and adults by heavy metals and water-type for drinking water in Bukayriyah City

Metal CDI – children CDI – adults HQ – children HQ – adults
Tap water Filtered water Tap water Filtered water Tap water Filtered water Tap water Filtered water
As 4.0 × 10−6 1.3 × 10−6 7.4 × 10−7 2.5 × 10−7 1.33 × 10−2 0.44 × 10−2 0.25 × 10−2 0.82 × 10−3
Pb 1.6 × 10−5 1.4 × 10−5 2.9 × 10−6 2.6 × 10−6 0.44 × 10−2 0.39 × 10−2 0.08 × 10−2 0.71 × 10−3
Hg 1.1 × 10−4 6.3 × 10−5 1.9 × 10−5 1.2 × 10−5 34.7 × 10−2 20.9 × 10−2 6.37 × 10−2 38.4 × 10−3
Cd 4.0 × 10−6 1.3 × 10−6 7.4 × 10−7 2.5 × 10−7 0.80 × 10−2 0.27 × 10−2 0.15 × 10−2 0.49 × 10−3
Cr 1.4 × 10−4 9.3 × 10−6 2.5 × 10−5 1.7 × 10−6 4.49 × 10−2 0.31 × 10−2 0.82 × 10−2 0.57 × 10−3
Ni 6.7 × 10−5 4.7 × 10−5 1.2 × 10−5 8.7 × 10−6 0.34 × 10−2 0.24 × 10−2 0.06 × 10−2 0.44 × 10−3
HI = ∑ HQ 42.1 × 10−2 22.5 × 10−2 7.73 × 10−2 41.4 × 10−3

3.3 Non-carcinogenic risk

The estimation of non-carcinogenic risk for both adults and children, considering the ingestion pathway, was conducted using HQ and HI calculations. This assessment was performed for both tap and filtered water samples. Upon analyzing Table 7, it is clear that the HQ values for children and adults follow a consistent pattern in both tap and filtered water samples. The descending order of HQ values is as follows: Hg > Cr > As > Cd > Pb > Ni. This indicates that Hg poses the highest non-carcinogenic risk, while Ni poses the lowest risk among the metals evaluated in both water sources. The highest HQ value is 34.7 × 10−2 for children exposed to Hg in tap water, while the lowest HQ value is 0.44 × 10−3 for adults exposed to Ni in filtered water. This indicates that the HQ values for all metals are below the acceptable limit of 1. These findings confirm that the exposure to the examined metals from both tap and filtered water in the city of Bukayriyah is within safe limits and poses no health risks.

The HI values for heavy metals in tap and filtered water were 42.1 × 10−2 and 22.5 × 10−2, respectively, for children. For adults, the HI values were 7.73 × 10−2 for tap water and 41.4 × 10−3 for filtered water. These results indicate that the presence of heavy metals in both tap and filtered water is within acceptable limits (HI < 1) for both children and adults, ensuring minimal health risks associated with metal exposure.

3.4 Carcinogenic risk

The ILCR and TCR values for children and adults exposed to tap and filtered water in Bukayriyah City are presented in Table 8. Hg was not included in this study due to the lack of available CSF data [38], so the analysis focused on As, Pb, Cd, Cr, and Ni, which have CSF values. The order of ILCR values for both children and adults in tap and filtered water is as follows: Ni > Cr > Cd > As > Pb. The range of ILCR values varies from 5.66 × 10−5 for children exposed to Ni in tap water to 2.18 × 10−8 for adults exposed to Pb in filtered water. All ILCR values were below the acceptable limit of 10−6 to 10−4. However, TCR values exceeded this threshold range only for children exposed to tap water, with a value of 1.43 × 10−4. Thus, children exposed to tap water have a potential risk of developing carcinogenic diseases. Therefore, it is advisable to exercise caution and limit the regular consumption of tap water by children.

Table 8

ILCR and TCR for children and adults of tap and filtered water in Bukayriyah city

Metal ILCR – children ILCR – adults
Tap water Filtered water Tap water Filtered water
As 6.00 × 10−6 2.00 × 10−6 1.10 × 10−6 3.67 × 10−7
Pb 1.36 × 10−7 1.19 × 10−7 2.49 × 10−8 2.18 × 10−8
Cd 2.52 × 10−5 8.40 × 10−6 4.63 × 10−6 1.54 × 10−6
Cr 5.52 × 10−5 3.83 × 10−6 1.01 × 10−5 7.02 × 10−7
Ni 5.66 × 10−5 3.98 × 10−5 1.03 × 10−5 7.30 × 10−6
TCR= ∑ ILCR 1.43 × 10−4 5.41 × 10−5 2.63 × 10−5 9.94 × 10−6

4 Conclusion

The application of ICP-MS enabled the assessment of As, Pb, Hg, Cd, Cr, and Ni levels in tap and filtered water samples obtained from Bukayriyah City. The results indicated that the concentrations of these elements were within acceptable ranges and, in certain instances, even below the detection limit. This affirms the suitability of these water sources for drinking purposes, as they comply with the specifications set forth by the WHO and the GSO. Moreover, the measurements of TDS, conductivity, and pH also met the required standards. Furthermore, the results suggest that the overall exposure to heavy metals from both tap and filtered water in Bukayriyah City is within safe limits in terms of non-carcinogenic risks. However, there is a potential risk of carcinogenic effects for children exposed to tap water. Therefore, it is advisable to exercise caution and limit the regular consumption of tap water by children.

Acknowledgments

The authors gratefully acknowledge Qassim University, represented by the Deanship of Scientific Research, for the financial support for this research (number 2023-SDG-1-BSRC36227) during the academic year 1445 AH/2023 AD.

  1. Funding information: This study was financially supported by Qassim University, represented by the Deanship of Scientific Research (number 2023-SDG-1-BSRC36227) during the academic year 1445 AH/2023 AD.

  2. Author contributions: Ibrahim A. Alhagri: conceptualization, writing original, draft review and editing; Abuzar E. A. E. Albadri: methodology and writing original draft; Faisal Alghriby: resources; Fahad Al-Saqabi: collection of samples; Turki S. Alharbi: software; Saleh Alglfs: collection of samples.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

  4. Ethical approval: The present study did not use or harm any animals and followed all the scientific ethics.

  5. Data availability statement: All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article.

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Received: 2024-06-01
Revised: 2024-09-20
Accepted: 2024-09-27
Published Online: 2024-10-28

© 2024 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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  7. Computational study of ADME-Tox prediction of selected phytochemicals from Punica granatum peels
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https://doi.org/10.1515/chem-2024-0105
Keywords for this article
drinking-water; health risk assessment; heavy metals; ICP-MS; Bukayriyah; Saudi Arabia
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Regular Articles
  2. Porous silicon nanostructures: Synthesis, characterization, and their antifungal activity
  3. Biochar from de-oiled Chlorella vulgaris and its adsorption on antibiotics
  4. Phytochemicals profiling, in vitro and in vivo antidiabetic activity, and in silico studies on Ajuga iva (L.) Schreb.: A comprehensive approach
  5. Synthesis, characterization, in silico and in vitro studies of novel glycoconjugates as potential antibacterial, antifungal, and antileishmanial agents
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  13. Evaluation of influence of Butea monosperma floral extract on inflammatory biomarkers
  14. Cannabis sativa L. essential oil: Chemical composition, anti-oxidant, anti-microbial properties, and acute toxicity: In vitro, in vivo, and in silico study
  15. The effect of gamma radiation on 5-hydroxymethylfurfural conversion in water and dimethyl sulfoxide
  16. Hollow mushroom nanomaterials for potentiometric sensing of Pb2+ ions in water via the intercalation of iodide ions into the polypyrrole matrix
  17. Determination of essential oil and chemical composition of St. John’s Wort
  18. Computational design and in vitro assay of lantadene-based novel inhibitors of NS3 protease of dengue virus
  19. Anti-parasitic activity and computational studies on a novel labdane diterpene from the roots of Vachellia nilotica
  20. Microbial dynamics and dehydrogenase activity in tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) rhizospheres: Impacts on growth and soil health across different soil types
  21. Correlation between in vitro anti-urease activity and in silico molecular modeling approach of novel imidazopyridine–oxadiazole hybrids derivatives
  22. Spatial mapping of indoor air quality in a light metro system using the geographic information system method
  23. Iron indices and hemogram in renal anemia and the improvement with Tribulus terrestris green-formulated silver nanoparticles applied on rat model
  24. Integrated track of nano-informatics coupling with the enrichment concept in developing a novel nanoparticle targeting ERK protein in Naegleria fowleri
  25. Cytotoxic and phytochemical screening of Solanum lycopersicum–Daucus carota hydro-ethanolic extract and in silico evaluation of its lycopene content as anticancer agent
  26. Protective activities of silver nanoparticles containing Panax japonicus on apoptotic, inflammatory, and oxidative alterations in isoproterenol-induced cardiotoxicity
  27. pH-based colorimetric detection of monofunctional aldehydes in liquid and gas phases
  28. Investigating the effect of resveratrol on apoptosis and regulation of gene expression of Caco-2 cells: Unravelling potential implications for colorectal cancer treatment
  29. Metformin inhibits knee osteoarthritis induced by type 2 diabetes mellitus in rats: S100A8/9 and S100A12 as players and therapeutic targets
  30. Effect of silver nanoparticles formulated by Silybum marianum on menopausal urinary incontinence in ovariectomized rats
  31. Synthesis of new analogs of N-substituted(benzoylamino)-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridines
  32. Response of yield and quality of Japonica rice to different gradients of moisture deficit at grain-filling stage in cold regions
  33. Preparation of an inclusion complex of nickel-based β-cyclodextrin: Characterization and accelerating the osteoarthritis articular cartilage repair
  34. Empagliflozin-loaded nanomicelles responsive to reactive oxygen species for renal ischemia/reperfusion injury protection
  35. Preparation and pharmacodynamic evaluation of sodium aescinate solid lipid nanoparticles
  36. Assessment of potentially toxic elements and health risks of agricultural soil in Southwest Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
  37. Theoretical investigation of hydrogen-rich fuel production through ammonia decomposition
  38. Biosynthesis and screening of cobalt nanoparticles using citrus species for antimicrobial activity
  39. Investigating the interplay of genetic variations, MCP-1 polymorphism, and docking with phytochemical inhibitors for combatting dengue virus pathogenicity through in silico analysis
  40. Ultrasound induced biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles embedded into chitosan polymers: Investigation of its anti-cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma effects
  41. Copper oxide nanoparticles-mediated Heliotropium bacciferum leaf extract: Antifungal activity and molecular docking assays against strawberry pathogens
  42. Sprouted wheat flour for improving physical, chemical, rheological, microbial load, and quality properties of fino bread
  43. Comparative toxicity assessment of fisetin-aided artificial intelligence-assisted drug design targeting epibulbar dermoid through phytochemicals
  44. Acute toxicity and anti-inflammatory activity of bis-thiourea derivatives
  45. Anti-diabetic activity-guided isolation of α-amylase and α-glucosidase inhibitory terpenes from Capsella bursa-pastoris Linn.
  46. GC–MS analysis of Lactobacillus plantarum YW11 metabolites and its computational analysis on familial pulmonary fibrosis hub genes
  47. Green formulation of copper nanoparticles by Pistacia khinjuk leaf aqueous extract: Introducing a novel chemotherapeutic drug for the treatment of prostate cancer
  48. Improved photocatalytic properties of WO3 nanoparticles for Malachite green dye degradation under visible light irradiation: An effect of La doping
  49. One-pot synthesis of a network of Mn2O3–MnO2–poly(m-methylaniline) composite nanorods on a polypyrrole film presents a promising and efficient optoelectronic and solar cell device
  50. Groundwater quality and health risk assessment of nitrate and fluoride in Al Qaseem area, Saudi Arabia
  51. A comparative study of the antifungal efficacy and phytochemical composition of date palm leaflet extracts
  52. Processing of alcohol pomelo beverage (Citrus grandis (L.) Osbeck) using saccharomyces yeast: Optimization, physicochemical quality, and sensory characteristics
  53. Specialized compounds of four Cameroonian spices: Isolation, characterization, and in silico evaluation as prospective SARS-CoV-2 inhibitors
  54. Identification of a novel drug target in Porphyromonas gingivalis by a computational genome analysis approach
  55. Physico-chemical properties and durability of a fly-ash-based geopolymer
  56. FMS-like tyrosine kinase 3 inhibitory potentials of some phytochemicals from anti-leukemic plants using computational chemical methodologies
  57. Wild Thymus zygis L. ssp. gracilis and Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh.: Chemical composition, antioxidant and antibacterial activities of essential oils
  58. 3D-QSAR, molecular docking, ADMET, simulation dynamic, and retrosynthesis studies on new styrylquinolines derivatives against breast cancer
  59. Deciphering the influenza neuraminidase inhibitory potential of naturally occurring biflavonoids: An in silico approach
  60. Determination of heavy elements in agricultural regions, Saudi Arabia
  61. Synthesis and characterization of antioxidant-enriched Moringa oil-based edible oleogel
  62. Ameliorative effects of thistle and thyme honeys on cyclophosphamide-induced toxicity in mice
  63. Study of phytochemical compound and antipyretic activity of Chenopodium ambrosioides L. fractions
  64. Investigating the adsorption mechanism of zinc chloride-modified porous carbon for sulfadiazine removal from water
  65. Performance repair of building materials using alumina and silica composite nanomaterials with electrodynamic properties
  66. Effects of nanoparticles on the activity and resistance genes of anaerobic digestion enzymes in livestock and poultry manure containing the antibiotic tetracycline
  67. Effect of copper nanoparticles green-synthesized using Ocimum basilicum against Pseudomonas aeruginosa in mice lung infection model
  68. Cardioprotective effects of nanoparticles green formulated by Spinacia oleracea extract on isoproterenol-induced myocardial infarction in mice by the determination of PPAR-γ/NF-κB pathway
  69. Anti-OTC antibody-conjugated fluorescent magnetic/silica and fluorescent hybrid silica nanoparticles for oxytetracycline detection
  70. Curcumin conjugated zinc nanoparticles for the treatment of myocardial infarction
  71. Identification and in silico screening of natural phloroglucinols as potential PI3Kα inhibitors: A computational approach for drug discovery
  72. Exploring the phytochemical profile and antioxidant evaluation: Molecular docking and ADMET analysis of main compounds from three Solanum species in Saudi Arabia
  73. Unveiling the molecular composition and biological properties of essential oil derived from the leaves of wild Mentha aquatica L.: A comprehensive in vitro and in silico exploration
  74. Analysis of bioactive compounds present in Boerhavia elegans seeds by GC-MS
  75. Homology modeling and molecular docking study of corticotrophin-releasing hormone: An approach to treat stress-related diseases
  76. LncRNA MIR17HG alleviates heart failure via targeting MIR17HG/miR-153-3p/SIRT1 axis in in vitro model
  77. Development and validation of a stability indicating UPLC-DAD method coupled with MS-TQD for ramipril and thymoquinone in bioactive SNEDDS with in silico toxicity analysis of ramipril degradation products
  78. Biosynthesis of Ag/Cu nanocomposite mediated by Curcuma longa: Evaluation of its antibacterial properties against oral pathogens
  79. Development of AMBER-compliant transferable force field parameters for polytetrafluoroethylene
  80. Treatment of gestational diabetes by Acroptilon repens leaf aqueous extract green-formulated iron nanoparticles in rats
  81. Development and characterization of new ecological adsorbents based on cardoon wastes: Application to brilliant green adsorption
  82. A fast, sensitive, greener, and stability-indicating HPLC method for the standardization and quantitative determination of chlorhexidine acetate in commercial products
  83. Assessment of Se, As, Cd, Cr, Hg, and Pb content status in Ankang tea plantations of China
  84. Effect of transition metal chloride (ZnCl2) on low-temperature pyrolysis of high ash bituminous coal
  85. Evaluating polyphenol and ascorbic acid contents, tannin removal ability, and physical properties during hydrolysis and convective hot-air drying of cashew apple powder
  86. Development and characterization of functional low-fat frozen dairy dessert enhanced with dried lemongrass powder
  87. Scrutinizing the effect of additive and synergistic antibiotics against carbapenem-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa
  88. Preparation, characterization, and determination of the therapeutic effects of copper nanoparticles green-formulated by Pistacia atlantica in diabetes-induced cardiac dysfunction in rat
  89. Antioxidant and antidiabetic potentials of methoxy-substituted Schiff bases using in vitro, in vivo, and molecular simulation approaches
  90. Anti-melanoma cancer activity and chemical profile of the essential oil of Seseli yunnanense Franch
  91. Molecular docking analysis of subtilisin-like alkaline serine protease (SLASP) and laccase with natural biopolymers
  92. Overcoming methicillin resistance by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: Computational evaluation of napthyridine and oxadiazoles compounds for potential dual inhibition of PBP-2a and FemA proteins
  93. Exploring novel antitubercular agents: Innovative design of 2,3-diaryl-quinoxalines targeting DprE1 for effective tuberculosis treatment
  94. Drimia maritima flowers as a source of biologically potent components: Optimization of bioactive compound extractions, isolation, UPLC–ESI–MS/MS, and pharmacological properties
  95. Estimating molecular properties, drug-likeness, cardiotoxic risk, liability profile, and molecular docking study to characterize binding process of key phyto-compounds against serotonin 5-HT2A receptor
  96. Fabrication of β-cyclodextrin-based microgels for enhancing solubility of Terbinafine: An in-vitro and in-vivo toxicological evaluation
  97. Phyto-mediated synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles and their sunlight-driven photocatalytic degradation of cationic and anionic dyes
  98. Monosodium glutamate induces hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis hyperactivation, glucocorticoid receptors down-regulation, and systemic inflammatory response in young male rats: Impact on miR-155 and miR-218
  99. Quality control analyses of selected honey samples from Serbia based on their mineral and flavonoid profiles, and the invertase activity
  100. Eco-friendly synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Phyllanthus niruri leaf extract: Assessment of antimicrobial activity, effectiveness on tropical neglected mosquito vector control, and biocompatibility using a fibroblast cell line model
  101. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles containing Cichorium intybus to treat the sepsis-induced DNA damage in the liver of Wistar albino rats
  102. Quality changes of durian pulp (Durio ziberhinus Murr.) in cold storage
  103. Study on recrystallization process of nitroguanidine by directly adding cold water to control temperature
  104. Determination of heavy metals and health risk assessment in drinking water in Bukayriyah City, Saudi Arabia
  105. Larvicidal properties of essential oils of three Artemisia species against the chemically insecticide-resistant Nile fever vector Culex pipiens (L.) (Diptera: Culicidae): In vitro and in silico studies
  106. Design, synthesis, characterization, and theoretical calculations, along with in silico and in vitro antimicrobial proprieties of new isoxazole-amide conjugates
  107. The impact of drying and extraction methods on total lipid, fatty acid profile, and cytotoxicity of Tenebrio molitor larvae
  108. A zinc oxide–tin oxide–nerolidol hybrid nanomaterial: Efficacy against esophageal squamous cell carcinoma
  109. Research on technological process for production of muskmelon juice (Cucumis melo L.)
  110. Physicochemical components, antioxidant activity, and predictive models for quality of soursop tea (Annona muricata L.) during heat pump drying
  111. Characterization and application of Fe1−xCoxFe2O4 nanoparticles in Direct Red 79 adsorption
  112. Torilis arvensis ethanolic extract: Phytochemical analysis, antifungal efficacy, and cytotoxicity properties
  113. Magnetite–poly-1H pyrrole dendritic nanocomposite seeded on poly-1H pyrrole: A promising photocathode for green hydrogen generation from sanitation water without using external sacrificing agent
  114. HPLC and GC–MS analyses of phytochemical compounds in Haloxylon salicornicum extract: Antibacterial and antifungal activity assessment of phytopathogens
  115. Efficient and stable to coking catalysts of ethanol steam reforming comprised of Ni + Ru loaded on MgAl2O4 + LnFe0.7Ni0.3O3 (Ln = La, Pr) nanocomposites prepared via cost-effective procedure with Pluronic P123 copolymer
  116. Nitrogen and boron co-doped carbon dots probe for selectively detecting Hg2+ in water samples and the detection mechanism
  117. Heavy metals in road dust from typical old industrial areas of Wuhan: Seasonal distribution and bioaccessibility-based health risk assessment
  118. Phytochemical profiling and bioactivity evaluation of CBD- and THC-enriched Cannabis sativa extracts: In vitro and in silico investigation of antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects
  119. Investigating dye adsorption: The role of surface-modified montmorillonite nanoclay in kinetics, isotherms, and thermodynamics
  120. Antimicrobial activity, induction of ROS generation in HepG2 liver cancer cells, and chemical composition of Pterospermum heterophyllum
  121. Study on the performance of nanoparticle-modified PVDF membrane in delaying membrane aging
  122. Impact of cholesterol in encapsulated vitamin E acetate within cocoliposomes
  123. Review Articles
  124. Structural aspects of Pt(η3-X1N1X2)(PL) (X1,2 = O, C, or Se) and Pt(η3-N1N2X1)(PL) (X1 = C, S, or Se) derivatives
  125. Biosurfactants in biocorrosion and corrosion mitigation of metals: An overview
  126. Stimulus-responsive MOF–hydrogel composites: Classification, preparation, characterization, and their advancement in medical treatments
  127. Electrochemical dissolution of titanium under alternating current polarization to obtain its dioxide
  128. Special Issue on Recent Trends in Green Chemistry
  129. Phytochemical screening and antioxidant activity of Vitex agnus-castus L.
  130. Phytochemical study, antioxidant activity, and dermoprotective activity of Chenopodium ambrosioides (L.)
  131. Exploitation of mangliculous marine fungi, Amarenographium solium, for the green synthesis of silver nanoparticles and their activity against multiple drug-resistant bacteria
  132. Study of the phytotoxicity of margines on Pistia stratiotes L.
  133. Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials for Energy, Environmental and Biological Applications - Part III
  134. Impact of biogenic zinc oxide nanoparticles on growth, development, and antioxidant system of high protein content crop (Lablab purpureus L.) sweet
  135. Green synthesis, characterization, and application of iron and molybdenum nanoparticles and their composites for enhancing the growth of Solanum lycopersicum
  136. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles from Olea europaea L. extracted polysaccharides, characterization, and its assessment as an antimicrobial agent against multiple pathogenic microbes
  137. Photocatalytic treatment of organic dyes using metal oxides and nanocomposites: A quantitative study
  138. Antifungal, antioxidant, and photocatalytic activities of greenly synthesized iron oxide nanoparticles
  139. Special Issue on Phytochemical and Pharmacological Scrutinization of Medicinal Plants
  140. Hepatoprotective effects of safranal on acetaminophen-induced hepatotoxicity in rats
  141. Chemical composition and biological properties of Thymus capitatus plants from Algerian high plains: A comparative and analytical study
  142. Chemical composition and bioactivities of the methanol root extracts of Saussurea costus
  143. In vivo protective effects of vitamin C against cyto-genotoxicity induced by Dysphania ambrosioides aqueous extract
  144. Insights about the deleterious impact of a carbamate pesticide on some metabolic immune and antioxidant functions and a focus on the protective ability of a Saharan shrub and its anti-edematous property
  145. A comprehensive review uncovering the anticancerous potential of genkwanin (plant-derived compound) in several human carcinomas
  146. A study to investigate the anticancer potential of carvacrol via targeting Notch signaling in breast cancer
  147. Assessment of anti-diabetic properties of Ziziphus oenopolia (L.) wild edible fruit extract: In vitro and in silico investigations through molecular docking analysis
  148. Optimization of polyphenol extraction, phenolic profile by LC-ESI-MS/MS, antioxidant, anti-enzymatic, and cytotoxic activities of Physalis acutifolia
  149. Phytochemical screening, antioxidant properties, and photo-protective activities of Salvia balansae de Noé ex Coss
  150. Antihyperglycemic, antiglycation, anti-hypercholesteremic, and toxicity evaluation with gas chromatography mass spectrometry profiling for Aloe armatissima leaves
  151. Phyto-fabrication and characterization of gold nanoparticles by using Timur (Zanthoxylum armatum DC) and their effect on wound healing
  152. Does Erodium trifolium (Cav.) Guitt exhibit medicinal properties? Response elements from phytochemical profiling, enzyme-inhibiting, and antioxidant and antimicrobial activities
  153. Integrative in silico evaluation of the antiviral potential of terpenoids and its metal complexes derived from Homalomena aromatica based on main protease of SARS-CoV-2
  154. 6-Methoxyflavone improves anxiety, depression, and memory by increasing monoamines in mice brain: HPLC analysis and in silico studies
  155. Simultaneous extraction and quantification of hydrophilic and lipophilic antioxidants in Solanum lycopersicum L. varieties marketed in Saudi Arabia
  156. Biological evaluation of CH3OH and C2H5OH of Berberis vulgaris for in vivo antileishmanial potential against Leishmania tropica in murine models
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