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Phytochemical profiling and bioactivity evaluation of CBD- and THC-enriched Cannabis sativa extracts: In vitro and in silico investigation of antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects

  • Rafik El-Mernissi EMAIL logo , Naoual El Menyiy , Aziz Zouhri , Yahya El-Mernissi , Fedoua Diai , Farhan Siddique , Fakhreldeen Dabiellil EMAIL logo , Khalid S. Almaary , Hassan Amhamdi , Oualid Abboussi and Lhoussain Hajji
Published/Copyright: December 16, 2024
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Open Chemistry
From the journal Open Chemistry Volume 22 Issue 1

Abstract

This study examined the phytochemical composition and biological activities of Cannabis sativa L. extracts, focusing on their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. Advanced techniques such as high-performance liquid chromatography with a diode-array detector and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry were used to identify and quantify phytochemicals. The hexane extract contained the highest concentrations of phenolics (175 ± 4 mg GAE/g DWE), flavonoids (14 ± 1.5 mg GAE/g DWE), flavones (2.2 ± 0.4 mg GAE/g DWE), and tannins (0.51 ± 0.08 mg GAE/g DWE). Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the cannabinoid responsible for psychoactive effects, was predominant in the hexane extract, whereas cannabidiol (CBD), a non-psychoactive cannabinoid, was more abundant in the chloroform extract. Both extracts demonstrated significant antioxidant activity in 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl, 2,2-azino-bis-3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid, ferric reducing antioxidant power, and total antioxidant capacity assays. Anti-inflammatory effects were observed through the inhibition of protein denaturation (IC50 ∼350 μg/mL) and membrane stabilization (IC50 185–470 μg/mL, depending on the assay). The results underscore the in vitro antioxidant and anti-inflammatory potential of Cannabis sativa extracts, supporting their traditional medicinal use. Molecular docking studies suggest that phytochemicals, particularly CBD and THC, may assist in managing inflammation by inhibiting The nuclear factor Kappa B and lipoxygenase pathways. These findings enhance the understanding of the therapeutic potential of Cannabis sativa in managing oxidative stress and inflammation.

Keywords: Cannabis sativa L.; antioxidant; anti-inflammatory; HPLC-DAD; GC-MS; NF-κB enzyme; cyclooxygenase enzymes; lipoxygenase

1 Introduction

Inflammation is a protective response triggered by harmful stimuli such as infections or tissue damage [1]. Research has consistently demonstrated a strong and intricate link between oxidative stress and inflammation, considering the former as a primary cause of the latter [2]. Conventional treatments for these conditions often carry adverse side effects, highlighting the urgent need for alternative therapeutic approaches. The plant kingdom offers a vast array of compounds with potent antioxidant properties, and recent studies have revealed their effectiveness in regulating inflammation [3].

Cannabis sativa L., one of humanity’s oldest cultivated plants, has a long history in medicine [4], and has garnered substantial attention due to its increasing legalization worldwide [5]. For instance, Morocco has made significant strides in cannabis regulation. Law No. 13.21, enacted in 2021, legalized the cultivation, processing, and sale of cannabis for scientific and medical purposes [6]. The plant’s diverse chemical composition, which includes over 565 identified compounds such as cannabinoids, terpenes, and flavonoids, underpins its therapeutic potential [7,8,9]. The chemical profile (“chemotype”) of Cannabis sativa plants is used to classify Cannabis into different chemical varieties, or “chemovars.” These chemovars are distinguished by varying cannabinoid and terpene ratios, which are believed to produce unique effects in human consumers [10,11]. Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) is the primary compound responsible for the plant’s psychoactive effects [12]. In addition to THC, cannabis contains other cannabinoids without psychoactive effects such as cannabidiol (CBD) [13], one of the cannabinoids holding an important therapeutic potential among the multitude of compounds with null psychoactive properties [14]. Previous research has shown that components of cannabis extracts can effectively reduce inflammation in laboratory animal and human studies [15].

The aim of this study is to comprehensively characterize the phytochemical composition of hexanic and chloroformic Cannabis sativa L. extracts using high-performance liquid chromatography with a diode-array detector (HPLC-DAD) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The antioxidant and anti-inflammatory potential of these extracts will be evaluated through in vitro assays. Additionally, molecular docking studies being the prestigious tool to explore various interactions between protein and ligand [16,17] were used to explore the potential molecular targets and mechanisms of action underlying the observed bioactivities.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Pant material

The Cannabis sativa L. plants used in our study were collected in September 2021, during the flowering phase, from Meadow Rif Mountain in the Tafrant region of Taounate Province, Morocco (34°39′28.4″ N, 5°05′58.9″ W). The climate is predominantly mountainous, characterized by cold, rainy winters and mild to hot summers. Average annual rainfall ranges from 700 to 1,300 mm. A dry spell typically occurs during the summer months (July to mid-August), with minimal rainfall and temperatures that can often reach or exceed 40°C. The plant material was sourced from local farmers who used seeds provided by the National Agency for the Regulation of Activities Related to Cannabis (ANRAC). A taxonomist from the Scientific Institute of Rabat, Morocco, verified the species to confirm its identity. A voucher specimen with the reference number RAB 112735 has been deposited in the institute’s herbarium for future taxonomic reference. The collected plant material was dried in a dark, well-ventilated area at room temperature (25 ± 2°C) until a constant weight was achieved. To decarboxylate acidic cannabinoids, such as tetrahydrocannabinolic acid and cannabidiolic acid, the dried plant matter underwent a 30-min heat treatment at 120°C, following the protocol established by Veress et al. [18]. Once dried, the plant material was finely ground using a laboratory-grade mill to ensure uniform particle size, promoting consistent extraction efficiency in subsequent analyses.

2.2 Extract preparation

Twenty grams of dried plant material were subjected to ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) using 200 mL of chloroform and 200 mL of hexane, individually. The extraction process was conducted in an ultrasonic bath at 120 Hz and 30°C for 60 min. The resulting mixtures were filtered under vacuum to isolate the extracts. Solvent removal was achieved using a rotary evaporator at 40°C, yielding the chloroformic extract (CHL-CBD, enriched in CBD) and the hexanic extract (HEX-THC, enriched in THC), respectively. This extraction procedure was repeated three times for each solvent. The combined crude extracts demonstrated extraction yields of 5.67 ± 0.7% for CHL-CBD and 3.8 ± 0.24% for HEX-THC. Extracts were stored at −20°C until further analysis.

2.3 Phytochemical study

2.3.1 Total phenol content (TPC)

The TPC of the dried extracts was quantified using the Folin-Ciocalteu spectrophotometric method. Absorbance measurements were recorded at 750 nm using a spectrophotometer (Jenway 6305). TPC values were expressed as milligrams of gallic acid equivalents per gram of dried weight of extract (mg GAE/g DWE) and represent the mean value of three separate analyses [19].

2.3.2 Total flavonoid content

Total flavonoid levels in the extracts were quantified using a spectrophotometric aluminum chloride colorimetric assay adapted from Ousaaid et al. [20]. Absorbance readings were taken at 510 nm. Results were expressed as milligrams of Quercetin equivalents per gram of dry extract (mg QE/g DW) and represent the average of three independent determinations.

2.3.3 Flavonols

Flavonol content (FC) was quantified using a modified spectrophotometric method adapted from Al-Dabbas et al. [21]. Quercetin served as the standard for constructing a calibration curve. Plant extracts (1 mg/mL) were reacted with 2 mL of aluminum chloride (2%) and 6 mL of sodium acetate solution (5%). The resulting mixture was incubated at 20°C for 2.5 h before absorbance measurement at 440 nm. FC was calculated from the calibration curve and expressed as quercetin equivalents per gram of dry extract (mg QE/g DW). The analysis was performed in triplicate.

2.3.4 Total condensed tannin content

Condensed tannin content was quantified using a modified spectrophotometric method adapted from Remok et al. [22]. Catechin served as the standard for calculating results, which were expressed as milligrams of catechin equivalents per gram of dry extract (mg CE/g DW). The experiments were performed in triplicate.

2.3.5 GC-MS analyses

GC-MS analysis of hexane and chloroform extracts obtained from Cannabis sativa L. was performed using a Thermo Scientific TRACE GC ULTRA system [23]. The system was equipped with a split injector and coupled to a mass spectrometer. Separation of compounds was achieved on a TG-1MS capillary column (30 m × 0.25 mm, film thickness: 0.25 μm). Helium was used as the carrier gas at a constant flow rate of 1.5 mL/min. The GC oven temperature was programmed to increase from 90 to 250°C at a rate of 1°C/min, held for 3 min. Both the injector and interface temperatures were maintained at 250°C. Sample preparation involved a ten-fold dilution in cyclohexane, with 1 μL injected for analysis. Electron ionization at 70 eV was employed for mass spectral data acquisition in the m/z range of 50–550. Compound identification was accomplished by comparison with the NIST spectral library.

2.3.6 HPLC-DAD analysis

Sample and standard solutions were prepared at a concentration of 30 mg/mL and subsequently filtered through 0.4 µm membrane filters to remove particulate matter. Chromatographic analysis was conducted using a HPLC-DAD, following a modified method adapted from Zefzoufi et al. [24]. Separation was achieved on a Kinetex C18 reversed-phase column (250 × 4.6 mm, 2.6 µm particle size). A binary gradient elution was employed using a mobile phase consisting of 0.1% acetic acid in water (solvent A) and methanol (solvent B). The gradient profile was as follows: 0–3 min, 5–25% B; 3–6 min, isocratic at 25% B; 6–9 min, 25–37% B; 9–13 min, isocratic at 37% B; 13–18 min, 37–54% B; 18–22 min, isocratic at 54% B; 22–26 min, 54–95% B; 26–29 min, isocratic at 95% B; 29–35 min, 95–5% B; 35–45 min, isocratic at 5% B. The chromatographic system was operated at a flow rate of 1 mL/min with the column temperature maintained at 30°C. UV-Vis detection was performed within a spectral range of 200–400 nm, with chromatographic profiles monitored at 280 nm. Compound identification was based on retention time comparison with authentic standards.

2.4 Antioxidant activity

The antioxidant capacity of the extracts was evaluated using a combination of spectrophotometric assays:

2.4.1 Free-radical scavenging activity 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH)

The antioxidant capacity of the cannabis extracts was assessed using the DPPH radical scavenging assay adapted from El Menyiy et al. [25]. The ability of the extracts to scavenge the DPPH radical was determined by measuring the decrease in absorbance at 517 nm and calculating the IC50 value. Butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) was used as a positive control for comparison. Results were expressed as mean value ± standard deviation (SD) of three independent experiments.

2.4.2 Total antioxidant capacity (TAC)

The TAC of both extracts was assessed using the phosphomolybdenum assay, adapted from the protocol described by Laaroussi et al. [26]. The test was carried out in triplicate. Results were expressed as micrograms of ascorbic acid equivalents per gram of dry weight of extract (μg AAE/g DWE).

2.4.3 Scavenging activity of 2,2-azino-bis-3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid (ABTS) radical cation

The antioxidant potential of the cannabis extracts was evaluated using the ABTS radical scavenging assay, adapted from Zouhri [27]. The extract’s ability to decolorize the ABTS radical cation was determined spectrophotometrically by measuring absorbance at 734 nm. Ascorbic acid served as a reference standard. The analysis was performed in triplicate.

2.4.4 Fe3+/Fe2+ reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) assay

The reductive potential of the extracts were assessed using the FRAP assay [28]. Absorbance was measured at 700 nm to determine the IC50 value. The test was conducted in triplicate, with ascorbic acid serving as the positive control.

2.5 Anti-inflammatory activity

2.5.1 Inhibition of albumin denaturation

The in vitro anti-inflammatory potential of the extracts was assessed using the albumin denaturation assay adapted from the literature [27]. Briefly, 0.5 mL of bovine serum albumin (BSA) solution (0.2% w/v in Tris buffer, pH 6.8) was incubated with various concentrations of the plant extract or diclofenac sodium (positive control) for 15 min at 37°C. Subsequently, the mixtures were exposed to 72°C for 5 min to induce protein denaturation. The absorbance of the resulting solutions was measured at 660 nm to quantify protein aggregation. All experiments were performed in triplicate.

2.5.2 Red blood cell (RBC) membrane stabilization assay

RBCs were selected as a model for membrane stabilization testing due to the similarity of their membranes to lysosomal membranes. Stabilizing the erythrocyte membrane also stabilizes the lysosomal membrane, which is crucial for limiting inflammation by preventing the release of harmful enzymes and proteases from activated neutrophils. This release can lead to inflammation and tissue damage [29,30].

2.5.2.1 Preparation of phosphate buffer saline (PBS)

A buffer solution was created by dissolving 100 g of sodium chloride (NaCl), 2.5 g of potassium chloride (KCl), 18 g of disodium hydrogen phosphate dihydrate (Na₂HPO₄·2 H₂O), and 8 g of potassium dihydrogen phosphate (KH₂PO₄) in 1 L of distilled water.

2.5.2.2 Preparation of hypotonic solution (0.9% NaCl)

A 0.9% (w/v) saline solution was prepared by dissolving 9 g of sodium chloride in distilled water to a final volume of 1 L.

2.5.2.3 Preparation of a suspension of erythrocytes

Blood samples (7 mL) were obtained from healthy human volunteers aged 20–30 years with no history of anti-inflammatory medication use in the month prior to the experiments. The samples were collected in heparinized tubes and subjected to centrifugation at 2,500 rpm for 5 min to separate erythrocytes. The erythrocyte pellet was washed three times with sterile saline (0.9% w/v NaCl) and subsequently resuspended in phosphate-buffered saline (pH 7.4) to prepare a 40% hematocrit suspension [31].

2.5.2.4 Heat-induced hemolysis

Heat-induced hemolysis was assessed using the method described by Gunathilake et al. [32]. In this procedure, 0.05 mL of a blood cell suspension was combined with 0.05 mL of various concentrations of extracts and 2.95 mL of phosphate buffer (pH 7.4) in triplicate. The resulting mixture was incubated at 54°C for 20 min in a shaking water bath. Post-incubation, the mixture was centrifuged at 2,500 rpm for 3 min. The absorbance of the supernatant was then measured at 540 nm using a UV/VIS spectrometer. A phosphate buffer solution served as the control in this experiment. Aspirin was used as the standard.

Hemolysis inhibition was calculated using the formula

% Inhibition of Hemolysis = [ Absorbance ( control ) − Absorbance ( test ) ] Absorbance ( control ) × 100 .

2.5.2.5 Hypotonicity-induced hemolysis test

In this assay, the method described by Aidoo et al. [33] was followed with slight modification. The test samples consisted of 0.5 mL of human red blood cell stock mixed with 4.5 mL of hypotonic solution (0.9% NaCl) containing varying concentrations of extracts. The negative control sample consisted of 0.5 mL of RBC suspension mixed with 4.5 mL of hypotonic solution alone. Indomethacin was used as the standard. The experiment was conducted in triplicates at each concentration. The mixture was incubated for 10 min at room temperature and then centrifuged for 10 min at 3,000 rpm. The hemoglobin content of the supernatant was measured using a spectrophotometer at 540 nm. The percentage inhibition of hemolysis was calculated using the following formula:

% Inhibition of Hemolysis = [ ( Absorbance ( control ) − Absorbance ( test ) ] Absorbance ( control ) × 100 .

2.6 In silico molecular docking studies

The crystallographic structure of the proteins of interest was obtained from the Protein Data Bank (PDB) (https://www.rcsb.org/). The receptors represented by PDB IDs: 5LDE (The Nuclear Factor Kappa B [NF-kB] enzyme), 1EQG (Cyclooxygenase enzyme 1), 1CX2 (Cyclooxygenase enzyme 2), and 3V99 (lipoxygenase) were prepared by adding hydrogen atoms, Kollman charges, and removing irrelevant solvent molecules and co-crystallized ligands for virtual screening employing AutoDock Vina [34]. In this study, Chem3D was utilized to optimize the 3D structures of the ligands through energy minimization, ensuring their stability and accuracy [35,36] followed by saving these files in SDF format which were then converted to pdbqt format via Open Babel GUI software to prepare them for virtual screening using Auto Dock Vina. These structures were further refined to “pdbqt” format via AutoDock Tools-1.5.7. Molecular docking was executed with AutoDockTools-1.5.7, using grid box specifications determined through Discovery Studio, enabling the prediction of ligand binding within the active sites [37]. The process of virtual screening was conducted by employing the script-based approach of AutoDock Vina. The value for exhaustiveness was configured as 08, while the number of nodes was specified as 09. Docking scores highlighted interaction strengths, with more negative values presenting stronger ligand–protein affinities. Visual representation of ligand–protein interactions was executed via Discovery Studio 2021 Client, to explore the binding orientations.

2.7 Statistical analyses

Data were expressed as mean value ± standard deviation (SD). Statistical comparisons among groups were conducted using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), followed by Tukey’s post-hoc test for multiple comparisons. Statistical significance was considered at p < 0.05, using GraphPad Prism software (version 9).

3 Results

3.1 Phytochemical study

3.1.1 TPC, total flavonoids content (TFC), FC, and total tannins content (TTC)

The phenolic composition of Cannabis sativa extracts was analyzed spectrophotometrically, and the results are summarized in Table 1. Spectrophotometric analysis revealed higher levels of flavonoids, flavonols, and total phenols in the hexane extract compared to the chloroform extract of Cannabis sativa. Conversely, the chloroform extract contained a greater amount of total tannins. These findings align with previous research [38,39]. The phenolic and flavonoid contents were lower than that reported in Moroccan cannabis seeds [40] but higher than those reported in the inflorescences and leaves of various industrial cultivars [41,42]. The antioxidant properties attributed to phenolics are due to their hydroxyl groups, which can inhibit lipid oxidation through chain-breaking mechanisms [43]. Furthermore, phenolic compounds suppress inflammation by inhibiting enzymes involved in prostaglandin and leukotriene production, such as phospholipase A2, cyclooxygenase, and lipoxygenase [44,45].

Table 1

Content of TPCs, TFCs, FC and TTCs of Cannabis extracts

TPC (mg GAE/g DWE) TFC (mg QE/g DW) FC (mg QE/g DW) TTC (mg CE/g DW)
CHL-CBD 130 ± 2.5a 6 ± 1.2a 0.9 ± 0.2a 0.46 ± 0.09a
HEX-THC 175 ± 4b 14 ± 1.5b 2.2 ± 0.4b 0.51 ± 0.08a

Data are presented as mean value ± standard deviation. Values sharing the same letter within a column are not significantly different (p > 0.05).

3.1.2 GC-MS analysis

To selectively target THC and CBD, chloroform and hexane were employed for extraction, respectively. The hexane extract exhibited a higher THC content (89.87%) compared to the chloroform extract, while the latter was enriched in CBD (47.38%), as determined by GC-MS analysis (Table 2, Figures 1 and 2). Previous studies have attributed diverse biological properties, including antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects, to both cannabinoids (CBD, THC) [46,47,48,49,50,51]. Notably, in vivo research has demonstrated the predominantly anti-inflammatory effects of CBD, and CBD:THC combinations, in contrast to the neutral influence of THC on pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokine levels [52].

Table 2

Cannabinoid profile of Cannabis sativa L. extracts and their percentage area

Molecular weight Molecular structure Retention time Area %
HEX-THC (%) CHL -CBD (%)
CBD 314
22.86 <1 47.38
THC 314
23.91 89.87 <1
Figure 1 GC-MS chromatogram of chloroformic extract Cannabis sativa L. enriched in CBD.
Figure 1

GC-MS chromatogram of chloroformic extract Cannabis sativa L. enriched in CBD.

Figure 2 GC-MS chromatogram of hexanic extract of Cannabis sativa L. enriched in THC.
Figure 2

GC-MS chromatogram of hexanic extract of Cannabis sativa L. enriched in THC.

3.1.3 HPLC analysis

HPLC-DAD analysis enabled the identification of four phenolic acids (l-ascorbic acid, gallic acid, p-coumaric acid, and rosmarinic acid) and two flavonoids (catechin hydrate and quercetin) in both extracts (Table 3). While minor concentration differences were observed, as indicated by slight differences in peak area (Figures 3 and 4), quercetin emerged as the predominant compound. This ubiquitous flavonoid is linked to various health benefits, including antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, as well as potential cardiovascular protection [53]. Although other phenolic compounds were present, their concentrations were significantly lower. The synergistic interplay between phenolic compounds and cannabinoids may contribute to the extract’s pharmacological activities.

Table 3

Identified compounds in cannabis sativa L. HEX-THC and CHL-CBD extracts using HPLC-DAD

Pick number Retention time Compound Area %
HEX-THC CHL-CBD
1 3.35 l-ascorbic acid 2.2 0.5
2 5.45 Gallic acid 2.1 1.9
3 8.50 Catechin hydrate 1 0.8
4 14.68 P-coumaric acid 4 7.2
5 30.38 Quercetin 30 29.1
6 31.60 Rosmarinic acid 0.1 0.4
Figure 3 HPLC-DAD chromatogram of chloroformic extract of Cannabis sativa L. enriched in CBD.
Figure 3

HPLC-DAD chromatogram of chloroformic extract of Cannabis sativa L. enriched in CBD.

Figure 4 HPLC-DAD chromatogram of hexanic extract of Cannabis sativa L. enriched in THC.
Figure 4

HPLC-DAD chromatogram of hexanic extract of Cannabis sativa L. enriched in THC.

The identified phytoconstituents align with previous studies on Cannabis sativa. Izzo et al. [41] reported p-coumaric acid, catechin, and quercetin presence in industrial variety inflorescences. A comprehensive analysis by Jin et al. [54,55] revealed seven flavonoids in different plant parts. André et al. [42] reported similar findings. Gallic and rosmarinic acids were predominantly found in aerial parts [56], while p-coumaric acid and ethyl p-coumarate were identified as primary phenolics in hemp roots [57] (Figure 5).

Figure 5 The structure of identified compounds in HEX-THC and CHL-CBD extracts: (a) l-ascorbic acid, (b) gallic acid, (c) catechin hydrate, (d) p-coumaric acid, (e) quercetin, and (f) rosmarinic acid.
Figure 5

The structure of identified compounds in HEX-THC and CHL-CBD extracts: (a) l-ascorbic acid, (b) gallic acid, (c) catechin hydrate, (d) p-coumaric acid, (e) quercetin, and (f) rosmarinic acid.

3.2 Antioxidant activity

Antioxidant capacity quantifies a biological system’s resistance to oxidative damage inflicted by reactive oxygen species. Given the diverse mechanisms underlying antioxidant activity, a single assay cannot comprehensively evaluate the antioxidant potential of a complex mixture. Hydrogen atom transfer and single electron transfer are the primary mechanisms underpinning antioxidant assays.

The antioxidant properties of both extracts were assessed using DPPH, FRAP, TAC, and ABTS assays (Table 4). Both extracts demonstrated significant antioxidant activity. As anticipated, the hexane extract, exhibiting the highest levels of polyphenols, flavonoids, and flavonols, showed the strongest antioxidant potential.

Table 4

Antioxidant potential of Cannabis sativa L. extracts was assessed using DPPH, ABTS, TAC and FRAP assays

DPPH (IC50 μg/mL) ABTS (IC50 μg/mL) TAC μg AAE/g DWE FRAP (EC50 μg/mL)
CHL-CBD 45 ± 2.7a 65 ± 5a 88 ± 3a 33 ± 2a
HEX-THC 32 ± 43b 47 ± 4.1b 108 ± 4b 26 ± 1.9b
BHT 14.1 ± 1c — — —
Ascorbic acid — 12.34c — 55.4c

Values are expressed as mean value ± standard deviation. Different letters within a row indicate statistically significant differences (p < 0.05), n = 3.

DPPH IC50 values were 32 ± 43 μg/mL and 45 ± 2.7 μg/mL for hexane and chloroform extracts, respectively, surpassing the standard BHT (IC50 = 14.1 ± 1 μg/mL). ABTS results corroborated these findings, with IC50 values of 47 ± 4.1 μg/mL and 65 ± 5 μg/mL for hexane and chloroform extracts, respectively, significantly exceeding ascorbic acid (IC50 = 12.34 μg/mL). The FRAP assay, measuring ferric ion reduction to ferrous ions, indicated a higher antioxidant capacity in the hexane extract (EC50 = 26 ± 1.9 μg/mL) compared to the chloroform extract. However, both extracts exhibited lower reducing power than ascorbic acid (EC50 = 13.4 μg/mL). TAC values were 88 ± 3 and 108 ± 4 μg AAE/g DWE for hexane and chloroform extracts, respectively.

The results of the antioxidant tests reveal interesting properties, which align with previous research [42,56,58,59]. However, our findings differ from those of Hacke et al., who reported higher IC50 values of 202.8 ± 7.8 μg/mL for a THC-rich extract and 147.3 ± 18.7 μg/mL for a CBD-rich extract. Their study also demonstrated that pure CBD exhibited stronger antioxidant activity than pure THC in the DPPH assay, while THC showed greater antioxidant potential in the ABTS test. Additionally, they found that the 10:90 (CBD/THC) combination exhibited potent ABTS scavenging activity, whereas the 75:25 (CBD/THC) combination was the most effective in the DPPH test [60]. Hayakawa et al. also proved that CBD exhibited stronger antioxidative power than THC in an in vitro study using the DPPH radical [61]. In contrast, Borges et al. suggested that THC exhibits a slightly higher antioxidant potential than CBD [62,63].

The observed antioxidant activity likely originates from the synergistic interplay of THC, CBD, and phenolic compounds within the cannabis extracts [64]. Beyond their pharmacological effects, phenolic compounds, exemplified by quercetin, can enhance the bioavailability of other compounds [65], contributing to the extracts’ overall antioxidant capacity.

3.3 Anti-inflammatory activity

3.3.1 Inhibition of albumin denaturation

Inflammation is a protective response initiated in tissues to eliminate harmful pathogens or initiate tissue repair following injury or infection [66]. Protein denaturation is closely linked to inflammation and contributes to various inflammatory conditions [67]. Consequently, a substance’s ability to inhibit protein denaturation implies potential anti-inflammatory effects. The present study evaluated the in vitro protein denaturation inhibitory effects of two Cannabis sativa L. extracts. Figure 6 depicts the IC50 values obtained for BSA denaturation inhibition, The CHL-CBD extract displayed slightly lower activity (IC50 = 365.1 ± 5.5 μg/mL) compared to the HEX-THC extract (IC50 = 354.7 ± 4.5 μg/mL), with no significant difference. Diclofenac sodium exhibited the most potent protein protection (IC50 = 288 μg/mL), significantly outperforming both extracts (p < 0.01). Haddou et al. found that various extracts from Moroccan Cannabis sativa seeds demonstrated moderate inhibition of BSA denaturation [68].

Figure 6 IC50 values for inhibiting albumin denaturation, data are expressed as mean value ± SD, n = 3, **p < 0.01.
Figure 6

IC50 values for inhibiting albumin denaturation, data are expressed as mean value ± SD, n = 3, **p < 0.01.

The remarkable inhibition of BSA denaturation of the HEX-THC, CHL-CBD demonstrating the potential anti-inflammatory properties of the plant may be linked to the high concentrations of cannabinoids, flavonoids, flavonols, phenols, and tannins in these extracts. Quercetin and p-coumaric acid were identified as major compounds contributing to BSA stability [69,70]. Cuinica and Chissico reported that quercetin possesses protective effect on protein denaturation but lower than that of hydroethanolic extract of Urtica dioica [71], suggesting that the anti-inflammatory action of the plant extracts might arise from a synergistic interaction among multiple constituents rather than a single compound.

3.3.2 Membrane stabilization tests

Figures 7 and 8 illustrate a dose-dependent protective effect of both extracts against hemolysis.

Figure 7 Effect of HEX-THC, CHL-CBD, and aspirin on inhibition of hemolysis in heat induced test.
Figure 7

Effect of HEX-THC, CHL-CBD, and aspirin on inhibition of hemolysis in heat induced test.

Figure 8 Effect of HEX-THC, CHL-CBD, and indomethacin on inhibition of hemolysis hypotonicity-induced test.
Figure 8

Effect of HEX-THC, CHL-CBD, and indomethacin on inhibition of hemolysis hypotonicity-induced test.

The hexane extract exhibited superior efficacy, with IC50 values of 185.94 ± 8.81 μg/mL and 264.51 ± 41.18 μg/mL for heat- and hypotonic-induced hemolysis, respectively, compared to the chloroform extract (IC50 = 301.55 ± 8.43 μg/mL, 469.58 ± 27.01 μg/mL). Notably, the protective action was more pronounced against heat-induced hemolysis (Table 5). These results surpass those reported by Haddou et al [68].

Table 5

Membrane stabilizing effect of HEX-THC and CHL-CBD on hypotonicity‑induced hemolysis test and heat‑induced hemolysis test

IC50 heat-induced test (μg/mL) IC50 hypotonicity-induced test (μg/mL)
CHL-CBD 301.55 ± 8.43a 469.58 ± 27.01a
HEX-THC 185.94 ± 8.81b 264.51 ± 41.18b
Aspirin 100.73 ± 4.60c —
Indomethacin — 121.63 ± 6.75c

Data are expressed as mean value ± SD, letters within a row indicate statistically significant differences (p < 0.001), n = 3.

Exposure of RBCs to extreme conditions, such as hypotonic solutions or elevated temperatures, induces membrane disintegration, resulting in hemoglobin release and subsequent oxidation [72]. Given the structural similarity between human RBC membranes and lysosomal components, the inhibition of hemolysis under these conditions serves as a potential indicator of the extract’s anti-inflammatory mechanism. A plausible explanation for the membrane stabilization effect involves the extracts’ ability to impede the release of lytic enzymes and inflammatory mediators, thus preventing protein denaturation. Additionally, modulation of calcium influx into erythrocytes may contribute to this protective action [73]. The anti-inflammatory potential of the extracts could be attributed to the presence of bioactive compounds such as quercetin, gallic acid, p-coumaric acid, and cannabinoids, or possibly synergistic interactions between these constituents. Despite these promising findings, the precise molecular mechanisms underlying the membrane-stabilizing properties of Cannabis sativa extracts and the specific compounds responsible for this effect remain to be elucidated

Over the past few decades, numerous studies have investigated the anti-inflammatory effects of pure THC, CBD, and their combination. Research conducted both in vitro and in vivo has shown that THC can reduce inflammatory processes through multiple mechanisms. Comparable results have been observed with CBD. Majdi et al. suggested that both THC and CBD may inhibit the inflammatory response by targeting the TLR4/NF-kB signaling pathway [74]. Yekhtin et al. found that cannabis extracts had a greater inhibitory effect on cytokine secretion compared to pure cannabinoids [75]. In their study using the BV-2 mouse microglial cell line and lipopolysaccharide to induce inflammation, Kozela et al. reported that THC and CBD both diminished the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as interleukin-1, interleukin-6, and interferon [76]. A recent investigation by Britch and Craft compared the effects of CBD and THC individually and in combination in male and female rats suffering from persistent inflammatory pain. Their findings indicated that THC alone significantly reduced paw thickness, while a similar effect was noted with CBD alone; however, when combined with THC, CBD appeared to lessen the effectiveness of THC [77]. Moreover, in some cases, the activity of a combination of phytomolecules was found to be superior over that of a single molecule [78,79,80].

3.4 Molecular docking results

Table 6 details the docking score of all the investigated compounds, whereas Table S1 and Figures 8–14 are the categorical descriptions, and the visual displays of various interactions involved in the hit compounds and the co-crystallized ligands of chosen target proteins, respectively. The visual display shows the three-dimensional (3D) view with the hydrogen bond surface while the two-dimensional (2D) view highlights various interacting amino acid residues. The hydrogen bonding contributes to the ligand’s stabilization near the binding site, whereas hydrophobic interactions involve non-polar amino acids, which contribute to the ligand’s binding affinity. Thus, hydrophobic interactions highlight the importance of non-polar forces in the ligand’s mode of binding (Figure 15).

Table 6

Interacting amino acids, types of interactions, and binding affinity of ligands with various target proteins

Ligands (from GC-MS and HPLC) NF-κB COX-1 COX-2 Lipoxygenase
5LDE 1EQG 1CX2 3V99
Co-crystallized ligand — −7.6 −9.2 −6.0
CBD −4.6 −6.9 −7.7 −7.4
THC −5.2 −7.3 −8.7 −7.8
l-ascorbic acid −4.0 −6.1 −6.2 −5.8
Gallic acid −3.7 −6.6 −6.7 −6.3
(+)-catechin hydrate −4.8 −7.1 −8.4 −8.0
P-coumaric acid −4.5 −6.2 −7.0 −6.4
Quercetin −5.6 −8.9 −9.6 −8.6
Rosmarinic acid −3.7 −6.8 −9.2 −7.4
Figure 9 Interaction of NF-κB (5LDE) target protein with the quercetin (a) showing 3D amino acid interactive view along with H-Bond surface and 2D amino acid interactive view.
Figure 9

Interaction of NF-κB (5LDE) target protein with the quercetin (a) showing 3D amino acid interactive view along with H-Bond surface and 2D amino acid interactive view.

Figure 10 Interaction of COX-1 (1EQG) target protein with the quercetin (b) showing 3D amino acid interactive view along with H-Bond surface and 2D amino acid interactive view.
Figure 10

Interaction of COX-1 (1EQG) target protein with the quercetin (b) showing 3D amino acid interactive view along with H-Bond surface and 2D amino acid interactive view.

Figure 11 Interaction of COX-1 (1EQG) target protein with the co-crystallized ligand (c) showing 3D amino acid interactive view along with H-Bond surface and 2D amino acid interactive view.
Figure 11

Interaction of COX-1 (1EQG) target protein with the co-crystallized ligand (c) showing 3D amino acid interactive view along with H-Bond surface and 2D amino acid interactive view.

Figure 12 Interaction of COX-2 (1CX2) target protein with the Quercetin (d) showing 3D amino acid interactive view along with H-Bond surface and 2D amino acid interactive view.
Figure 12

Interaction of COX-2 (1CX2) target protein with the Quercetin (d) showing 3D amino acid interactive view along with H-Bond surface and 2D amino acid interactive view.

Figure 13 Interaction of COX-2 (1CX2) target protein with the co-crystallized ligand (e) showing a 3D amino acid interactive view along with H-Bond surface and 2D amino acid interactive view.
Figure 13

Interaction of COX-2 (1CX2) target protein with the co-crystallized ligand (e) showing a 3D amino acid interactive view along with H-Bond surface and 2D amino acid interactive view.

Figure 14 Interaction of lipoxygenase (3V99) target protein with the quercetin (f) showing 3D amino acid interactive view along with H-Bond surface and 2D amino acid interactive view.
Figure 14

Interaction of lipoxygenase (3V99) target protein with the quercetin (f) showing 3D amino acid interactive view along with H-Bond surface and 2D amino acid interactive view.

Figure 15 Interaction of lipoxygenase (3V99) target protein with the co-crystallized ligand (g) showing a 3D amino acid interactive view along with H-Bond surface and 2D amino acid interactive view.
Figure 15

Interaction of lipoxygenase (3V99) target protein with the co-crystallized ligand (g) showing a 3D amino acid interactive view along with H-Bond surface and 2D amino acid interactive view.

These findings not only deepen our understanding of the compounds’ mechanisms of action but also highlight their promising roles in various therapies. As we strive to unveil these molecular insights, boulevards for future research and therapeutic applications emerge, holding the promise of innovative approaches to enhance human health.

4 Conclusion

This study highlights the significant antioxidant and anti-inflammatory potential of CBD- and THC-enriched Cannabis sativa L. extracts, emphasizing their promising role in addressing oxidative stress and inflammation. Through comprehensive phytochemical profiling using HPLC-DAD and GC-MS, we identified key bioactive compounds, notably phenolic acids, flavonoids, and cannabinoids that contribute to these effects. The hexane and chloroform extracts, in particular, demonstrated substantial bioactivity across various in vitro assays, reinforcing their therapeutic potential. Molecular docking further elucidated the mechanisms by which these extracts may exert their anti-inflammatory effects, particularly through NF-κB inhibition and anti-lipoxygenase activity. Overall, these findings contribute valuable insights into the medicinal properties of Cannabis sativa, supporting its traditional uses and highlighting its potential for developing novel therapeutic strategies against inflammation and oxidative stress.

  1. Funding information: This work was financially supported by the Researchers Supporting Project number (RSP2024R189), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

  2. Author contributions: Conceptualization, drafting the original manuscript, reviewing, and editing were carried out by Rafik El-Mernissi, Aziz Zouhri, Naoual El Menyiy Khalid S. Almaary, and Fadoua Diai. Formal analysis, investigations, securing funding, as well as reviewing and editing were handled by Yahya El-Mernissi, Farhan Siddique. The provision of resources, data validation, data management, and supervision were overseen by Hassan Amhamdi, Fakhreldeen Dabiellil, Oualid Abboussi, and Lhoussain Hajji.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

  4. Ethical approval: The conducted research is not related to either human or animal use.

  5. Data availability statement: All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article.

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Received: 2024-09-21
Revised: 2024-10-22
Accepted: 2024-11-06
Published Online: 2024-12-16

© 2024 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Regular Articles
  2. Porous silicon nanostructures: Synthesis, characterization, and their antifungal activity
  3. Biochar from de-oiled Chlorella vulgaris and its adsorption on antibiotics
  4. Phytochemicals profiling, in vitro and in vivo antidiabetic activity, and in silico studies on Ajuga iva (L.) Schreb.: A comprehensive approach
  5. Synthesis, characterization, in silico and in vitro studies of novel glycoconjugates as potential antibacterial, antifungal, and antileishmanial agents
  6. Sonochemical synthesis of gold nanoparticles mediated by potato starch: Its performance in the treatment of esophageal cancer
  7. Computational study of ADME-Tox prediction of selected phytochemicals from Punica granatum peels
  8. Phytochemical analysis, in vitro antioxidant and antifungal activities of extracts and essential oil derived from Artemisia herba-alba Asso
  9. Two triazole-based coordination polymers: Synthesis and crystal structure characterization
  10. Phytochemical and physicochemical studies of different apple varieties grown in Morocco
  11. Synthesis of multi-template molecularly imprinted polymers (MT-MIPs) for isolating ethyl para-methoxycinnamate and ethyl cinnamate from Kaempferia galanga L., extract with methacrylic acid as functional monomer
  12. Nutraceutical potential of Mesembryanthemum forsskaolii Hochst. ex Bioss.: Insights into its nutritional composition, phytochemical contents, and antioxidant activity
  13. Evaluation of influence of Butea monosperma floral extract on inflammatory biomarkers
  14. Cannabis sativa L. essential oil: Chemical composition, anti-oxidant, anti-microbial properties, and acute toxicity: In vitro, in vivo, and in silico study
  15. The effect of gamma radiation on 5-hydroxymethylfurfural conversion in water and dimethyl sulfoxide
  16. Hollow mushroom nanomaterials for potentiometric sensing of Pb2+ ions in water via the intercalation of iodide ions into the polypyrrole matrix
  17. Determination of essential oil and chemical composition of St. John’s Wort
  18. Computational design and in vitro assay of lantadene-based novel inhibitors of NS3 protease of dengue virus
  19. Anti-parasitic activity and computational studies on a novel labdane diterpene from the roots of Vachellia nilotica
  20. Microbial dynamics and dehydrogenase activity in tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) rhizospheres: Impacts on growth and soil health across different soil types
  21. Correlation between in vitro anti-urease activity and in silico molecular modeling approach of novel imidazopyridine–oxadiazole hybrids derivatives
  22. Spatial mapping of indoor air quality in a light metro system using the geographic information system method
  23. Iron indices and hemogram in renal anemia and the improvement with Tribulus terrestris green-formulated silver nanoparticles applied on rat model
  24. Integrated track of nano-informatics coupling with the enrichment concept in developing a novel nanoparticle targeting ERK protein in Naegleria fowleri
  25. Cytotoxic and phytochemical screening of Solanum lycopersicum–Daucus carota hydro-ethanolic extract and in silico evaluation of its lycopene content as anticancer agent
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  27. pH-based colorimetric detection of monofunctional aldehydes in liquid and gas phases
  28. Investigating the effect of resveratrol on apoptosis and regulation of gene expression of Caco-2 cells: Unravelling potential implications for colorectal cancer treatment
  29. Metformin inhibits knee osteoarthritis induced by type 2 diabetes mellitus in rats: S100A8/9 and S100A12 as players and therapeutic targets
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https://doi.org/10.1515/chem-2024-0119
Keywords for this article
Cannabis sativa L.; antioxidant; anti-inflammatory; HPLC-DAD; GC-MS; NF-κB enzyme; cyclooxygenase enzymes; lipoxygenase
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Regular Articles
  2. Porous silicon nanostructures: Synthesis, characterization, and their antifungal activity
  3. Biochar from de-oiled Chlorella vulgaris and its adsorption on antibiotics
  4. Phytochemicals profiling, in vitro and in vivo antidiabetic activity, and in silico studies on Ajuga iva (L.) Schreb.: A comprehensive approach
  5. Synthesis, characterization, in silico and in vitro studies of novel glycoconjugates as potential antibacterial, antifungal, and antileishmanial agents
  6. Sonochemical synthesis of gold nanoparticles mediated by potato starch: Its performance in the treatment of esophageal cancer
  7. Computational study of ADME-Tox prediction of selected phytochemicals from Punica granatum peels
  8. Phytochemical analysis, in vitro antioxidant and antifungal activities of extracts and essential oil derived from Artemisia herba-alba Asso
  9. Two triazole-based coordination polymers: Synthesis and crystal structure characterization
  10. Phytochemical and physicochemical studies of different apple varieties grown in Morocco
  11. Synthesis of multi-template molecularly imprinted polymers (MT-MIPs) for isolating ethyl para-methoxycinnamate and ethyl cinnamate from Kaempferia galanga L., extract with methacrylic acid as functional monomer
  12. Nutraceutical potential of Mesembryanthemum forsskaolii Hochst. ex Bioss.: Insights into its nutritional composition, phytochemical contents, and antioxidant activity
  13. Evaluation of influence of Butea monosperma floral extract on inflammatory biomarkers
  14. Cannabis sativa L. essential oil: Chemical composition, anti-oxidant, anti-microbial properties, and acute toxicity: In vitro, in vivo, and in silico study
  15. The effect of gamma radiation on 5-hydroxymethylfurfural conversion in water and dimethyl sulfoxide
  16. Hollow mushroom nanomaterials for potentiometric sensing of Pb2+ ions in water via the intercalation of iodide ions into the polypyrrole matrix
  17. Determination of essential oil and chemical composition of St. John’s Wort
  18. Computational design and in vitro assay of lantadene-based novel inhibitors of NS3 protease of dengue virus
  19. Anti-parasitic activity and computational studies on a novel labdane diterpene from the roots of Vachellia nilotica
  20. Microbial dynamics and dehydrogenase activity in tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) rhizospheres: Impacts on growth and soil health across different soil types
  21. Correlation between in vitro anti-urease activity and in silico molecular modeling approach of novel imidazopyridine–oxadiazole hybrids derivatives
  22. Spatial mapping of indoor air quality in a light metro system using the geographic information system method
  23. Iron indices and hemogram in renal anemia and the improvement with Tribulus terrestris green-formulated silver nanoparticles applied on rat model
  24. Integrated track of nano-informatics coupling with the enrichment concept in developing a novel nanoparticle targeting ERK protein in Naegleria fowleri
  25. Cytotoxic and phytochemical screening of Solanum lycopersicum–Daucus carota hydro-ethanolic extract and in silico evaluation of its lycopene content as anticancer agent
  26. Protective activities of silver nanoparticles containing Panax japonicus on apoptotic, inflammatory, and oxidative alterations in isoproterenol-induced cardiotoxicity
  27. pH-based colorimetric detection of monofunctional aldehydes in liquid and gas phases
  28. Investigating the effect of resveratrol on apoptosis and regulation of gene expression of Caco-2 cells: Unravelling potential implications for colorectal cancer treatment
  29. Metformin inhibits knee osteoarthritis induced by type 2 diabetes mellitus in rats: S100A8/9 and S100A12 as players and therapeutic targets
  30. Effect of silver nanoparticles formulated by Silybum marianum on menopausal urinary incontinence in ovariectomized rats
  31. Synthesis of new analogs of N-substituted(benzoylamino)-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridines
  32. Response of yield and quality of Japonica rice to different gradients of moisture deficit at grain-filling stage in cold regions
  33. Preparation of an inclusion complex of nickel-based β-cyclodextrin: Characterization and accelerating the osteoarthritis articular cartilage repair
  34. Empagliflozin-loaded nanomicelles responsive to reactive oxygen species for renal ischemia/reperfusion injury protection
  35. Preparation and pharmacodynamic evaluation of sodium aescinate solid lipid nanoparticles
  36. Assessment of potentially toxic elements and health risks of agricultural soil in Southwest Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
  37. Theoretical investigation of hydrogen-rich fuel production through ammonia decomposition
  38. Biosynthesis and screening of cobalt nanoparticles using citrus species for antimicrobial activity
  39. Investigating the interplay of genetic variations, MCP-1 polymorphism, and docking with phytochemical inhibitors for combatting dengue virus pathogenicity through in silico analysis
  40. Ultrasound induced biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles embedded into chitosan polymers: Investigation of its anti-cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma effects
  41. Copper oxide nanoparticles-mediated Heliotropium bacciferum leaf extract: Antifungal activity and molecular docking assays against strawberry pathogens
  42. Sprouted wheat flour for improving physical, chemical, rheological, microbial load, and quality properties of fino bread
  43. Comparative toxicity assessment of fisetin-aided artificial intelligence-assisted drug design targeting epibulbar dermoid through phytochemicals
  44. Acute toxicity and anti-inflammatory activity of bis-thiourea derivatives
  45. Anti-diabetic activity-guided isolation of α-amylase and α-glucosidase inhibitory terpenes from Capsella bursa-pastoris Linn.
  46. GC–MS analysis of Lactobacillus plantarum YW11 metabolites and its computational analysis on familial pulmonary fibrosis hub genes
  47. Green formulation of copper nanoparticles by Pistacia khinjuk leaf aqueous extract: Introducing a novel chemotherapeutic drug for the treatment of prostate cancer
  48. Improved photocatalytic properties of WO3 nanoparticles for Malachite green dye degradation under visible light irradiation: An effect of La doping
  49. One-pot synthesis of a network of Mn2O3–MnO2–poly(m-methylaniline) composite nanorods on a polypyrrole film presents a promising and efficient optoelectronic and solar cell device
  50. Groundwater quality and health risk assessment of nitrate and fluoride in Al Qaseem area, Saudi Arabia
  51. A comparative study of the antifungal efficacy and phytochemical composition of date palm leaflet extracts
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  74. Analysis of bioactive compounds present in Boerhavia elegans seeds by GC-MS
  75. Homology modeling and molecular docking study of corticotrophin-releasing hormone: An approach to treat stress-related diseases
  76. LncRNA MIR17HG alleviates heart failure via targeting MIR17HG/miR-153-3p/SIRT1 axis in in vitro model
  77. Development and validation of a stability indicating UPLC-DAD method coupled with MS-TQD for ramipril and thymoquinone in bioactive SNEDDS with in silico toxicity analysis of ramipril degradation products
  78. Biosynthesis of Ag/Cu nanocomposite mediated by Curcuma longa: Evaluation of its antibacterial properties against oral pathogens
  79. Development of AMBER-compliant transferable force field parameters for polytetrafluoroethylene
  80. Treatment of gestational diabetes by Acroptilon repens leaf aqueous extract green-formulated iron nanoparticles in rats
  81. Development and characterization of new ecological adsorbents based on cardoon wastes: Application to brilliant green adsorption
  82. A fast, sensitive, greener, and stability-indicating HPLC method for the standardization and quantitative determination of chlorhexidine acetate in commercial products
  83. Assessment of Se, As, Cd, Cr, Hg, and Pb content status in Ankang tea plantations of China
  84. Effect of transition metal chloride (ZnCl2) on low-temperature pyrolysis of high ash bituminous coal
  85. Evaluating polyphenol and ascorbic acid contents, tannin removal ability, and physical properties during hydrolysis and convective hot-air drying of cashew apple powder
  86. Development and characterization of functional low-fat frozen dairy dessert enhanced with dried lemongrass powder
  87. Scrutinizing the effect of additive and synergistic antibiotics against carbapenem-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa
  88. Preparation, characterization, and determination of the therapeutic effects of copper nanoparticles green-formulated by Pistacia atlantica in diabetes-induced cardiac dysfunction in rat
  89. Antioxidant and antidiabetic potentials of methoxy-substituted Schiff bases using in vitro, in vivo, and molecular simulation approaches
  90. Anti-melanoma cancer activity and chemical profile of the essential oil of Seseli yunnanense Franch
  91. Molecular docking analysis of subtilisin-like alkaline serine protease (SLASP) and laccase with natural biopolymers
  92. Overcoming methicillin resistance by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: Computational evaluation of napthyridine and oxadiazoles compounds for potential dual inhibition of PBP-2a and FemA proteins
  93. Exploring novel antitubercular agents: Innovative design of 2,3-diaryl-quinoxalines targeting DprE1 for effective tuberculosis treatment
  94. Drimia maritima flowers as a source of biologically potent components: Optimization of bioactive compound extractions, isolation, UPLC–ESI–MS/MS, and pharmacological properties
  95. Estimating molecular properties, drug-likeness, cardiotoxic risk, liability profile, and molecular docking study to characterize binding process of key phyto-compounds against serotonin 5-HT2A receptor
  96. Fabrication of β-cyclodextrin-based microgels for enhancing solubility of Terbinafine: An in-vitro and in-vivo toxicological evaluation
  97. Phyto-mediated synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles and their sunlight-driven photocatalytic degradation of cationic and anionic dyes
  98. Monosodium glutamate induces hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis hyperactivation, glucocorticoid receptors down-regulation, and systemic inflammatory response in young male rats: Impact on miR-155 and miR-218
  99. Quality control analyses of selected honey samples from Serbia based on their mineral and flavonoid profiles, and the invertase activity
  100. Eco-friendly synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Phyllanthus niruri leaf extract: Assessment of antimicrobial activity, effectiveness on tropical neglected mosquito vector control, and biocompatibility using a fibroblast cell line model
  101. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles containing Cichorium intybus to treat the sepsis-induced DNA damage in the liver of Wistar albino rats
  102. Quality changes of durian pulp (Durio ziberhinus Murr.) in cold storage
  103. Study on recrystallization process of nitroguanidine by directly adding cold water to control temperature
  104. Determination of heavy metals and health risk assessment in drinking water in Bukayriyah City, Saudi Arabia
  105. Larvicidal properties of essential oils of three Artemisia species against the chemically insecticide-resistant Nile fever vector Culex pipiens (L.) (Diptera: Culicidae): In vitro and in silico studies
  106. Design, synthesis, characterization, and theoretical calculations, along with in silico and in vitro antimicrobial proprieties of new isoxazole-amide conjugates
  107. The impact of drying and extraction methods on total lipid, fatty acid profile, and cytotoxicity of Tenebrio molitor larvae
  108. A zinc oxide–tin oxide–nerolidol hybrid nanomaterial: Efficacy against esophageal squamous cell carcinoma
  109. Research on technological process for production of muskmelon juice (Cucumis melo L.)
  110. Physicochemical components, antioxidant activity, and predictive models for quality of soursop tea (Annona muricata L.) during heat pump drying
  111. Characterization and application of Fe1−xCoxFe2O4 nanoparticles in Direct Red 79 adsorption
  112. Torilis arvensis ethanolic extract: Phytochemical analysis, antifungal efficacy, and cytotoxicity properties
  113. Magnetite–poly-1H pyrrole dendritic nanocomposite seeded on poly-1H pyrrole: A promising photocathode for green hydrogen generation from sanitation water without using external sacrificing agent
  114. HPLC and GC–MS analyses of phytochemical compounds in Haloxylon salicornicum extract: Antibacterial and antifungal activity assessment of phytopathogens
  115. Efficient and stable to coking catalysts of ethanol steam reforming comprised of Ni + Ru loaded on MgAl2O4 + LnFe0.7Ni0.3O3 (Ln = La, Pr) nanocomposites prepared via cost-effective procedure with Pluronic P123 copolymer
  116. Nitrogen and boron co-doped carbon dots probe for selectively detecting Hg2+ in water samples and the detection mechanism
  117. Heavy metals in road dust from typical old industrial areas of Wuhan: Seasonal distribution and bioaccessibility-based health risk assessment
  118. Phytochemical profiling and bioactivity evaluation of CBD- and THC-enriched Cannabis sativa extracts: In vitro and in silico investigation of antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects
  119. Investigating dye adsorption: The role of surface-modified montmorillonite nanoclay in kinetics, isotherms, and thermodynamics
  120. Antimicrobial activity, induction of ROS generation in HepG2 liver cancer cells, and chemical composition of Pterospermum heterophyllum
  121. Study on the performance of nanoparticle-modified PVDF membrane in delaying membrane aging
  122. Impact of cholesterol in encapsulated vitamin E acetate within cocoliposomes
  123. Review Articles
  124. Structural aspects of Pt(η3-X1N1X2)(PL) (X1,2 = O, C, or Se) and Pt(η3-N1N2X1)(PL) (X1 = C, S, or Se) derivatives
  125. Biosurfactants in biocorrosion and corrosion mitigation of metals: An overview
  126. Stimulus-responsive MOF–hydrogel composites: Classification, preparation, characterization, and their advancement in medical treatments
  127. Electrochemical dissolution of titanium under alternating current polarization to obtain its dioxide
  128. Special Issue on Recent Trends in Green Chemistry
  129. Phytochemical screening and antioxidant activity of Vitex agnus-castus L.
  130. Phytochemical study, antioxidant activity, and dermoprotective activity of Chenopodium ambrosioides (L.)
  131. Exploitation of mangliculous marine fungi, Amarenographium solium, for the green synthesis of silver nanoparticles and their activity against multiple drug-resistant bacteria
  132. Study of the phytotoxicity of margines on Pistia stratiotes L.
  133. Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials for Energy, Environmental and Biological Applications - Part III
  134. Impact of biogenic zinc oxide nanoparticles on growth, development, and antioxidant system of high protein content crop (Lablab purpureus L.) sweet
  135. Green synthesis, characterization, and application of iron and molybdenum nanoparticles and their composites for enhancing the growth of Solanum lycopersicum
  136. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles from Olea europaea L. extracted polysaccharides, characterization, and its assessment as an antimicrobial agent against multiple pathogenic microbes
  137. Photocatalytic treatment of organic dyes using metal oxides and nanocomposites: A quantitative study
  138. Antifungal, antioxidant, and photocatalytic activities of greenly synthesized iron oxide nanoparticles
  139. Special Issue on Phytochemical and Pharmacological Scrutinization of Medicinal Plants
  140. Hepatoprotective effects of safranal on acetaminophen-induced hepatotoxicity in rats
  141. Chemical composition and biological properties of Thymus capitatus plants from Algerian high plains: A comparative and analytical study
  142. Chemical composition and bioactivities of the methanol root extracts of Saussurea costus
  143. In vivo protective effects of vitamin C against cyto-genotoxicity induced by Dysphania ambrosioides aqueous extract
  144. Insights about the deleterious impact of a carbamate pesticide on some metabolic immune and antioxidant functions and a focus on the protective ability of a Saharan shrub and its anti-edematous property
  145. A comprehensive review uncovering the anticancerous potential of genkwanin (plant-derived compound) in several human carcinomas
  146. A study to investigate the anticancer potential of carvacrol via targeting Notch signaling in breast cancer
  147. Assessment of anti-diabetic properties of Ziziphus oenopolia (L.) wild edible fruit extract: In vitro and in silico investigations through molecular docking analysis
  148. Optimization of polyphenol extraction, phenolic profile by LC-ESI-MS/MS, antioxidant, anti-enzymatic, and cytotoxic activities of Physalis acutifolia
  149. Phytochemical screening, antioxidant properties, and photo-protective activities of Salvia balansae de Noé ex Coss
  150. Antihyperglycemic, antiglycation, anti-hypercholesteremic, and toxicity evaluation with gas chromatography mass spectrometry profiling for Aloe armatissima leaves
  151. Phyto-fabrication and characterization of gold nanoparticles by using Timur (Zanthoxylum armatum DC) and their effect on wound healing
  152. Does Erodium trifolium (Cav.) Guitt exhibit medicinal properties? Response elements from phytochemical profiling, enzyme-inhibiting, and antioxidant and antimicrobial activities
  153. Integrative in silico evaluation of the antiviral potential of terpenoids and its metal complexes derived from Homalomena aromatica based on main protease of SARS-CoV-2
  154. 6-Methoxyflavone improves anxiety, depression, and memory by increasing monoamines in mice brain: HPLC analysis and in silico studies
  155. Simultaneous extraction and quantification of hydrophilic and lipophilic antioxidants in Solanum lycopersicum L. varieties marketed in Saudi Arabia
  156. Biological evaluation of CH3OH and C2H5OH of Berberis vulgaris for in vivo antileishmanial potential against Leishmania tropica in murine models
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