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Determination of essential oil and chemical composition of St. John’s Wort

  • Hülya Doğan , Hafize Fidan , Hatice Baş , Stanko Stankov , Albena Stoyanova , Sezai Ercisli , Amine Assouguem EMAIL logo , Riaz Ullah and Ahmed Bari
Published/Copyright: March 21, 2024
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Open Chemistry
From the journal Open Chemistry Volume 22 Issue 1

Abstract

Considering it contains a variety of physiologically active compounds, including flavonoids, common phenols, and essential oils (EOs), St. John’s wort (Hypericum perforatum L.) is a common plant in Bulgaria that is predominantly used in folk medicine to cure various disorders. Determining the chemical makeup of St. John’s wort inflorescences that were gathered from northern Bulgaria was the purpose of this investigation. The antioxidant activity of H. perforatum L. extracts was assessed using 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrilhydrazyl (DPPH), ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), and Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC) tests on methanol extract. The amount of EO obtained by water distillation was 0.08%, with its main components (over 3%) being n-nonane (27.46%), β-sesquiphellandrene (11.17%), heptanal dimethyl acetal (5.94%), ethyl hexyl ketone (5.93%), undecane (3.75%), sabinene (3.3%), and tridecyl alcohol (3.1%). Methanol extracts were obtained from the inflorescences, with the total flavonoid content determined as 8.66 mg quercetin equivalents (QE)/mg and total phenolic content as 271.33 mg Gallic acid equivalent/g. The FRAP assay yielded 493.07 µmol/L of antioxidant activity, while the TEAC assay yielded 106.39 µmol/L, respectively. Our findings enable a comprehensive characterization of H. perforatum from Bulgaria and an assessment of its oil suitability for potential industrial applications. Additionally, the results could guide the selection of specimens for future targeted breeding efforts.

Keywords: St. John’s wort; biologically active substances; antioxidant activity

1 Introduction

Herbal remedies and aromatic plants have been utilized for sustenance, warmth, protection, and shelter throughout human history. Archaeological discoveries have also shown that these plants were formerly utilized by people as a remedy for a variety of illnesses. Modern science has made significant strides, expanding the use of aromatic and therapeutic plants. Nowadays, the primary industries that use these plants are the food, cosmetics, pharmacy, medicine, dyeing, perfumes, and agriculture [1–5].

The genus Hypericum L. comprises approximately 480 species worldwide. Hypericum L., also known as St. John’s wort, is represented by 61 species in 17 divisions of the European flora. There are 22 species of this genus found in Bulgaria, five of which are native to the country. The fact that St. John’s wort is widely distributed across the nation has led to a great deal of research on the plant [6]. The flowers of this species are profuse and bloom from June until September [7]. Hypericum perforatum L. is among the most commonly used medicinal and aromatic plants in folk medicine [8]. Extracts of Hypericum perforatum L. are known to reduce oxidative stress and exhibit neuroprotective, anti-inflammatory, and anti-gastrointestinal properties. Moreover, Hypericum perforatum L. is used in the treatment of depression [9]. Preventing oxidative damage by the use of naturally occurring antioxidants, including phenolic compounds, has received a lot of attention. Oxidative stress represents an imbalance in the body’s antioxidant defense system, as a result of cells producing more reactive oxygen species, which can harm DNA, lipids, and proteins. Numerous chronic degenerative illnesses, including cancer, neurological disorders, and cardiovascular diseases, are linked to the pathophysiology of aging and mutagenesis. Prooxidant agents, such as hydroxide radicals, peroxide radicals, singlet oxygen, and superoxide anions, are among them. Depression is increasingly associated with oxidative stress in the body [10]. Free radicals generated during normal bodily functions have detrimental effects on the immune system and cells, leading to diseases and premature aging. Antioxidants act as scavengers for these free radicals, thereby preventing diseases by neutralizing them [11,12].

Essential oils (EOs) obtained from plants are colorless or light yellow, have a distinctive odor, and are liquid at room temperature, consisting of many components. Their many qualities, including antiseptic, antifungal, antioxidant, antimicrobial, and antiviral, have been utilized in traditional medicine since ancient times. While EOs are generally found in large quantities in the roots, leaves, and flower parts of the plant, they are found in smaller quantities in other plant organs such as bark and stems. The most commonly detected EO components in H. perforatum L. are monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes. With 600 of the 3,500 plant species known to have therapeutic qualities, Bulgaria enjoys a varied flora rich in medicinal plants. Despite this abundance, Chimshirova et al. [7] pointed out that little is known about the antioxidant potential and modern therapeutic uses of numerous Bulgarian medicinal herbs. The purpose of this study is to identify the EO and chemical makeup of St. John’s wort aerial parts collected in northern Bulgaria.

2 Material and methods

2.1 Plant material

The aerial portions of H. perforatum L. were gathered in June 2020 from Dulovo, Bulgaria (43°50′26.5″N 27°07′51.4″E), at a height of about 230 meters above sea level, during the blossoming season. After being gathered, the samples were dried at room temperature (25 ± 2°C). Plant samples were kept in storage prior to analysis. The plant sample was identified botanically at Yozgat Bozok University’s (YBOZ) Department of Botany. By drying the plant to a constant weight at 105°C, the moisture content of the plant was determined. According to AOAC [13], the chemical analysis findings were given on a dry weight basis. The voucher specimen, identified by voucher number YBOZ-2020-45, was stored in the Herbarium of the Biology Department, Faculty of Science and Letters, YBOZ, for future use.

2.2 Chemical composition

2.2.1 EO isolation

Using a Clevenger-style equipment, 100 g of dried aerial portions of the plant sample was hydrodistilled for 3 hours. Based on dry matter, the EO (%, v/w) contents of the samples were computed. After being extracted, the EOs were put into bottles with a dark tint and kept in a refrigerator at +4°C until analysis.

The QP2010 ULTRA mass spectrometer, a Shimadzu gas chromatography–mass spectrometric (GC/MS) instrument, was used to perform a GC/MS study. A GC analysis was performed using an Agilent 7890 A gas chromatograph equipped with an HP-5 ms column (60 m × 0.25 mm, 0.10 μm). The software set the oven temperature in 3°C increments from 60°C to 200°C, and it maintained this setting for 4 min. The injector temperature was set to 260°C, and the scan range was set between 35 and 600 m/z. Helium (1.00 ml/min, split 1:30) was the carrier gas. By comparing the relative retention durations with the National institute of standards and technology 08 database (library data), the chemical components were identified.

2.2.2 Extract

Methanol (40 mL) was combined with the plant sample (4 g) at a ratio of 1:10 w/v. The prepared samples were placed in an oven (Electo-mag M 5040 P) and incubated for 24 h at 40°C. Then, it was filtered using balloon flasks filled with Whatman No. 1 filter paper. The samples were placed in a rotary evaporator (Heating Bath B-491, BUCHI) to extract the methanol. The balloon bottles were blown up and then dried completely in the oven for a whole day. The extracts were put into falcon tubes, covered with parafilm, and stored at +4°C in order to be employed in the analysis.

The methanol extract’s total phenolic contents: The extract’s total phenolic content was ascertained using the Folin-Ciocalteu reagent technique. The usual method of controlling phenolic substances was to employ gallic acid. The results are presented as the conjugate of gallic acid.

The total flavonoid assay was calculated by refining aluminum chloride colorimetric technique. Consequently, the total flavonoid concentration was estimated as quercetin equivalents (QE)/g of extract.

1,1-Diphenyl-2-picrilhydrazyl (DPPH) free radical, a well-known and often utilized radical, was employed to measure the DPPH free radical scavenging activity [14]. As benchmarks, butyl hydroxytoluene (BHT) and butyl hydroxyanisol (BHA) were utilized. Ferric reducing antioxidant power assay (FRAP) Изпoлзвaн e мeтoд, oпиcaн oт at 593 nm, Trolox was used as standard, and the results are given as Trolox equivalent.

TEAC assay consists of reducing the absorbance of the 2,2-azinobis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) at 660, 734 and 820 nm.

The hydroxyl radical scavenging test developed in the previous study [15] was used to assess the hydroxyl radical scavenging capability.

As nitro blue tetrazolium to formazan decreased due to superoxide radical suppression, the superoxide scavenging capability was ascertained [16].

2.3 Statistics

The results of all measurements were expressed as mean ± standard deviation (SD) of three parallel measurements and analyzed using MS-Excel software.

3 Results and discussion

Table 1 presents the chemical components of the EOs. Forty-two constituents representing 100% of the total EO content were identified in H. perforatum L. The main EO compounds (over 3%) were n-nonane (27.46%), β-sesquiphellandrene (11.17%), heptanal dimethyl acetal (5.94%), ethyl hexyl ketone (5.93%), undecane (3.75%), sabinene (3.3%), and tridecyl alcohol (3.1%). The distribution of major groups of aroma substances in the EOs is shown in Table 1. Aliphatic hydrocarbons (34.28%) are the predominant group in the EOs, followed by sesquiterpene hydrocarbons (16.39%), oxygenated monoterpenes (13.62%), oxygenated sesquiterpenes (6.93%), and oxygenated diterpenes (2.99%).

Table 1

Chemical composition of H. perforatum L. EOs

No Retention time, min Retention indexa Compounds Content (%)
1 8.598 916 n-Nonane 27.46 ± 0.3
2 9.828 953 Butyl isobutyrate 1.31 ± 0.0
3 10.991 972 Sabinene 3.3 ± 0.0
4 12.333 1001 Decane 2.60 ± 0.0
5 12.513 1004 Pseudolimonene 0.26 ± 0.0
6 14.445 1069 Sabinene hydrate <cis> 0.78 ± 0.0
7 14.562 1070 Heptanal, dimethyl acetal 5.94 ± 0.2
8 15.365 1088 Isobutyl tiglate 0.75 ± 0.0
9 15.548 1093 Ethyl hexyl ketone 5.93 ± 0.1
10 15.787 1094 Nonan-2-ol 0.52 ± 0.0
11 15.947 1095 Linalool oxide <cis-> 0.60 ± 0.0
12 16.749 1115 Solustrerol 1.58 ± 0.0
13 16.933 1124 Trans-p-2-menthen-1-ol 1.12 ± 0.0
14 17.720 1146 Trans-limonene oxide 0.44 ± 0.0
15 18.310 1149 Camphor 1.46 ± 0.0
16 18.437 1163 Isoisopulegol 2.06 ± 0.0
17 18.570 1175 p-Menth-1-en-9-al 0.61 ± 0.0
18 19.466 1180 Terpinen-4-ol 1.04 ± 0.0
19 19.958 1198 α-Terpineol 1.18 ± 0.0
20 20.107 1202 Myrtenol 0.16 ± 0.0
21 20.439 1208 Verbenone 2.98 ± 0.0
22 21.019 1223 Carveol <trans> 0.47 ± 0.0
23 21.892 1249 Isobutyrate <heptyl-> 1.85 ± 0.0
24 22.248 1273 Diamyl ketone 0.75 ± 0.0
25 22.735 1284 Lavandulyl acetate 0.72 ± 0.0
26 26.590 1390 β-Elemene 0.45 ± 0.0
27 28.095 1423 β-Cedrene 0.73 ± 0.0
28 28.432 1438 Aromadendrene 0.62 ± 0.0
29 30.175 1487 β-Selinene 0.94 ± 0.0
30 30.859 1508 β-Bisabolene 2.48 ± 0.0
31 30.962 1523 β-Sesquiphellandrene 11.17 ± 0.0
32 31.109 1530 Epiglobulol 0.42 ± 0.0
33 31.953 1546 α-Elemol 1.29 ± 0.0
34 32.324 1562 Nerolidol 1.14 ± 0.0
35 32.808 1576 Spathulenol 1.16 ± 0.0
36 32.982 1580 Tridecyl alcohol 3.10 ± 0.0
37 33.161 1587 Caryophyllene oxide 1.34 ± 0.0
38 36.122 1682 Butyl undec-10-enoate 0.20 ± 0.0
39 36.720 1710 Undecane 3.75 ± 0.0
40 37.527 1733 Heptafluorobutyric acid, hexadecyl ester 1.88 ± 0.0
41 41.855 1900 Nonadecane 0.47 ± 0.0
42 46.462 2106 Phytol 2.99 ± 0.0
Aliphatic hydrocarbons, % 34.28
Oxygenated aliphatics, % 22.23
Sesquiterpene hydrocarbons, % 16.39
Oxygenated monoterpenes, % 13.62
Oxygenated sesquiterpenes, % 6.93
Monoterpene hydrocarbons, % 3.56
Oxygenated diterpenes, % 2.99

aRI – retention (Kovat’s) index. Results indicate three injections of same sample.

The composition of EO may vary between different parts of the plants [17]. Previous studies have shown variations in the chemical compounds of St. John’s wort EOs obtained from the aerial parts of the plant depending on the collection period and the location of the collected plants [18]. According to previous studies, H. perforatum was characterized by major components such as α-pinene (3.7–36.5%), 2-methyloctane (1.1–15.5%), caryophyllene oxide (3.3–17.7%), β-caryophyllene (1.2–12.4%), and n-tetradecanol (3.6–10.4%) [19]. According to the study by Crockett [20], the most regularly reported EO components from Hypericum L. species include n-nonane, α-pinene, β-caryophyllene, β-pinene, and caryophyllene oxide.

Several articles have previously reported on the chemical components of EOs derived from St. John’s wort (Table 2). Furthermore, although it is well known that changes in EO composition can result from cultivar differences, cultivar is rarely mentioned in the literature. The main components in the St. John’s wort EOs collected in Serbia were 3-methylnonane (4.5%), p-cymene (4.8%), and nonane (63.8%) [21]. Samples of Hypericum perforatum L. from Portugal were characterized by α-pinene (39-64%), n-nonane (12-24%), and n-undecane (3-9%) [22]. The H. perforatum L. plant samples from Uzbekistan, initially investigated by Baser et al. [23], were especially characterized by α-pinene (5.0%), spathulenol (6.0%), caryophyllene oxide (6.3%), and β-caryophyllene (11.7%) (Table 2). α-Pinene and caryophyllene oxide are abundant in the EOs extracted from plants growing in Kosovo and Albania, but not in those from Turkiye. Also, β-caryophyllene and germacrene D are the most represented compounds in the EOs of St. John’s wort from the Odrinci and Svirachi regions of Bulgaria (Table 2). They consist mostly of mono- and sesquiterpenes, especially methyl-2-octane, n-nonane, α- and β-pinene, α-terpineol, geranyl, and trace amounts of myrcene, limonene, and caryophyllene. According to the research, several differences were found in the EO composition of St. John’s Wort evaluated from different geographical regions.

Table 2

Review of the major components of St. John’s Wort Eos (aerial parts)

Origin Main compounds (%) EO yields Reference
Serbia Nonane (63.8%), β-selinene (2.1%), 2-methyloctane (2%), p-cymene (4.8%), 3-methylnonane (4.5%) 0.15% v/w [21]
Portugal α-Pinene (39–64%), n-nonane (12–24%), n-undecane (3–9%), β-pinene (2–3%) 0.15% v/w [22]
Uzbekistan β-Caryophyllene (11.7%), α-pinene (5.0%), caryophyllene oxide (6.3%), spathulenol (6.0%) 0.1% v/w [23]
Lithuania Caryophyllene oxide (6.1–35.8%), β-caryophyllene (5.1–19.1%), germacrene D (4.5–31.5%), 0.1–0.4% v/w [24]
Italy Germacrene D (19.5–20.8%), e-caryophyllene (21.6–23.0%), α-pinene (15.8%) — [25]
Greece α-Pinene (21.0%), 2-methyl-octane (12.6%) 0.28% v/w [26]
Kosovo α-Pinene (3.7–36.5%), n-tetradecanol (3.6–10.4%), caryophyllene oxide (3.3–17.7%), β-caryophyllene (1.2–12.4%), 2-methyl-octane (1.1–15.5%) 0.04–0.26% v/w [19]
Albania β-Pinene (0.36–6.89%), α-pinene (2.03–36.74%), 2-methyl-decane (0.82–3.14%), carvacrol (0.14–5.60%), α-selinene (1.34–13.86%), trans-(E)-caryophyllene (0.5–19.27%), β-caryophyllene oxide (1.15–12.35%) 0.11 v/w [27]
Macedonia Germacrene D (17.77–39.03%), β-selinene (0.69–4.77%), E-caryophyllene (11.37–25.71%) — [28]
Turkiye δ-Cadinene (3.02–4.94%), spathulenol (2.34–5.14%), β-caryophyllene (4.08–5.93%), α-selinene (4.1–10.42%), γ-muurolene (5.00–9.56%), caryophyllene oxide (6.01–12.18%), β-selinene (5.08–19.63%) 0.04–0.61% v/w [29]
Bulgaria (Odrinci) β-Caryophyllene (16.08%), germacrene-D (12.87%), α-pinene (6.76%), trans-β-ocimene (5.28%), γ-cadinene (3.72%), δ-cadinene (3.51%), spathulenol (3.95), caryophyllene oxide (5.12%) — [9]
Bulgaria (Svirachi) Trans-β-ocimene (5.81%), germacrene D (16.8%), β-pinene (3.5%), n-hexadecanoic acid (4.95%), β-caryophyllene (6.19%), α-pinene (6.2%), spathulenol (3.5%), caryophyllene oxide (3.35%), β-myrcene (2.99%), γ-cadinene (3.13%), δ-cadinene (3.54%) — [9]

Studies on St. John’s Wort showed that the EOs contained in the plant have high levels of germacrene D, α-pinene, β-pinene, nonane, β-caryophyllene, γ-cadinene, and α-selinene. The total flavonoid and total phenolic content of the extracts prepared from the aerial parts of St. John’s wort were identified. As illustrated in Table 3, the total phenolic content is higher than their total flavonoid contents. Much research has been conducted on the total phenolic content of St. John’s wort [30,31]. The content of EOs in H. perforatum plants is highest at the full bloom stage compared to the pre-flowering stage. It is crucial to apply multiple antioxidant methods, considering various oxidation aspects in systems, in order to assess the antioxidant activity [31].

Table 3

Chemical and antioxidant characteristics of H. perforatum L. extract

Parameters Flowers
FRAP assay (µmol/L) 493.07 ± 0.36
TEAC assay (µmol/L) 106.39 ± 1.05
Total flavonoid content (mg QE/g) 8.66 ± 0.41
Total phenolic content (mg Gallic acid equivalent/g) 271.33 ± 0.40
Superoxide scavenging (unit SOD/mL) 20.8 ± 3.2
Hydroxyl radical scavenging (mM ethanol/mL) 19.8 ± 3.9

In this sense, three complimentary techniques were used to examine the antioxidant qualities of St. John’s wort. Table 3 presents the plant’s chemical composition and antioxidant characteristic results. BHA and BHT, two well-known conventional antioxidants, were contrasted using one of these techniques, the DPPH free radical scavenging approach (Table 4).

Table 4

Antioxidant activity of Hypericum perforatum L. extract by DPPH

IC50 value (μg/mL)
DPPH free radical 87.025 ± 0.21
BHA 19.662 ± 0.34
BHT 13.818 ± 0.50

Mean ± SD of three parallel measurements.

According to our results, the IC50 value of Hypericum perforatum L. (87.025 ± 0.21 μg/mL) indicates a stronger DPPH scavenging activity than those of BHA and BHT (Table 4). According to the literature, the IC50 value in H. perforatum was found to be 29.35 μg/mL [31]. In the current study, the obtained results indicate the antioxidant capacity with a TEAC value of 106.39 ± 1.05 µmol/L Trolox and an FRAP assay value of 493.07 ± 36 µmol/L Trolox (Table 3).

In previous studies, St. John’s wort has been determined to be a potent inhibitor of the superoxide radical in a cell-free system, and this antioxidant activity has been ascribed to hypericin [32]. Our results are consistent with the view that H. perforatum extracts have strong scavenging properties on superoxide capacity.

Phenolic compounds have also been shown to have positive effects on human health, mostly responsible for antioxidant activity [33]. Due to their rich phenolic content, Hypericum perforatum L. species is known as a good source of antioxidants [34,31]. According to the results, the yield of EOs was 0.08 mL per 100 g of dry matter for H. perforatum L.

Hypericum species generally contain very low amounts of EOs (0.05–0.9%) [35]. Ghasemi Pirbalouti et al. [36] reported the EO yield of H. perforatum L. as 0.21 mL/100 g of dry matter. According to another study, the EO yield of H. perforatum collected from Serbia was 0.32% (w/w) (Gudzic et al., 2001).

4 Conclusions

The chemical composition of St. John’s wort (H. perforatum) aerial parts originating in northern Bulgaria was determined. The composition of the EO obtained by water distillation was identified, and the content of flavonoids and total phenols in methanol extracts was determined. The antioxidant activity of the extracts was assessed using different methods. The obtained results provide a basis for future research aimed at determining other biological activities, such as antimicrobial properties, which will contribute to the more comprehensive utilization of this plant species.

Acknowledgement

The authors wish to thank Researchers’ Supporting Project Number (RSP2024R346) at King Saud University Riyadh Saudi Arabia for financial support.

  1. Funding information: The study supported by Researchers’ Supporting Project Number (RSP2024R346) at King Saud University Riyadh Saudi Arabia.

  2. Author contributions: Hülya Doğan: conceptualization; Hafize Fidan: writing original draft; Hatice Baş: Investigation; Stanko Stankov: resources; Albena Stoyanova: methodology, writing original draft; Sezai Ercisli: supervision, writing – review and editing; Amine Assouguem: software, supervision; writing – review and editing; Riaz Ullah: supervision, writing – review and editing; Ahmed Bari: supervision, writing – review and editing.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

  4. Ethical approval: The conducted research is not related to either human or animal use.

  5. Data availability statement: The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on a reasonable request.

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Received: 2024-01-02
Revised: 2024-02-10
Accepted: 2024-02-26
Published Online: 2024-03-21

© 2024 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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https://doi.org/10.1515/chem-2024-0001
Keywords for this article
St. John’s wort; biologically active substances; antioxidant activity
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

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  66. Effects of nanoparticles on the activity and resistance genes of anaerobic digestion enzymes in livestock and poultry manure containing the antibiotic tetracycline
  67. Effect of copper nanoparticles green-synthesized using Ocimum basilicum against Pseudomonas aeruginosa in mice lung infection model
  68. Cardioprotective effects of nanoparticles green formulated by Spinacia oleracea extract on isoproterenol-induced myocardial infarction in mice by the determination of PPAR-γ/NF-κB pathway
  69. Anti-OTC antibody-conjugated fluorescent magnetic/silica and fluorescent hybrid silica nanoparticles for oxytetracycline detection
  70. Curcumin conjugated zinc nanoparticles for the treatment of myocardial infarction
  71. Identification and in silico screening of natural phloroglucinols as potential PI3Kα inhibitors: A computational approach for drug discovery
  72. Exploring the phytochemical profile and antioxidant evaluation: Molecular docking and ADMET analysis of main compounds from three Solanum species in Saudi Arabia
  73. Unveiling the molecular composition and biological properties of essential oil derived from the leaves of wild Mentha aquatica L.: A comprehensive in vitro and in silico exploration
  74. Analysis of bioactive compounds present in Boerhavia elegans seeds by GC-MS
  75. Homology modeling and molecular docking study of corticotrophin-releasing hormone: An approach to treat stress-related diseases
  76. LncRNA MIR17HG alleviates heart failure via targeting MIR17HG/miR-153-3p/SIRT1 axis in in vitro model
  77. Development and validation of a stability indicating UPLC-DAD method coupled with MS-TQD for ramipril and thymoquinone in bioactive SNEDDS with in silico toxicity analysis of ramipril degradation products
  78. Biosynthesis of Ag/Cu nanocomposite mediated by Curcuma longa: Evaluation of its antibacterial properties against oral pathogens
  79. Development of AMBER-compliant transferable force field parameters for polytetrafluoroethylene
  80. Treatment of gestational diabetes by Acroptilon repens leaf aqueous extract green-formulated iron nanoparticles in rats
  81. Development and characterization of new ecological adsorbents based on cardoon wastes: Application to brilliant green adsorption
  82. A fast, sensitive, greener, and stability-indicating HPLC method for the standardization and quantitative determination of chlorhexidine acetate in commercial products
  83. Assessment of Se, As, Cd, Cr, Hg, and Pb content status in Ankang tea plantations of China
  84. Effect of transition metal chloride (ZnCl2) on low-temperature pyrolysis of high ash bituminous coal
  85. Evaluating polyphenol and ascorbic acid contents, tannin removal ability, and physical properties during hydrolysis and convective hot-air drying of cashew apple powder
  86. Development and characterization of functional low-fat frozen dairy dessert enhanced with dried lemongrass powder
  87. Scrutinizing the effect of additive and synergistic antibiotics against carbapenem-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa
  88. Preparation, characterization, and determination of the therapeutic effects of copper nanoparticles green-formulated by Pistacia atlantica in diabetes-induced cardiac dysfunction in rat
  89. Antioxidant and antidiabetic potentials of methoxy-substituted Schiff bases using in vitro, in vivo, and molecular simulation approaches
  90. Anti-melanoma cancer activity and chemical profile of the essential oil of Seseli yunnanense Franch
  91. Molecular docking analysis of subtilisin-like alkaline serine protease (SLASP) and laccase with natural biopolymers
  92. Overcoming methicillin resistance by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: Computational evaluation of napthyridine and oxadiazoles compounds for potential dual inhibition of PBP-2a and FemA proteins
  93. Exploring novel antitubercular agents: Innovative design of 2,3-diaryl-quinoxalines targeting DprE1 for effective tuberculosis treatment
  94. Drimia maritima flowers as a source of biologically potent components: Optimization of bioactive compound extractions, isolation, UPLC–ESI–MS/MS, and pharmacological properties
  95. Estimating molecular properties, drug-likeness, cardiotoxic risk, liability profile, and molecular docking study to characterize binding process of key phyto-compounds against serotonin 5-HT2A receptor
  96. Fabrication of β-cyclodextrin-based microgels for enhancing solubility of Terbinafine: An in-vitro and in-vivo toxicological evaluation
  97. Phyto-mediated synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles and their sunlight-driven photocatalytic degradation of cationic and anionic dyes
  98. Monosodium glutamate induces hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis hyperactivation, glucocorticoid receptors down-regulation, and systemic inflammatory response in young male rats: Impact on miR-155 and miR-218
  99. Quality control analyses of selected honey samples from Serbia based on their mineral and flavonoid profiles, and the invertase activity
  100. Eco-friendly synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Phyllanthus niruri leaf extract: Assessment of antimicrobial activity, effectiveness on tropical neglected mosquito vector control, and biocompatibility using a fibroblast cell line model
  101. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles containing Cichorium intybus to treat the sepsis-induced DNA damage in the liver of Wistar albino rats
  102. Quality changes of durian pulp (Durio ziberhinus Murr.) in cold storage
  103. Study on recrystallization process of nitroguanidine by directly adding cold water to control temperature
  104. Determination of heavy metals and health risk assessment in drinking water in Bukayriyah City, Saudi Arabia
  105. Larvicidal properties of essential oils of three Artemisia species against the chemically insecticide-resistant Nile fever vector Culex pipiens (L.) (Diptera: Culicidae): In vitro and in silico studies
  106. Design, synthesis, characterization, and theoretical calculations, along with in silico and in vitro antimicrobial proprieties of new isoxazole-amide conjugates
  107. The impact of drying and extraction methods on total lipid, fatty acid profile, and cytotoxicity of Tenebrio molitor larvae
  108. A zinc oxide–tin oxide–nerolidol hybrid nanomaterial: Efficacy against esophageal squamous cell carcinoma
  109. Research on technological process for production of muskmelon juice (Cucumis melo L.)
  110. Physicochemical components, antioxidant activity, and predictive models for quality of soursop tea (Annona muricata L.) during heat pump drying
  111. Characterization and application of Fe1−xCoxFe2O4 nanoparticles in Direct Red 79 adsorption
  112. Torilis arvensis ethanolic extract: Phytochemical analysis, antifungal efficacy, and cytotoxicity properties
  113. Magnetite–poly-1H pyrrole dendritic nanocomposite seeded on poly-1H pyrrole: A promising photocathode for green hydrogen generation from sanitation water without using external sacrificing agent
  114. HPLC and GC–MS analyses of phytochemical compounds in Haloxylon salicornicum extract: Antibacterial and antifungal activity assessment of phytopathogens
  115. Efficient and stable to coking catalysts of ethanol steam reforming comprised of Ni + Ru loaded on MgAl2O4 + LnFe0.7Ni0.3O3 (Ln = La, Pr) nanocomposites prepared via cost-effective procedure with Pluronic P123 copolymer
  116. Nitrogen and boron co-doped carbon dots probe for selectively detecting Hg2+ in water samples and the detection mechanism
  117. Heavy metals in road dust from typical old industrial areas of Wuhan: Seasonal distribution and bioaccessibility-based health risk assessment
  118. Phytochemical profiling and bioactivity evaluation of CBD- and THC-enriched Cannabis sativa extracts: In vitro and in silico investigation of antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects
  119. Investigating dye adsorption: The role of surface-modified montmorillonite nanoclay in kinetics, isotherms, and thermodynamics
  120. Antimicrobial activity, induction of ROS generation in HepG2 liver cancer cells, and chemical composition of Pterospermum heterophyllum
  121. Study on the performance of nanoparticle-modified PVDF membrane in delaying membrane aging
  122. Impact of cholesterol in encapsulated vitamin E acetate within cocoliposomes
  123. Review Articles
  124. Structural aspects of Pt(η3-X1N1X2)(PL) (X1,2 = O, C, or Se) and Pt(η3-N1N2X1)(PL) (X1 = C, S, or Se) derivatives
  125. Biosurfactants in biocorrosion and corrosion mitigation of metals: An overview
  126. Stimulus-responsive MOF–hydrogel composites: Classification, preparation, characterization, and their advancement in medical treatments
  127. Electrochemical dissolution of titanium under alternating current polarization to obtain its dioxide
  128. Special Issue on Recent Trends in Green Chemistry
  129. Phytochemical screening and antioxidant activity of Vitex agnus-castus L.
  130. Phytochemical study, antioxidant activity, and dermoprotective activity of Chenopodium ambrosioides (L.)
  131. Exploitation of mangliculous marine fungi, Amarenographium solium, for the green synthesis of silver nanoparticles and their activity against multiple drug-resistant bacteria
  132. Study of the phytotoxicity of margines on Pistia stratiotes L.
  133. Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials for Energy, Environmental and Biological Applications - Part III
  134. Impact of biogenic zinc oxide nanoparticles on growth, development, and antioxidant system of high protein content crop (Lablab purpureus L.) sweet
  135. Green synthesis, characterization, and application of iron and molybdenum nanoparticles and their composites for enhancing the growth of Solanum lycopersicum
  136. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles from Olea europaea L. extracted polysaccharides, characterization, and its assessment as an antimicrobial agent against multiple pathogenic microbes
  137. Photocatalytic treatment of organic dyes using metal oxides and nanocomposites: A quantitative study
  138. Antifungal, antioxidant, and photocatalytic activities of greenly synthesized iron oxide nanoparticles
  139. Special Issue on Phytochemical and Pharmacological Scrutinization of Medicinal Plants
  140. Hepatoprotective effects of safranal on acetaminophen-induced hepatotoxicity in rats
  141. Chemical composition and biological properties of Thymus capitatus plants from Algerian high plains: A comparative and analytical study
  142. Chemical composition and bioactivities of the methanol root extracts of Saussurea costus
  143. In vivo protective effects of vitamin C against cyto-genotoxicity induced by Dysphania ambrosioides aqueous extract
  144. Insights about the deleterious impact of a carbamate pesticide on some metabolic immune and antioxidant functions and a focus on the protective ability of a Saharan shrub and its anti-edematous property
  145. A comprehensive review uncovering the anticancerous potential of genkwanin (plant-derived compound) in several human carcinomas
  146. A study to investigate the anticancer potential of carvacrol via targeting Notch signaling in breast cancer
  147. Assessment of anti-diabetic properties of Ziziphus oenopolia (L.) wild edible fruit extract: In vitro and in silico investigations through molecular docking analysis
  148. Optimization of polyphenol extraction, phenolic profile by LC-ESI-MS/MS, antioxidant, anti-enzymatic, and cytotoxic activities of Physalis acutifolia
  149. Phytochemical screening, antioxidant properties, and photo-protective activities of Salvia balansae de Noé ex Coss
  150. Antihyperglycemic, antiglycation, anti-hypercholesteremic, and toxicity evaluation with gas chromatography mass spectrometry profiling for Aloe armatissima leaves
  151. Phyto-fabrication and characterization of gold nanoparticles by using Timur (Zanthoxylum armatum DC) and their effect on wound healing
  152. Does Erodium trifolium (Cav.) Guitt exhibit medicinal properties? Response elements from phytochemical profiling, enzyme-inhibiting, and antioxidant and antimicrobial activities
  153. Integrative in silico evaluation of the antiviral potential of terpenoids and its metal complexes derived from Homalomena aromatica based on main protease of SARS-CoV-2
  154. 6-Methoxyflavone improves anxiety, depression, and memory by increasing monoamines in mice brain: HPLC analysis and in silico studies
  155. Simultaneous extraction and quantification of hydrophilic and lipophilic antioxidants in Solanum lycopersicum L. varieties marketed in Saudi Arabia
  156. Biological evaluation of CH3OH and C2H5OH of Berberis vulgaris for in vivo antileishmanial potential against Leishmania tropica in murine models
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