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Response of yield and quality of Japonica rice to different gradients of moisture deficit at grain-filling stage in cold regions

  • Mingyu Fan , Tian Lin , Shixin Sun , Miao Hou , Chuanming Yang , Congcong Hu , Hongyu Li and Guiping Zheng EMAIL logo
Published/Copyright: April 11, 2024
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Open Chemistry
From the journal Open Chemistry Volume 22 Issue 1

Abstract

Water stress significantly affects on rice yield and quality. Eight Japonica varieties from the first and second accumulated temperature zones of Heilongjiang Province were used as materials and four moisture gradients (0, −10, −25 and −40 kPa) were conducted at the grain-filling stage to clarify the effect of water stress on the rice yield and quality in cold regions. The results showed that the rice yield was reduced due to the decrease in the seed setting rate. Rice chalkiness was significantly increased by drought stress, especially under −10 kPa. The protein content of most varieties was significantly reduced and taste quality was increased under −25 to −40 kPa. The effect on protein components increased with increasing drought stress. The gel consistency decreased and the average chain length of amylopectin was less affected by drought. With an increase in moisture deficit, the rapid viscosity analyzer characteristics and chain length distribution of amylopectin showed a trend of first increasing and then decreasing or decreasing and then increasing. The response of starch to mild and severe drought varied. Our study provides a theoretical basis for the efficient utilization of water and high quality and yield of Japonica rice.

Keywords: Japonica rice; yield; quality; starch; moisture deficit

1 Introduction

Global climate change and water scarcity threaten global food security, and the situation is expected to worsen as the global population grows [1]. Drought frequency and the area of global agriculture will increase by 50– 200% in the twenty-first century [2]. Therefore, providing healthy and adequate food to meet the needs of the rapidly growing population owing to growing water scarcity is a global agricultural challenge.

Rice is the second-largest food crop and staple food for 1/3 of the world’s population. Compared to other crops, rice is highly sensitive to moisture. Approximately 20% of global rice production is affected by drought during the plant growth cycle, resulting in yield losses of up to 81% [3,4]. Rice plants senesce early during drought stress [5]. Accumulation of osmolytes and organic acids, reduction in photosynthetic efficiency, and changes in carbohydrate metabolism are typical biochemical and physiological drought tolerance responses in rice [6]. The effects of drought on rice vary according to differences in the drought tolerance of the rice varieties, growth stage, duration, and degree of drought stress [7,8]. The grain-filling stage is critical for rice yield and quality. Drought stress leads to the degradation of flowers, sterility of panicles, increase in shriveled grain, and decrease in the grain number of panicles and 1,000-grain weight, thereby reducing rice yield [9,10]. Studies have shown that compared with normal conditions, rice yield decreased by 31–64 and 65–85% under moderate and severe drought stress, respectively [11].

With improvements in living standards, structural reform of the agricultural supply side, policy guidance, and technological progress, the effective supply of rice has changed. Therefore, improving the grain quality after yield has become a major concern in rice breeding programs [12]. Genes mainly control rice quality, and cultivation techniques and environmental conditions significantly affect rice formation [13]. Chalkiness results from poor accumulation of starch and amyloplast formation, where the supply rate and availability of assimilates affect chalkiness [14]. Water deficiency has the greatest effect on chalkiness during the filling stage, causing a significant increase in the rate and degree of chalkiness [15]. During the grain-filling stage, when the soil moisture reached −15 kPa, the rate and degree of chalkiness were not significantly affected. When the soil moisture reached −30 kPa, the chalkiness and gelatinization temperature were increased, and the content of amylose and protein was less affected [16]. Some studies have shown that the eating and cooking quality of rice worsen under continuous drought stress during the grain-filling stage [17,18].

Starch is the most important component of rice, and is divided into amylose and amylopectin. Its synthesis and accumulation are greatly affected by drought. During the filling stage, drought stress limits ADPG pyrophosphatase (AGPase) activity [19] and expression of the Wx gene [20], decreases granule-bound starch synthase enzyme (GBSS) activity [21], and enhances branching enzyme (SBE) and soluble starch synthase enzyme (SS) activity [22], which changes the starch content [18,23] and the structure [24]. Gunaratne et al. [17] found that the crystal structure of starch increased and that the change in amylose content was inconsistent under drought stress after anthesis. The impact of drought on varieties with long growth periods is higher than that on varieties with short growth periods. The results showed that starch from different varieties responded differently to drought.

Progress has been made in studying the effects of drought stress on rice during the grain-filling stage. However, the influence of drought on different varieties in past studies differed owing to the different treatment periods, degrees, and durations. Previous studies focused on yield and quality and selected only two or three varieties as test materials, with limited studies on the response of starch to drought during the filling stage. Therefore, to address these limitations, this study selected eight representative Japonica rice varieties as test materials to analyze the responses of yield, quality, and starch to different gradients of moisture deficit during the grain-filling stage. Heilongjiang Province is China’s largest production base for high-quality Japonica rice, but experiences constrained development of rice and food security due to drought. The rice varieties selected for our experiment were high-quality Japonica rice varieties, mainly grown in the first and second accumulated temperature zones of Heilongjiang Province, with stable traits and large planting areas. This study aimed to improve the research basis for drought tolerance of Japonica rice in cold regions, ensure an increased and stable yield of rice, maintain and improve rice quality under drought conditions, and promote the sustainable development of agriculture.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Experimental design

The test was conducted in potted experimental fields (26°10′N, 119°23′E) at Heilongjiang Bayi Agricultural University in 2019. Sowing was performed on April 18 and the rice seedlings were transplanted into plastic buckets with a diameter of 30 cm on May 20. A completely randomized experimental design was used. The planting areas of the eight high-quality Japonica rice varieties selected in the experiment were large, and the varieties were representative (Table 1). The quality of Longdao18 reached the first level of the national “high-quality rice” standard. Kenjing8 was bred by our research group, and the comprehensive resistance was strong. Four levels of water stress were tested: CK, normal irrigation, with soil moisture of 0 kPa, and D1, D2, and D3, with soil moisture of −10 ± 2, −25 ± 2, and −40 ± 2 kPa, respectively. Drought was imposed for 21 days by withholding the applied water at the beginning of the anthesis stage. The test was performed three times, with each repetition of 15 pots, four holes per pot, and three seedlings per hole. An artificial moisture control method was used and a rain shelter was opened on sunny days. Soil water potential was monitored using a negative-pressure soil moisture meter (3–55, Kuake, China), which was read 6–10 times a day. According to the meter index, the potted plants were replenished in time. Fertilizer management for the treatments and control was performed according to conventional local production fields. The soil used in the experiment was albic soil, and its physicochemical properties are listed in Table 2. An automatic microclimate observation system (RR-9100, Rainroot Scientific, China) was used to observe the daily average temperature and moisture content of the potted plants from July to August (Figure 1).

Table 1

Material characteristics

Variety Taste evaluation Grain type Active accumulated temperature (℃) Accumulated temperature zone
LD18 Longdao18 First grade Long 2,600 First accumulated temperature zone
KJ8 Kenjing8 Secondary grade Round 2,650
SJ9 Songjing9 Secondary grade Long 2,650
SJ22 Songjing22 Secondary grade Long 2,700
LJ21 Longjing21 Secondary grade Long 2,516 Second accumulated temperature zone
SJ18 Suijing18 Secondary grade Long 2,450
KJ7 Kenjing7 Secondary grade Round 2,575
LD5 Longdao5 Secondary grade Round 2,500

Information from China Rice Data Center, https://www.ricedata.cn/.

Table 2

Nutrient content of experimental soil

Soil type Total nitrogen (g/kg) Total phosphorus (g/kg) Total potassium (g/kg) Organic matter (g/kg) Available nitrogen (mg/kg) Available phosphorus (mg/kg) Available potassium (mg/kg)
Albic soil 1.52 0.65 18.88 27.86 158.64 53.85 110.99
Figure 1 Daily temperature and moisture from July to August.
Figure 1

Daily temperature and moisture from July to August.

2.2 Determination and data collection

2.2.1 Determination of yield and composition factors

In mid-September, harvesting was carried out sequentially according to the growth period of the varieties. The panicle number of the 16 holes was continuously monitored for each treatment. Based on the average panicle number, four holes were selected for natural air-drying and used to determine grain number, seed setting rate, and 1,000-grain weight.

2.2.2 Appearance quality

The harvested rice was placed for 3 months and threshed using a small threshing machine. Brown (FC2K, YAMAMOTO, Japan) and milled rice machines (VP-32, YAMAMOTO, Japan) were used to process the rice into milled rice. Appearance quality was measured using a rice appearance quality identification instrument (EM-1000, SATAKE, Japan). The measurement indicators included the chalkiness rate, chalkiness degree, and length–width ratio.

2.2.3 Nutritional quality

A small reducing machine was used to grind the milled rice into flour. Rice flour (2.00 g) was used for digestion and nitrogen content was determined using a Kjeldahl nitrogen analyzer (K1100, Hanon, China). A conversion factor (5.95) was used to calculate rice protein content.

The extraction and measurement of rice protein composition followed the method described by Fan et al. [25]. Milled rice flour (100 mg) was placed in a 1.5 centrifugal tube, extracted by shaking with 1 mL of distilled water for 4 h, and centrifuged at 10,000 rpm for 20 min. The supernatant was then placed in a centrifuge tube. The extraction was repeated three times to extract all the albumin. All supernatants were combined and analyzed using a modified Bradford Protein Assay Kit. After water extraction, 1 mL of 5% NaCl, 1 mL of 70% ethanol, and 1 mL of 0.2% NaOH were used to extract globulin, prolamin, and glutelin, respectively. The extraction and determination processes were similar to those used for albumin determination.

2.2.4 Eating and cooking quality

The eating and cooking quality of the rice were measured using a rice taste meter (STA-1A, SATAKE, Japan). The aroma, gloss, integrity, taste, and palatability of Japonica rice standards were used to evaluate taste quality. The specific test method is described by Fan et al. [25].

2.2.5 Gel consistency

The gel consistency was determined according to the National Standard of the People’s Republic of China-GB/T 17891-1999.

2.2.6 Rapid viscosity analyzer profiles

The viscosity of the cooked rice was analyzed using a rapid viscosity analyzer (RVA; Newport Scientific, Australia) to obtain the RVA profiles. The operation was based on the standard method AACC61-02. The RVA profiles were characterized by peak viscosity (PKV), hot paste viscosity (HPV), cool paste viscosity (CPV), breakdown viscosity (BDV) = PKV−HPV, setback viscosity (SBV) = CPV−PKV, recovery viscosity (CSV) = CPV−HPV, and pasting temperature (PT).

2.2.7 Amylopectin structure

Starch extraction and debranching were based on the method described by Hasjim et al. [26] with modifications. The debranched starch was labeled with 8-aminopyrene-1,3,6, trisulfonic acid as described by Wu et al. [27]. The structure of the debranched amylopectin was characterized using a PA-800 Plus FACE (Beckman-Coulter) system. According to the classification method of Hanashiro et al. [28], amylopectin chains can be divided into four types: Fa (DP 6-12), Fb1 (DP 13-24), Fb2 (DP 25-36), and Fb3 (DP 37-60).

2.3 Statistical analysis

Excel 2003 was used to sort and draw the data. DPS v7.05 software was used for the analysis of variance and Duncan’s test was applied to identify the significance of the treatments.

3 Results

3.1 Yield and components analysis

The differences in 1,000-grain weight, seed setting rate, and grain yield between the different varieties and drought treatments were extremely significant (Table 3). The yield of LD18 was the highest. Water deficit significantly reduced the grain number per panicle of LJ21, KJ7, and LD5; 1,000-grain weight of KJ8 and SJ18; seed setting rate of LD18, SJ9, SJ22, KJ7, and LD5; and grain yield of LD18, SJ9, LJ21, KJ7, and LD5. A comprehensive analysis showed that different degrees of water deficit negatively impacted yield. The seed setting rate and yield of the other varieties showed a downward trend, except for those of KJ8 and SJ18. Water deficit had a greater impact on the seed setting rate, which in turn reduced the yield.

Table 3

Comparison of Japonica rice yield among different treatments

Variety Treatment Grain number per panicle 1,000-grain weight (g) Seed setting rate (%) Yield per hole (g)
LD18 CK 81.83 ± 3.06ab 25.13 ± 0.38a 94.43 ± 0.03a 29.26 ± 0.67ab
D1 73.16 ± 4.02b 25.26 ± 0.35a 87.94 ± 0.96b 24.38 ± 1.43c
D2 78.65 ± 1.83ab 25.11 ± 0.23a 88.52 ± 1.25b 26.23 ± 0.92bc
D3 85.12 ± 3.32a 26.18 ± 0.54a 92.21 ± 1.15a 30.49 ± 1.17a
KJ8 CK 73.17 ± 0.28a 23.74 ± 0.13a 96.78 ± 0.43a 23.49 ± 0.27a
D1 81.61 ± 2.82a 22.42 ± 0.25c 96.21 ± 0.59a 24.63 ± 0.68a
D2 78.98 ± 3.04a 22.96 ± 0.33bc 97.39 ± 0.77a 24.70 ± 0.69a
D3 81.32 ± 3.38a 23.65 ± 0.12ab 97.51 ± 0.84a 25.55 ± 0.77a
SJ9 CK 91.37 ± 1.28ab 24.48 ± 0.07a 90.76 ± 2.34a 28.40 ± 0.42a
D1 98.67 ± 2.76a 24.34 ± 0.29a 85.75 ± 2.2ab 28.86 ± 1.43a
D2 87.46 ± 2.68b 23.85 ± 0.55a 82.31 ± 2.89b 24.10 ± 0.75b
D3 90.58 ± 2.61ab 24.90 ± 0.25a 84.26 ± 2.14ab 26.62 ± 1.21ab
SJ22 CK 73.61 ± 2.99a 29.10 ± 0.19a 87.28 ± 1.17a 24.30 ± 1.02a
D1 74.18 ± 3.02a 27.66 ± 0.77a 83.66 ± 0.94ab 22.29 ± 0.86a
D2 77.56 ± 1.92a 27.44 ± 0.70a 81.08 ± 1.60b 22.41 ± 0.65a
D3 73.35 ± 2.97a 28.92 ± 0.16a 83.34 ± 0.96ab 22.33 ± 0.51a
LJ21 CK 72.87 ± 1.36a 26.56 ± 0.41a 94.31 ± 1.89a 24.09 ± 0.75a
D1 72.47 ± 1.35a 25.64 ± 0.12a 93.40 ± 1.78a 22.56 ± 0.51ab
D2 72.38 ± 1.78a 25.26 ± 0.51a 93.12 ± 1.46a 22.13 ± 0.81ab
D3 66.64 ± 2.12b 25.92 ± 0.40a 93.66 ± 1.47a 21.04 ± 0.95b
SJ18 CK 75.36 ± 1.74a 25.72 ± 0.21a 92.88 ± 0.17a 25.20 ± 0.53a
D1 75.91 ± 3.19a 24.77 ± 0.31b 92.92 ± 1.20a 24.43 ± 0.73a
D2 78.08 ± 3.27a 24.46 ± 0.07b 93.90 ± 0.26a 25.11 ± 1.08a
D3 75.38 ± 3.89a 24.65 ± 0.09b 94.33 ± 0.54a 24.53 ± 1.18a
KJ7 CK 92.99 ± 1.31a 22.86 ± 0.20a 96.13 ± 0.61a 26.78 ± 0.42a
D1 86.61 ± 0.69bc 22.68 ± 0.35a 93.71 ± 0.75b 23.93 ± 0.38b
D2 89.44 ± 0.99ab 22.18 ± 0.45a 93.78 ± 0.80ab 24.21 ± 0.94b
D3 83.99 ± 1.75c 22.89 ± 0.32a 95.17 ± 0.60ab 23.79 ± 0.62b
LD5 CK 69.22 ± 2.53ab 24.36 ± 0.42a 96.44 ± 0.32a 24.39 ± 0.91a
D1 70.01 ± 1.64a 23.76 ± 0.15a 95.24 ± 0.55ab 23.76 ± 0.57a
D2 63.25 ± 1.68c 24.80 ± 0.33a 96.38 ± 0.65a 22.66 ± 0.48ab
D3 63.65 ± 0.49bc 23.68 ± 0.75a 93.92 ± 0.92b 21.24 ± 0.77b
F value Variety 47.61** 84.60** 55.48** 18.42**
Treatment 0.55 ns 8.39** 7.82** 6.10**
V × T 2.50** 1.37ns 1.83* 2.93**

Different letters indicate significant differences among the treatments (P < 0.05). ∗, ∗∗, and ns indicate significances at P < 0.05, P < 0.01, and non-significant, respectively. The same as below.

3.2 Appearance quality analysis

Differences in appearance among the cultivars and drought treatments were significant (Figure 2). KJ8 had the best appearance quality and the smallest length–width ratio. The grain length–width ratio was less affected by water stress. The rate and degree of chalkiness increased significantly in the order D1 > D2 > D3 > CK. The appearance quality of rice decreased markedly under water-deficient conditions during the grain-filling stage.

Figure 2 Comparison of appearance quality among different treatments.
Figure 2

Comparison of appearance quality among different treatments.

3.3 Nutritional quality analysis

Under water stress, the total protein content of the different varieties showed in the following CK > D1 > D2 > D3 (Table 4). The albumin content showed an increasing trend, except for KJ8, KJ7, and LD5. The globulin content of LJ8, SJ18, and KJ7 showed a significant decreasing trend, whereas those of SJ22, LJ21, and LD5 showed the opposite trend. Drought treatments had little effect on the prolamin content of KJ7 and LD5, improved the content of KJ8, and decreased the content of other varieties. The glutelin content of LD18, SJ22, LJ21, and LD5 decreased to varying degrees, whereas that of KJ8, SJ18, and KJ7 increased. Comprehensive analysis showed that water deficit reduced the total protein content of rice. The protein components content of different varieties responded differently to drought and the effect of moderate and severe drought treatments on protein content was greater than that of mild stress.

Table 4

Comparison of nutritional quality among different treatments

Variety Treatment Total protein (%) Albumin (%) Globulin (%) Prolamin (%) Glutelin (%)
LD18 CK 6.11 ± 0.02a 5.23 ± 0.10b 10.41 ± 0.08a 5.25 ± 0.18a 79.12 ± 0.17a
D1 5.89 ± 0.07b 5.62 ± 0.17b 10.56 ± 0.03a 4.93 ± 0.15ab 78.89 ± 0.34a
D2 5.86 ± 0.01b 6.76 ± 0.11a 10.63 ± 0.31a 5.03 ± 0.05ab 77.58 ± 0.40b
D3 5.48 ± 0.04c 5.43 ± 0.16b 10.86 ± 0.15a 4.56 ± 0.16b 79.16 ± 0.16a
KJ8 CK 6.32 ± 0.11ab 8.83 ± 0.15a 15.12 ± 0.46a 4.02 ± 0.07c 72.03 ± 0.43c
D1 6.42 ± 0.08a 7.99 ± 0.11b 15.10 ± 0.14a 4.54 ± 0.14b 72.37 ± 0.28c
D2 5.98 ± 0.06c 8.56 ± 0.06a 11.20 ± 0.25b 5.61 ± 0.17a 74.63 ± 0.24b
D3 6.02 ± 0.12bc 8.64 ± 0.21a 10.73 ± 0.19b 4.51 ± 0.20bc 76.12 ± 0.38a
SJ9 CK 5.98 ± 0.23a 5.61 ± 0.25b 11.98 ± 0.20a 4.73 ± 0.15a 77.68 ± 0.54a
D1 5.72 ± 0.18ab 6.91 ± 0.52a 12.44 ± 0.34a 4.79 ± 0.26a 75.87 ± 0.96a
D2 5.30 ± 0.10b 6.63 ± 0.14ab 11.68 ± 0.15a 3.72 ± 0.11b 77.96 ± 0.17a
D3 5.82 ± 0.15ab 7.69 ± 0.31a 11.79 ± 0.24a 3.90 ± 0.23b 76.62 ± 0.62a
SJ22 CK 6.15 ± 0.02a 5.79 ± 0.14b 12.35 ± 0.14b 5.27 ± 0.07a 76.59 ± 0.26a
D1 5.91 ± 0.02b 5.68 ± 0.11b 13.11 ± 0.26b 5.01 ± 0.08ab 76.21 ± 0.44a
D2 5.76 ± 0.03c 7.19 ± 0.22a 15.44 ± 0.75a 5.12 ± 0.21ab 72.25 ± 0.97b
D3 5.63 ± 0.01d 6.11 ± 0.23b 13.00 ± 0.14b 4.66 ± 0.14b 76.23 ± 0.12a
LJ21 CK 7.48 ± 0.04a 4.03 ± 0.14b 11.48 ± 0.22b 4.31 ± 0.12a 80.18 ± 0.34a
D1 6.84 ± 0.16b 5.08 ± 0.05a 12.03 ± 0.23b 3.69 ± 0.11b 79.20 ± 0.36ab
D2 6.84 ± 0.10b 4.62 ± 0.23ab 11.89 ± 0.30b 4.08 ± 0.11ab 79.40 ± 0.62ab
D3 6.58 ± 0.07b 4.65 ± 0.37ab 13.80 ± 0.96a 4.42 ± 0.18a 77.12 ± 1.38b
SJ18 CK 6.45 ± 0.06ab 3.89 ± 0.25c 12.81 ± 0.65a 3.22 ± 0.12a 80.08 ± 0.96b
D1 6.73 ± 0.15a 4.32 ± 0.22bc 10.53 ± 0.25b 2.72 ± 0.14b 82.43 ± 0.50a
D2 6.79 ± 0.09a 4.95 ± 0.26b 12.44 ± 0.33a 3.13 ± 0.17ab 79.48 ± 0.76b
D3 6.14 ± 0.11b 6.42 ± 0.17a 11.86 ± 0.33ab 3.19 ± 0.08a 78.53 ± 0.47b
KJ7 CK 7.17 ± 0.03a 6.79 ± 0.18a 11.19 ± 0.11a 4.98 ± 0.07a 77.04 ± 0.27b
D1 7.18 ± 0.03a 6.68 ± 0.31a 11.49 ± 0.44a 5.07 ± 0.12a 76.76 ± 0.79b
D2 6.91 ± 0.02b 5.51 ± 0.15b 10.20 ± 0.20b 4.96 ± 0.03a 79.33 ± 0.14a
D3 7.17 ± 0.02a 6.61 ± 0.17a 10.81 ± 0.16ab 4.87 ± 0.14a 77.70 ± 0.31b
LD5 CK 6.62 ± 0.02a 8.42 ± 0.32a 12.44 ± 0.40c 6.23 ± 0.06a 72.90 ± 0.40a
D1 6.57 ± 0.09a 8.70 ± 0.17a 14.80 ± 0.36a 6.61 ± 0.18a 69.90 ± 0.59b
D2 6.22 ± 0.04b 9.06 ± 0.06a 13.90 ± 0.20ab 6.37 ± 0.37a 70.67 ± 0.59b
D3 6.06 ± 0.03b 7.49 ± 0.28b 13.66 ± 0.25b 6.28 ± 0.05a 72.57 ± 0.57a
F value Variety 108.08** 125.58** 28.63** 54.11** 28.03**
Treatment 59.96** 24.59** 3.37* 4.24** 0.88 ns
V × T 14.44** 9.37** 7.62** 4.79** 2.38**

Protein component content is the percentage of each protein component to total protein content.

3.4 RVA characteristics analysis

The effect of water stress on RVA characteristic values was significant (Table 5). Under drought treatments, PKV, HPV, BDV, and CPV of LD18 showed a trend of first decreasing and then increasing; KJ8 showed the opposite trend; and PKV, HPV, SBV, CPV, and CSV of LD5 increased significantly. The PKV, HPV, and CPV of SJ9 were significantly reduced under the D1 treatment, and BDV and CSV were significantly improved under the D2 treatment. D1 treatment decreased the PKV and BDV of SJ22, whereas D3 treatment significantly decreased SBV and increased PT. The overall analysis showed that the effects of drought treatment on LJ21, SJ18, KJ7, and PT were relatively small, whereas the effects of the D1 and D3 treatments on the RVA characteristic values were different.

Table 5

Comparison of RVA characteristics among different treatments

Variety Treatment PKV (cP) HPV (cP) BDV (cP) SBV (cP) CPV (cP) CSV (cP) PT (°C)
LD18 CK 3,274 ± 41b 2,656 ± 21a 618 ± 53b 269 ± 55b 3,543 ± 57b 887 ± 11c 69.92 ± 0.26a
D1 3,177 ± 7c 2,585 ± 6b 592 ± 11b 336 ± 20a 3,513 ± 19b 928 ± 14b 69.98 ± 0.25a
D2 3,057 ± 25d 2,532 ± 28b 525 ± 17c 360 ± 10a 3,417 ± 18c 885 ± 13c 70.20 ± 0.03a
D3 3,412 ± 8a 2,678 ± 4a 734 ± 6a 263 ± 13b 3,675 ± 5a 997 ± 7a 70.15 ± 0.03a
KJ8 CK 3,272 ± 49b 2,010 ± 17ab 1,262 ± 64b −278 ± 34a 3,040 ± 1a 1,030 ± 16b 71.03 ± 0.03b
D1 3,284 ± 22b 2,022 ± 11ab 1,262 ± 12b −268 ± 14a 3,016 ± 8a 994 ± 7bc 71.87 ± 0.03a
D2 3,439 ± 33a 2,024 ± 36a 1,414 ± 13a 335 ± 16ab 3,103 ± 43a 1,079 ± 7a 71.53 ± 0.29ab
D3 3,258 ± 50b 1,945 ± 18b 1,312 ± 55ab −386 ± 23b 2,914 ± 29b 969 ± 18c 71.55 ± 0.26ab
SJ9 CK 3,303 ± 81a 2,738 ± 56a 564 ± 25b 368 ± 23b 3,670 ± 58a 932 ± 2b 71.83 ± 0.06a
D1 2,990 ± 36b 2,466 ± 38b 524 ± 4b 442 ± 17a 3,432 ± 21b 966 ± 17ab 71.27 ± 0.24ab
D2 3,310 ± 40a 2,624 ± 18a 686 ± 27a 339 ± 19b 3,649 ± 28a 1,025 ± 23a 70.82 ± 0.21b
D3 3,213 ± 85a 2,625 ± 59a 588 ± 29b 361 ± 27b 3,574 ± 64ab 949 ± 24b 71.28 ± 0.26ab
SJ22 CK 3,162 ± 10a 1,752 ± 14a 1,410 ± 25a −321 ± 10b 2,842 ± 16a 1,090 ± 10a 71.82 ± 0.04b
D1 2,914 ± 107b 1,747 ± 57a 1,167 ± 4b −114 ± 38a 2,800 ± 73a 1,053 ± 19a 71.87 ± 0.03b
D2 3,252 ± 100a 1,792 ± 6a 1,460 ± 27a −355 ± 63bc 2,898 ± 38a 1,105 ± 34a 72.20 ± 0.25b
D3 3,347 ± 5a 1,812 ± 9a 1,536 ± 29a −468 ± 13c 2,880 ± 8a 1,068 ± 1a 72.70 ± 0.03a
LJ21 CK 3,741 ± 34b 2,727 ± 58b 1,014 ± 160a 163 ± 104a 3,903 ± 45bc 1,176 ± 56a 73.13 ± 0.27a
D1 3,762 ± 42ab 2,732 ± 12b 1,031 ± 54a 96 ± 30a 3,858 ± 12c 1,126 ± 24a 72.73 ± 0.01a
D2 3,832 ± 21ab 2,891 ± 36a 941 ± 16a 162 ± 6a 3,994 ± 27a 1,103 ± 10a 73.05 ± 0.23a
D3 3,880 ± 43a 2,771 ± 41ab 1,110 ± 84a 90 ± 46a 3,970 ± 15ab 1,199 ± 40a 73.25 ± 0.30a
SJ18 CK 3,657 ± 49ab 2,952 ± 47a 704 ± 68a 178 ± 53b 3,835 ± 58a 882 ± 28b 72.92 ± 0.27ab
D1 3,587 ± 26b 2,954 ± 29a 633 ± 3a 317 ± 10a 3,904 ± 25a 950 ± 10a 73.55 ± 0.03a
D2 3,669 ± 87ab 3,048 ± 39a 654 ± 61a 201 ± 41b 3,903 ± 50a 855 ± 20b 73.23 ± 0.27ab
D3 3,774 ± 66a 2,953 ± 34a 756 ± 34a 227 ± 9b 3,935 ± 57a 982 ± 25a 72.67 ± 0.02b
KJ7 CK 3,086 ± 17a 2,545 ± 17a 540 ± 12a 400 ± 12b 3,486 ± 18a 941 ± 13a 71.03 ± 0.02a
D1 3,065 ± 48a 2,549 ± 43a 516 ± 8a 357 ± 10c 3,422 ± 51a 872 ± 17a 71.02 ± 0.02a
D2 3,038 ± 7a 2,506 ± 34a 532 ± 28a 443 ± 3a 3,481 ± 7a 975 ± 28a 71.28 ± 0.26a
D3 3,076 ± 38a 2,456 ± 78a 620 ± 56a 362 ± 13c 3,438 ± 30a 982 ± 68a 70.80 ± 0.28a
LD5 CK 2,821 ± 2c 2,349 ± 3b 473 ± 5a 411 ± 3b 3,232 ± 4c 883 ± 8b 70.95 ± 0a
D1 2,933 ± 21b 2,451 ± 15b 482 ± 13a 502 ± 2a 3,435 ± 22b 984 ± 13a 70.73 ± 0.29a
D2 2,934 ± 11b 2,451 ± 30b 482 ± 21a 446 ± 21ab 3,380 ± 32b 928 ± 9ab 71.27 ± 0.27a
D3 3,121 ± 41a 2,607 ± 54a 514 ± 13a 458 ± 32ab 3,578 ± 49a 971 ± 30a 70.72 ± 0.26a
F value Variety 146.90** 573.47** 415.58** 564.95** 494.55** 56.71** 113.34**
Treatment 15.99** 3.81** 14.43** 18.22** 7.56** 4.25** 0.47ns
V × T 4.50** 4.57** 3.09** 5.38** 6.15** 4.35** 2.74**

PKV, peak viscosity; HPV, hot paste viscosity; BDV, breakdown viscosity; SBV, setback viscosity; CPV, cool paste viscosity; CSV, recovery viscosity; PT, pasting temperature.

3.5 Eating and cooking quality analysis

The results showed that the effects of variety and drought treatment on taste quality were significant, with the taste quality of LD18 being the best (Table 6). Water stress reduced the gel consistency. The gloss, taste, palatability, and comprehensive scores of LD18, KJ8, LJ21, and LD5 were significantly improved, whereas the integrity of LJ21 and LD5 decreased under the D2 and D3 treatments. Drought treatment significantly reduced the gloss and taste of SJ18, and the D3 treatment significantly reduced the aroma, palatability, and comprehensive score. Comprehensive analysis indicated that gel consistency was decreased by drought stress, the comprehensive scores of LD18, KJ8, LJ21, and LD5 improved under moderate and severe drought treatments, and the comprehensive score of SJ18 decreased. The taste quality of KJ7 and SJ22 was less affected by drought.

Table 6

Comparison of eating and cooking quality among different treatments

Variety Treatment Aroma Gloss Integrity Taste Palatability Comprehensive score Gel consistency (cm)
LD18 CK 7.45 ± 0.03a 8.60 ± 0.16b 6.73 ± 0.02ab 8.43 ± 0.06c 8.45 ± 0.19b 87.85 ± 0.61b 9.30 ± 0.26a
D1 7.50 ± 0a 8.98 ± 0.05a 6.78 ± 0.02a 8.50 ± 0bc 8.88 ± 0.09a 88.75 ± 0.20b 8.60 ± 0.06b
D2 7.55 ± 0.03a 9.28 ± 0.08a 6.63 ± 0.03b 8.60 ± 0ab 9.18 ± 0.07a 90.30 ± 0.13a 7.83 ± 0.09c
D3 7.48 ± 0.05a 9.18 ± 0.14a 6.63 ± 0.03b 8.63 ± 0.03a 9.05 ± 0.21a 90.33 ± 0.41a 8.87 ± 0.12ab
KJ8 CK 7.4 ± 0.04b 8.20 ± 0.13bc 7.08 ± 0.02a 8.40 ± 0.05b 8.08 ± 0.18bc 85.88 ± 0.42b 7.80 ± 0.09a
D1 7.38 ± 0.03b 7.98 ± 0.07c 7.10 ± 0.04a 8.25 ± 0.03b 7.85 ± 0.15c 85.00 ± 0.43b 7.40 ± 0.18a
D2 7.53 ± 0.02a 8.47 ± 0.03ab 7.00 ± 0.04a 8.50 ± 0.05ab 8.33 ± 0.03ab 87.15 ± 0.44a 7.78 ± 0.14a
D3 7.50 ± 0.04a 8.63 ± 0.09a 7.00 ± 0.04a 8.53 ± 0.03a 8.58 ± 0.13a 87.75 ± 0.21a 7.50 ± 0.06a
SJ9 CK 7.43 ± 0.02ab 8.15 ± 0.06bc 6.88 ± 0.03ab 8.25 ± 0.03a 8.03 ± 0.09ab 85.33 ± 0.13a 8.17 ± 0.03a
D1 7.37 ± 0.03b 7.90 ± 0.15c 6.93 ± 0.06a 8.07 ± 0.03b 7.73 ± 0.15b 83.50 ± 0.80b 8.20 ± 0.12a
D2 7.50 ± 0.04a 8.50 ± 0.16a 6.83 ± 0.03b 8.35 ± 0.07a 8.35 ± 0.19a 86.38 ± 0.44a 7.60 ± 0.12b
D3 7.43 ± 0.05ab 8.23 ± 0.18ab 6.95 ± 0.09a 8.28 ± 0.07a 8.10 ± 0.24ab 86.13 ± 0.50a 7.90 ± 0.20ab
SJ22 CK 7.53 ± 0.02b 8.50 ± 0.07bc 6.88 ± 0.03a 8.43 ± 0.03ab 8.28 ± 0.09ab 86.28 ± 0.13a 8.47 ± 0.09a
D1 7.68 ± 0.03a 8.85 ± 0.10a 6.93 ± 0.02a 8.53 ± 0.03a 8.63 ± 0.14a 86.90 ± 0.35a 8.53 ± 0.07a
D2 7.53 ± 0.02b 8.33 ± 0.09c 6.98 ± 0.02a 8.35 ± 0.03b 8.15 ± 0.14b 85.67 ± 0.35a 7.90 ± 0.13b
D3 7.53 ± 0.05b 8.73 ± 0.03ab 6.90 ± 0.04a 8.48 ± 0.03a 8.48 ± 0.12ab 86.78 ± 0.30a 8.00 ± 0.12b
LJ21 CK 7.45 ± 0.03b 8.10 ± 0.07b 7.05 ± 0.03a 8.33 ± 0.03b 7.93 ± 0.11b 84.80 ± 0.35b 7.15 ± 0.13a
D1 7.47 ± 0.08b 8.13 ± 0.16b 7.00 ± 0a 8.18 ± 0.10c 7.78 ± 0.28b 83.80 ± 0.94b 6.68 ± 0.11ab
D2 7.50 ± 0.04b 8.67 ± 0.03a 6.88 ± 0.05b 8.45 ± 0.06a 8.47 ± 0.03a 87.33 ± 0.15a 6.78 ± 0.18ab
D3 7.60 ± 0.04a 8.65 ± 0.09a 6.90 ± 0b 8.50 ± 0a 8.40 ± 0.08a 86.60 ± 0.11a 6.63 ± 0.06b
SJ18 CK 7.53 ± 0.05a 8.40 ± 0.16a 6.98 ± 0.02b 8.40 ± 0.07a 8.18 ± 0.21a 85.58 ± 0.44a 8.55 ± 0.17a
D1 7.45 ± 0.03a 8.05 ± 0.12b 7.05 ± 0.03b 8.25 ± 0.06b 7.88 ± 0.13a 84.73 ± 0.35a 7.57 ± 0.23b
D2 7.45 ± 0.03a 8.08 ± 0.07b 7.03 ± 0.05b 8.25 ± 0.03b 7.85 ± 0.07a 84.30 ± 0.41a 6.98 ± 0.16c
D3 7.23 ± 0.02b 7.50 ± 0.14c 7.18 ± 0.03a 8.10 ± 0.05c 7.23 ± 0.03b 81.67 ± 0.12b 7.87 ± 0.27b
KJ7 CK 7.53 ± 0.02a 7.98 ± 0.09a 7.10 ± 0a 8.25 ± 0.03a 7.70 ± 0.09a 82.13 ± 0.38a 8.15 ± 0.06ab
D1 7.50 ± 0.04a 7.98 ± 0.13a 7.10 ± 0.04a 8.20 ± 0.05a 7.70 ± 0.15a 82.10 ± 0.67a 7.78 ± 0.17b
D2 7.55 ± 0.03a 8.05 ± 0.09a 7.05 ± 0.03a 8.28 ± 0.06a 7.73 ± 0.12a 83.00 ± 0.61a 8.58 ± 0.13a
D3 7.58 ± 0.02a 8.10 ± 0.11a 7.13 ± 0.05a 8.30 ± 0.05a 7.83 ± 0.14a 82.80 ± 0.67a 7.73 ± 0.08b
LD5 CK 7.55 ± 0.03a 8.13 ± 0.09b 7.08 ± 0.02a 8.30 ± 0.05b 7.90 ± 0.12b 84.05 ± 0.64b 8.80 ± 0.15a
D1 7.63 ± 0.05a 8.60 ± 0.15a 6.95 ± 0.03b 8.48 ± 0.06a 8.38 ± 0.19a 86.18 ± 0.40a 7.20 ± 0.31b
D2 7.65 ± 0.03a 8.68 ± 0.09a 6.95 ± 0.03b 8.53 ± 0.03a 8.23 ± 0.03ab 86.28 ± 0.29a 8.40 ± 0.06a
D3 7.58 ± 0.02a 8.68 ± 0.08a 6.90 ± 0b 8.48 ± 0.03a 8.40 ± 0.14a 86.68 ± 0.28a 7.35 ± 0.14b
F value Variety 13.71** 36.37** 55.41** 29.82** 31.12** 78.81** 52.46**
Treatment 3.20* 8.23** 5.50** 11.82** 6.31** 14.69** 27.33**
V × T 4.14** 5.80** 3.33** 6.33** 4.36** 6.07** 7.83**

3.6 Amylopectin structure analysis

Water deficit significantly reduced the ∑Fa of LJ21. The ∑Fa of KJ7 increased and decreased under D1 and D2 treatments, respectively (Table 7). The ∑Fb1 of LD18 and LJ21 significantly improved and decreased under D1 treatment, the ∑Fb1 of LD18 reduced and that of LJ21 and SJ18 significantly increased under D3 treatment. ∑Fb2 of LD18 markedly decreased and that of LJ21 and SJ18 significantly improved under drought. The ∑Fb3 of LD18 and KJ7 significantly decreased and SJ18 increased under D1 and D2 treatments and that of LD18, LJ21, and KJ7 increased and SJ18 decreased under D3 treatment. Drought treatment significantly improved ACLFb2 and ACLAP in SJ18. The results indicated that the effect of drought on average chain length was relatively small. The effects of D1 and D3 treatments on chain length distribution were different and the chain length distribution of different varieties showed different responses to drought during the filling stage.

Table 7

Comparison of amylopectin structure among different treatments

Variety Treatment ∑Fa (%) ∑Fb1 (%) ∑Fb2 (%) ∑Fb3 (%) ACLFa ACLFb1 ACLFb2 ACLFb3 ACLAP
LD18 CK 35.32 ± 0.28a 56.97 ± 0.15b 5.42 ± 0.11a 2.38 ± 0.21b 10.14 ± 0.03b 16.85 ± 0.05a 28.83 ± 0.02ab 45.40 ± 0.09a 16.04 ± 0.15a
D1 35.24 ± 0.20a 60.16 ± 0.03a 4.94 ± 0.17b 1.07 ± 0.03d 10.80 ± 0.05a 16.63 ± 0.08a 28.75 ± 0.05b 44.43 ± 0.04a 15.19 ± 0.07a
D2 35.30 ± 0.19a 54.81 ± 0.24c 4.59 ± 0.01b 1.91 ± 0.16c 10.07 ± 0.01b 16.62 ± 0.08a 28.90 ± 0.09ab 44.48 ± 0.41a 15.06 ± 0.40a
D3 35.17 ± 0.18a 54.80 ± 0.01c 3.74 ± 0.21c 2.83 ± 0.04a 10.04 ± 0.01b 16.63 ± 0.06a 29.21 ± 0.20a 44.64 ± 0.39a 15.22 ± 0.39a
LJ21 CK 37.68 ± 0.31a 55.34 ± 0.16b 4.52 ± 0.19b 2.35 ± 0.25b 10.10 ± 0.01a 16.68 ± 0.01a 29.03 ± 0.01a 44.46 ± 0.14a 15.41 ± 0.12a
D1 36.93 ± 0.15b 53.25 ± 0.47c 4.86 ± 0.13ab 2.05 ± 0.12b 10.22 ± 0.12a 16.68 ± 0.03a 29.05 ± 0.03a 45.12 ± 0.28a 15.81 ± 0.40a
D2 36.47 ± 0.26bc 55.08 ± 0.34b 5.19 ± 0.21a 2.92 ± 0.09a 10.09 ± 0.01a 16.70 ± 0.01a 29.07 ± 0.02a 44.89 ± 0.11a 15.89 ± 0.16a
D3 36.17 ± 0.04c 56.46 ± 0.31a 5.24 ± 0.13a 3.22 ± 0.16a 10.08 ± 0.05a 16.85 ± 0.13a 28.88 ± 0.10a 44.41 ± 0.32a 15.44 ± 0.14a
SJ18 CK 37.14 ± 0.14a 56.10 ± 0.05b 4.68 ± 0.09b 2.26 ± 0.12b 10.23 ± 0.06a 16.73 ± 0.01a 28.88 ± 0.05b 45.66 ± 0.07a 15.59 ± 0.08b
D1 37.23 ± 0.23a 56.14 ± 0.03b 5.49 ± 0.14a 3.21 ± 0.09a 10.30 ± 0.04a 16.72 ± 0.09a 28.83 ± 0.04b 45.84 ± 0.12a 16.13 ± 0.06a
D2 36.80 ± 0.09a 56.17 ± 0.09b 5.39 ± 0.14a 3.15 ± 0.09a 10.21 ± 0.02a 16.78 ± 0.08a 29.06 ± 0.01a 45.73 ± 0.06a 16.08 ± 0.04a
D3 36.97 ± 0.17a 56.70 ± 0.20a 4.33 ± 0.07b 1.90 ± 0.06c 10.18 ± 0.03a 16.80 ± 0.05a 29.08 ± 0.07a 45.53 ± 0.11a 15.47 ± 0.07b
KJ7 CK 34.97 ± 0.15b 55.39 ± 0.62a 5.71 ± 0.45a 4.07 ± 0.25b 10.17 ± 0.04a 16.84 ± 0.01ab 29.01 ± 0.05a 45.76 ± 0.08ab 16.26 ± 0.21b
D1 39.37 ± 0.70a 55.95 ± 0.31a 3.50 ± 0.20b 1.03 ± 0.17d 10.17 ± 0.01a 16.62 ± 0.04b 28.99 ± 0.06a 45.26 ± 0.06b 14.79 ± 0.14c
D2 36.39 ± 0.44b 55.48 ± 0.39a 5.29 ± 0.55a 2.68 ± 0.23c 10.09 ± 0.01a 16.77 ± 0.01ab 28.95 ± 0.02a 45.89 ± 0.09a 16.12 ± 0.35b
D3 32.88 ± 0.37c 55.57 ± 0.39a 6.23 ± 0.22a 5.13 ± 0.41a 10.05 ± 0.07a 17.08 ± 0.18a 28.83 ± 0.15a 45.64 ± 0.30ab 17.22 ± 0.34a

∑Fa, ∑Fb1, ∑Fb2, and ∑Fb3 represent the relative percentage of Fa, Fb1, Fb2, and Fb3. ACLFa, ACLFb1, ACLFb2, ACLFb3, and ACLAP represent the average chain length of Fa, Fb1, Fb2, Fb3, and amylopectin, respectively.

4 Discussion

4.1 Effects of water stress on rice yield

Drought stress has a detrimental effect on rice yield by disrupting the normal molecular, metabolic, and physiological regulatory networks of plant development [29]. The reproductive growth stage of rice is most sensitive to drought [30]. During the filling stage, the seed setting rate and 1,000-grain weight increased under mild stress and the 1,000-grain weight and yield decreased with an increase in the degree of drought [31]. This study showed that drought stress reduced rice yield to varying degrees by reducing the seed setting rate of grains during the grain-filling stage. Rice yield composition is mainly determined by the carbohydrates stored in the stem before heading and the photosynthetic accumulation product after heading [32]. Drought stress reduces photosynthesis in rice leaves, changes the activity of auxins and gibberellins, and hinders assimilate transport. Concurrently, the activity of some key enzymes in the sucrose–starch anabolic metabolism of grains decreases rapidly in the late grain-filling stage, thereby reducing the grain filling speed, shortening the filling time, and weakening the supply of the source and activity of the sink. An insufficient supply of grain material reduces the total accumulation of grain starch, resulting in a decreased yield [33,34]. In this study, the yield of Kenjing8, Songjing22, and Sonjing18 was less affected by drought, indicating that the drought resistance of the different varieties was different. The yield of the other varieties decreased; however, the decreases were small. This indicates that when the water potential reaches −10 to −40 kPa, the effect on yield is not very significant.

4.2 Effects of water stress on appearance quality

Rice grain quality is complex and includes milling, appearance, nutrition, and taste. Consumers often focus on appearance [35], which is influenced by genetic and environmental factors and is usually evaluated as the percentage of grains with chalkiness [36]. Most studies have shown that water deficiency increased rice chalkiness during the grain-filling stage [15,37,38]. This study confirmed the results of previous studies. At this stage, drought accelerates plant senescence and shortens the filling time, resulting in poor starch filling and subsequently increasing grain chalkiness [19,28]. Compared with the other qualities, the impact of drought stress on chalkiness was the greatest. This is consistent with the conclusion of Lawas et al. [39], who applied combined drought and heat stress to rice during the grain-filling stage. Interestingly, the increase in chalkiness under slight drought (−10 kPa) was higher than that under severe drought (−40 kPa) in the present study. Some studies have suggested that the source–sink relationship had a greater influence on the appearance quality of rice during the late growth period and the lack of a source was the main factor causing an increase in chalkiness [40]. A detailed analysis suggested that slight drought stress reduced photosynthesis, resulting in a serious shortage of sources. With an increase in the degree of drought, plants develop a resistance mechanism to cope with drought and the carbon source in the stem is remobilized. Therefore, the source was increased to a certain extent to alleviate chalkiness.

4.3 Effects of water stress on nutritional quality

Protein, the second component of rice, is a typical quantitative trait. It is susceptible to environmental factors and has relatively low heritability [41]. Some studies have shown that drought treatment increased protein content [42], whereas moderate (−25 kPa) and severe drought (−50 kPa) did not significantly affect protein content [43]. Our study demonstrated that the protein content was significantly reduced in the range of −25 to −40 kPa. The response of protein to water stress is reflected in the protein components. Previous research has found that the content of protein components varied according to variations in genotype, degree and duration of drought, and nitrogen fertilization. Under normal nitrogen application levels, drought stress (−30 kPa) increased the content of total protein, prolamin, and glutelin and had less effect on the globulin content during the filling stage. The effect on albumin content varied from variety to variety [44]. Our study showed that the response of protein components of different varieties to drought was different, and moderate (−25 kPa) and severe drought (−40 kPa) treatments had a greater impact on protein component content. Currently, there are relatively few studies on the effects of drought on protein components and the underlying mechanisms have not been clarified. Therefore, further studies are warranted.

4.4 Effects of water stress on eating and cooking quality

Gel consistency decreases when there is a serious lack of water during the grain-filling stage, resulting in poor taste quality [21]. However, an appropriate water deficit can soften gel consistency and improve rice quality during the filling stage [42,45]. With the aggravation of drought, the rice quality first improves and then gradually deteriorates. In our study, the gel consistency significantly decreased under water stress conditions. We also found that when the soil moisture decreased to −25 to −40 kPa, the comprehensive score of the varieties increased, except for Suijing18, indicating that drought stress did not have a significant negative impact on the taste value in the range of −25 to −40 kPa. While this study was conducted for only 1 year, we selected more varieties than in the past studies. The selected varieties contained different qualities and types, and had large planting areas in Heilongjiang Province. The results are representative and lays a foundation for subsequent research. Irrigation was conducted based on the different characteristics of the varieties to save water and ensure rice yield and quality in agricultural production. Aroma is an important index of rice taste and is mainly affected by 2-acetyl-1-pyrroline [46]. Pandey et al. [15] found that water deficit could reduce the quality but promote the formation of the aroma of Indian basmati rice during the grain-filling stage. However, the mechanism underlying the influence of drought on rice aroma formation requires further exploration.

4.5 Effects of water stress on starch properties

Starch, which accounts for approximately 80% of rice, plays an important role in the eating and cooking quality of rice. The RVA characteristics and amylopectin structure are closely related to taste quality. Rice varieties with a higher percentage of long chains and a lower percentage of short chains of amylopectin have a harder texture [47]. Hu et al. [45] found that mild water stress (−20 kPa) reduced the SBV and increased the PKV and BDV, which improved the eating and cooking quality. Moderate (−40 kPa) and severe drought (−60 kPa) stress reduced PKV, HPV, CPV, and BDV and increased SBV during the filling stage. When the water moisture was −30 kPa, PKV, HPV, CPV, and BDV values of Japonica rice significantly increased [48]. The starch structure of grains is altered under drought stress during the filling stage, with irregular shapes, loosely packed, pleated, and less numbered grains [23]. Previous studies mostly used two or three varieties as test materials. In this study, eight Japonica rice varieties were used to study the effects of drought on the RVA profile characteristics. Based on this, the amylopectin structure of four varieties with different eating quality responses to drought during the grain-filling stage were analyzed. The results showed that the responses of the RVA profile characteristics and amylopectin structure of the different varieties under drought stress were different. The average chain length of amylopectin was less affected by drought. The RVA values and the proportion of amylopectin chains showed a trend of first increasing and then decreasing or first decreasing and then increasing, indicating that the effects of mild and severe drought on starch were completely different. Starch changes are caused by changes in starch synthesis-related enzymes during the early stages. The study showed that light water stress at different growth stages increased the activities of AGPase, SSS, GBSS, SBE, and DBE. Moderate and severe water stresses had opposite effects [31]. This confirms our findings.

Drought stress limits the formation of starch in the endosperm and changes the pasting properties and structure of starch, which affects the sensory quality [38]. This study only analyzed the response of RVA characteristics and amylopectin structure to drought and lacked a comprehensive analysis of the physicochemical properties and structure of starch (granule morphology, granule size distribution, crystal structure, etc.). Therefore, it is necessary to conduct a systematic analysis to analyze the response of starch to water stress, as well as the interaction and regulation mechanism with rice taste, to provide a reference for the breeding of high-quality varieties and the development of supporting cultivation technologies.

5 Conclusion

The differences in the yield and quality between the varieties were extremely high. Different degrees of water deficit reduced the yield of most varieties and had the greatest negative impact on appearance. Under −25 to −40 kPa, the total protein content and gel consistency were significantly reduced and taste quality was increased. The effects of moderate (−25 kPa) and severe (−40 kPa) water stress on protein components content were higher than those of mild stress (−10 kPa). The protein components and starch content of different varieties responded differently to water stress and mild and severe drought treatments had different effects on starch.

  1. Funding information: This study was supported by the Key Research and Development Program of the Heilongjiang Province (No. GA21B002), the Postdoctoral Surface Fund of Heilongjiang (No. LBH-Z21195), and Scientific Research Start-up Plan for College Learning and Talent Introduction (No. XYB201810).

  2. Author contributions: M.F.: writing – original draft, funding acquisition; T.L., S.S., and M.H.: investigation; C.Y. and C.H.: data curation; H.L. and G.Z: project administration, writing – review and editing.

  3. Conflict of interest: Authors state no conflict of interest.

  4. Data availability statement: The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

  5. Ethical approval: The conducted research is not related to either human or animal use.

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Received: 2024-02-03
Revised: 2024-03-02
Accepted: 2024-03-14
Published Online: 2024-04-11

© 2024 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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https://doi.org/10.1515/chem-2024-0009
Keywords for this article
Japonica rice; yield; quality; starch; moisture deficit
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

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  3. Biochar from de-oiled Chlorella vulgaris and its adsorption on antibiotics
  4. Phytochemicals profiling, in vitro and in vivo antidiabetic activity, and in silico studies on Ajuga iva (L.) Schreb.: A comprehensive approach
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  13. Evaluation of influence of Butea monosperma floral extract on inflammatory biomarkers
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  18. Computational design and in vitro assay of lantadene-based novel inhibitors of NS3 protease of dengue virus
  19. Anti-parasitic activity and computational studies on a novel labdane diterpene from the roots of Vachellia nilotica
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  25. Cytotoxic and phytochemical screening of Solanum lycopersicum–Daucus carota hydro-ethanolic extract and in silico evaluation of its lycopene content as anticancer agent
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  47. Green formulation of copper nanoparticles by Pistacia khinjuk leaf aqueous extract: Introducing a novel chemotherapeutic drug for the treatment of prostate cancer
  48. Improved photocatalytic properties of WO3 nanoparticles for Malachite green dye degradation under visible light irradiation: An effect of La doping
  49. One-pot synthesis of a network of Mn2O3–MnO2–poly(m-methylaniline) composite nanorods on a polypyrrole film presents a promising and efficient optoelectronic and solar cell device
  50. Groundwater quality and health risk assessment of nitrate and fluoride in Al Qaseem area, Saudi Arabia
  51. A comparative study of the antifungal efficacy and phytochemical composition of date palm leaflet extracts
  52. Processing of alcohol pomelo beverage (Citrus grandis (L.) Osbeck) using saccharomyces yeast: Optimization, physicochemical quality, and sensory characteristics
  53. Specialized compounds of four Cameroonian spices: Isolation, characterization, and in silico evaluation as prospective SARS-CoV-2 inhibitors
  54. Identification of a novel drug target in Porphyromonas gingivalis by a computational genome analysis approach
  55. Physico-chemical properties and durability of a fly-ash-based geopolymer
  56. FMS-like tyrosine kinase 3 inhibitory potentials of some phytochemicals from anti-leukemic plants using computational chemical methodologies
  57. Wild Thymus zygis L. ssp. gracilis and Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh.: Chemical composition, antioxidant and antibacterial activities of essential oils
  58. 3D-QSAR, molecular docking, ADMET, simulation dynamic, and retrosynthesis studies on new styrylquinolines derivatives against breast cancer
  59. Deciphering the influenza neuraminidase inhibitory potential of naturally occurring biflavonoids: An in silico approach
  60. Determination of heavy elements in agricultural regions, Saudi Arabia
  61. Synthesis and characterization of antioxidant-enriched Moringa oil-based edible oleogel
  62. Ameliorative effects of thistle and thyme honeys on cyclophosphamide-induced toxicity in mice
  63. Study of phytochemical compound and antipyretic activity of Chenopodium ambrosioides L. fractions
  64. Investigating the adsorption mechanism of zinc chloride-modified porous carbon for sulfadiazine removal from water
  65. Performance repair of building materials using alumina and silica composite nanomaterials with electrodynamic properties
  66. Effects of nanoparticles on the activity and resistance genes of anaerobic digestion enzymes in livestock and poultry manure containing the antibiotic tetracycline
  67. Effect of copper nanoparticles green-synthesized using Ocimum basilicum against Pseudomonas aeruginosa in mice lung infection model
  68. Cardioprotective effects of nanoparticles green formulated by Spinacia oleracea extract on isoproterenol-induced myocardial infarction in mice by the determination of PPAR-γ/NF-κB pathway
  69. Anti-OTC antibody-conjugated fluorescent magnetic/silica and fluorescent hybrid silica nanoparticles for oxytetracycline detection
  70. Curcumin conjugated zinc nanoparticles for the treatment of myocardial infarction
  71. Identification and in silico screening of natural phloroglucinols as potential PI3Kα inhibitors: A computational approach for drug discovery
  72. Exploring the phytochemical profile and antioxidant evaluation: Molecular docking and ADMET analysis of main compounds from three Solanum species in Saudi Arabia
  73. Unveiling the molecular composition and biological properties of essential oil derived from the leaves of wild Mentha aquatica L.: A comprehensive in vitro and in silico exploration
  74. Analysis of bioactive compounds present in Boerhavia elegans seeds by GC-MS
  75. Homology modeling and molecular docking study of corticotrophin-releasing hormone: An approach to treat stress-related diseases
  76. LncRNA MIR17HG alleviates heart failure via targeting MIR17HG/miR-153-3p/SIRT1 axis in in vitro model
  77. Development and validation of a stability indicating UPLC-DAD method coupled with MS-TQD for ramipril and thymoquinone in bioactive SNEDDS with in silico toxicity analysis of ramipril degradation products
  78. Biosynthesis of Ag/Cu nanocomposite mediated by Curcuma longa: Evaluation of its antibacterial properties against oral pathogens
  79. Development of AMBER-compliant transferable force field parameters for polytetrafluoroethylene
  80. Treatment of gestational diabetes by Acroptilon repens leaf aqueous extract green-formulated iron nanoparticles in rats
  81. Development and characterization of new ecological adsorbents based on cardoon wastes: Application to brilliant green adsorption
  82. A fast, sensitive, greener, and stability-indicating HPLC method for the standardization and quantitative determination of chlorhexidine acetate in commercial products
  83. Assessment of Se, As, Cd, Cr, Hg, and Pb content status in Ankang tea plantations of China
  84. Effect of transition metal chloride (ZnCl2) on low-temperature pyrolysis of high ash bituminous coal
  85. Evaluating polyphenol and ascorbic acid contents, tannin removal ability, and physical properties during hydrolysis and convective hot-air drying of cashew apple powder
  86. Development and characterization of functional low-fat frozen dairy dessert enhanced with dried lemongrass powder
  87. Scrutinizing the effect of additive and synergistic antibiotics against carbapenem-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa
  88. Preparation, characterization, and determination of the therapeutic effects of copper nanoparticles green-formulated by Pistacia atlantica in diabetes-induced cardiac dysfunction in rat
  89. Antioxidant and antidiabetic potentials of methoxy-substituted Schiff bases using in vitro, in vivo, and molecular simulation approaches
  90. Anti-melanoma cancer activity and chemical profile of the essential oil of Seseli yunnanense Franch
  91. Molecular docking analysis of subtilisin-like alkaline serine protease (SLASP) and laccase with natural biopolymers
  92. Overcoming methicillin resistance by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: Computational evaluation of napthyridine and oxadiazoles compounds for potential dual inhibition of PBP-2a and FemA proteins
  93. Exploring novel antitubercular agents: Innovative design of 2,3-diaryl-quinoxalines targeting DprE1 for effective tuberculosis treatment
  94. Drimia maritima flowers as a source of biologically potent components: Optimization of bioactive compound extractions, isolation, UPLC–ESI–MS/MS, and pharmacological properties
  95. Estimating molecular properties, drug-likeness, cardiotoxic risk, liability profile, and molecular docking study to characterize binding process of key phyto-compounds against serotonin 5-HT2A receptor
  96. Fabrication of β-cyclodextrin-based microgels for enhancing solubility of Terbinafine: An in-vitro and in-vivo toxicological evaluation
  97. Phyto-mediated synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles and their sunlight-driven photocatalytic degradation of cationic and anionic dyes
  98. Monosodium glutamate induces hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis hyperactivation, glucocorticoid receptors down-regulation, and systemic inflammatory response in young male rats: Impact on miR-155 and miR-218
  99. Quality control analyses of selected honey samples from Serbia based on their mineral and flavonoid profiles, and the invertase activity
  100. Eco-friendly synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Phyllanthus niruri leaf extract: Assessment of antimicrobial activity, effectiveness on tropical neglected mosquito vector control, and biocompatibility using a fibroblast cell line model
  101. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles containing Cichorium intybus to treat the sepsis-induced DNA damage in the liver of Wistar albino rats
  102. Quality changes of durian pulp (Durio ziberhinus Murr.) in cold storage
  103. Study on recrystallization process of nitroguanidine by directly adding cold water to control temperature
  104. Determination of heavy metals and health risk assessment in drinking water in Bukayriyah City, Saudi Arabia
  105. Larvicidal properties of essential oils of three Artemisia species against the chemically insecticide-resistant Nile fever vector Culex pipiens (L.) (Diptera: Culicidae): In vitro and in silico studies
  106. Design, synthesis, characterization, and theoretical calculations, along with in silico and in vitro antimicrobial proprieties of new isoxazole-amide conjugates
  107. The impact of drying and extraction methods on total lipid, fatty acid profile, and cytotoxicity of Tenebrio molitor larvae
  108. A zinc oxide–tin oxide–nerolidol hybrid nanomaterial: Efficacy against esophageal squamous cell carcinoma
  109. Research on technological process for production of muskmelon juice (Cucumis melo L.)
  110. Physicochemical components, antioxidant activity, and predictive models for quality of soursop tea (Annona muricata L.) during heat pump drying
  111. Characterization and application of Fe1−xCoxFe2O4 nanoparticles in Direct Red 79 adsorption
  112. Torilis arvensis ethanolic extract: Phytochemical analysis, antifungal efficacy, and cytotoxicity properties
  113. Magnetite–poly-1H pyrrole dendritic nanocomposite seeded on poly-1H pyrrole: A promising photocathode for green hydrogen generation from sanitation water without using external sacrificing agent
  114. HPLC and GC–MS analyses of phytochemical compounds in Haloxylon salicornicum extract: Antibacterial and antifungal activity assessment of phytopathogens
  115. Efficient and stable to coking catalysts of ethanol steam reforming comprised of Ni + Ru loaded on MgAl2O4 + LnFe0.7Ni0.3O3 (Ln = La, Pr) nanocomposites prepared via cost-effective procedure with Pluronic P123 copolymer
  116. Nitrogen and boron co-doped carbon dots probe for selectively detecting Hg2+ in water samples and the detection mechanism
  117. Heavy metals in road dust from typical old industrial areas of Wuhan: Seasonal distribution and bioaccessibility-based health risk assessment
  118. Phytochemical profiling and bioactivity evaluation of CBD- and THC-enriched Cannabis sativa extracts: In vitro and in silico investigation of antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects
  119. Investigating dye adsorption: The role of surface-modified montmorillonite nanoclay in kinetics, isotherms, and thermodynamics
  120. Antimicrobial activity, induction of ROS generation in HepG2 liver cancer cells, and chemical composition of Pterospermum heterophyllum
  121. Study on the performance of nanoparticle-modified PVDF membrane in delaying membrane aging
  122. Impact of cholesterol in encapsulated vitamin E acetate within cocoliposomes
  123. Review Articles
  124. Structural aspects of Pt(η3-X1N1X2)(PL) (X1,2 = O, C, or Se) and Pt(η3-N1N2X1)(PL) (X1 = C, S, or Se) derivatives
  125. Biosurfactants in biocorrosion and corrosion mitigation of metals: An overview
  126. Stimulus-responsive MOF–hydrogel composites: Classification, preparation, characterization, and their advancement in medical treatments
  127. Electrochemical dissolution of titanium under alternating current polarization to obtain its dioxide
  128. Special Issue on Recent Trends in Green Chemistry
  129. Phytochemical screening and antioxidant activity of Vitex agnus-castus L.
  130. Phytochemical study, antioxidant activity, and dermoprotective activity of Chenopodium ambrosioides (L.)
  131. Exploitation of mangliculous marine fungi, Amarenographium solium, for the green synthesis of silver nanoparticles and their activity against multiple drug-resistant bacteria
  132. Study of the phytotoxicity of margines on Pistia stratiotes L.
  133. Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials for Energy, Environmental and Biological Applications - Part III
  134. Impact of biogenic zinc oxide nanoparticles on growth, development, and antioxidant system of high protein content crop (Lablab purpureus L.) sweet
  135. Green synthesis, characterization, and application of iron and molybdenum nanoparticles and their composites for enhancing the growth of Solanum lycopersicum
  136. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles from Olea europaea L. extracted polysaccharides, characterization, and its assessment as an antimicrobial agent against multiple pathogenic microbes
  137. Photocatalytic treatment of organic dyes using metal oxides and nanocomposites: A quantitative study
  138. Antifungal, antioxidant, and photocatalytic activities of greenly synthesized iron oxide nanoparticles
  139. Special Issue on Phytochemical and Pharmacological Scrutinization of Medicinal Plants
  140. Hepatoprotective effects of safranal on acetaminophen-induced hepatotoxicity in rats
  141. Chemical composition and biological properties of Thymus capitatus plants from Algerian high plains: A comparative and analytical study
  142. Chemical composition and bioactivities of the methanol root extracts of Saussurea costus
  143. In vivo protective effects of vitamin C against cyto-genotoxicity induced by Dysphania ambrosioides aqueous extract
  144. Insights about the deleterious impact of a carbamate pesticide on some metabolic immune and antioxidant functions and a focus on the protective ability of a Saharan shrub and its anti-edematous property
  145. A comprehensive review uncovering the anticancerous potential of genkwanin (plant-derived compound) in several human carcinomas
  146. A study to investigate the anticancer potential of carvacrol via targeting Notch signaling in breast cancer
  147. Assessment of anti-diabetic properties of Ziziphus oenopolia (L.) wild edible fruit extract: In vitro and in silico investigations through molecular docking analysis
  148. Optimization of polyphenol extraction, phenolic profile by LC-ESI-MS/MS, antioxidant, anti-enzymatic, and cytotoxic activities of Physalis acutifolia
  149. Phytochemical screening, antioxidant properties, and photo-protective activities of Salvia balansae de Noé ex Coss
  150. Antihyperglycemic, antiglycation, anti-hypercholesteremic, and toxicity evaluation with gas chromatography mass spectrometry profiling for Aloe armatissima leaves
  151. Phyto-fabrication and characterization of gold nanoparticles by using Timur (Zanthoxylum armatum DC) and their effect on wound healing
  152. Does Erodium trifolium (Cav.) Guitt exhibit medicinal properties? Response elements from phytochemical profiling, enzyme-inhibiting, and antioxidant and antimicrobial activities
  153. Integrative in silico evaluation of the antiviral potential of terpenoids and its metal complexes derived from Homalomena aromatica based on main protease of SARS-CoV-2
  154. 6-Methoxyflavone improves anxiety, depression, and memory by increasing monoamines in mice brain: HPLC analysis and in silico studies
  155. Simultaneous extraction and quantification of hydrophilic and lipophilic antioxidants in Solanum lycopersicum L. varieties marketed in Saudi Arabia
  156. Biological evaluation of CH3OH and C2H5OH of Berberis vulgaris for in vivo antileishmanial potential against Leishmania tropica in murine models
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