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New PMMA-InP/ZnS nanohybrid coatings for improving the performance of c-Si photovoltaic cells

  • Nouf Ahmed Althumairi EMAIL logo and Samah El-Bashir
Published/Copyright: June 11, 2024
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e-Polymers
From the journal e-Polymers Volume 24 Issue 1

Abstract

Luminescent down-shifting (LDS) nanohybrid films are considered a potential solution to match the absorption spectrum of photovoltaic (PV) cells with the AM1.5 solar spectrum. LDS films were prepared by spin-coating polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) doped with indium phosphide/zinc sulfide (InP/ZnS) quantum dots (QDs). The effect of doping concentration was investigated using X-ray diffraction, thermogravimetric analysis, transmission, and fluorescence spectroscopy. The results demonstrated that all PMMA LDS nanohybrid films were amorphous and exhibited thermal and chemical stability for all the doping concentrations of QDs. The optimal doping concentration was 0.06 wt%, demonstrating a tunable emission of the highest fluorescence quantum yield of 92% and the lowest reabsorption effect. This film showed the maximum enhancement of the efficiency of c-Si PV cells by 24.28% due to the down-conversion of ultraviolet A (UVA) portion of solar spectrum (320–400 nm) to match the sensitivity of c-Si PV cells. The implications of these results are significant for advancing affordable and clean energy in alignment with important sustainable development goals.

Keywords: PMMA nanohybrids; InP/ZnS quantum dots; thermal stability; fluorescence; down conversion

1 Introduction

The abundance of solar energy makes it a sustainable and eco-friendly resource that offers advantages for the environment, society, and economy due to its crucial role in achieving sustainable development goals (1,2,3). This role includes addressing climate change, generating clean power, decreasing the dependence on fossil fuels, reducing costs, preserving resources, and ensuring long-term viability (4,5). One of the significant problems for photovoltaic (PV) cells is poor spectral response, as specific wavelengths of light may not be efficiently absorbed due to several factors, such as the bandgap mismatch and other limitations related to material properties (6). For example, silicon has a band gap of about 1.1 eV, corresponding to a wavelength of about 1,100 nm; thus, larger wavelengths, accounting for about 23% of the solar spectrum, are wasted. Moreover, silicon solar cells cannot efficiently utilize photons with wavelengths shorter than 1,100 nm, which accounts for about 19% of the solar spectrum. Therefore, silicon solar cells can only use about 58% of the solar spectrum effectively, which limits their power conversion efficiency (PCE) to a maximum theoretical value of about 29%, known by the Shockley–Queisser limit (7,8). Additionally, surface reflection, temperature effects, and design limitations are among the factors contributing to the limited efficiency of PV cells (9,10). One way to enhance the spectral response of PV cells is by using luminescent down-shifting (LDS) coatings shown in Figure 1, a type of PV technology that enhances their efficiency by modifying the incident solar spectrum (11). These coatings are designed to convert higher-energy photons, such as solar ultraviolet A (UVA) (320–400 nm), into lower-energy photons, typically into the visible or near-infrared range (12). By aligning the spectral response, this technique enhances the efficiency of PV cells, enabling them to capture a broader spectrum of solar radiation (6). The performance of LDS coatings can vary depending on factors such as the luminescent materials and the system design (13). Recently, polymeric nanohybrid LDS coatings have provided potential ways to enhance the efficiency of solar cells, considering their low cost, availability, and simple fabrication (13,14,15). Quantum dots (QDs) doped polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) nanohybrids are promising to improve the efficiency of LDS coatings due to their unique optical and electronic properties ascribed to quantum confinement effects (16,17). The size and composition of QDs can be tuned to optimize their performance for specific solar cell configurations, this versatility allows for customizing LDS coating to meet the requirements of different types of PV cells (18,19). PMMA is a transparent and rigid thermoplastic that replaces glass in many sectors; it is commonly employed in various outdoor applications, including lenses, optical fibers, displays, windows, and coatings, due to its high transparency and weathering stability (20,21,22). The use of PMMA LDS coatings is useful for reducing the negative temperature effects on the performance of PV cells (11,23). Accordingly, PMMA is commonly utilized as a carrier for fluorophores in various solar energy applications, including LDS coatings (12), greenhouses (24), solar dryers (25), and luminescent solar concentrators. The current study introduced promising polymeric nanohybrid LDS films based on PMMA incorporated with indium phosphide/zinc sulfide (InP/ZnS) QDs. The nanohybrid films demonstrated enhanced light absorption across the UV-Vis solar spectra, a significant Stokes’ shift, efficient down-conversion, and reduced light scattering due to their high transparency. Accordingly, these films can shift the solar spectrum from UVA region to match the sensitivity of c-Si PV cells, this leads to improved PCE and promotes affordable and sustainable energy.

Figure 1 Chemical and physical composition of PMMA and InP/ZnS QDs under UV illumination.
Figure 1

Chemical and physical composition of PMMA and InP/ZnS QDs under UV illumination.

2 Experimental techniques

2.1 Materials

PMMA powder of average molecular weight M w ∼15,000 g·mol−1 was supplied by Sigma-Aldrich (USA). Toluene solvent of high purity (HPLC grade) was acquired from Sigma-Aldrich (USA). The InP/ZnS core-shell QDs-stabilized with oleylamine ligands were obtained from Sigma-Aldrich (USA) as a toluene suspension with a concentration of 5 mg·mL−1. Figure 2 illustrates the chemical and physical composition of all the materials used for this study.

Figure 2 A Schematic diagram of c-Si PV cell coated with LDS coating: (a) front view and (b) cross-sectional view.
Figure 2

A Schematic diagram of c-Si PV cell coated with LDS coating: (a) front view and (b) cross-sectional view.

2.2 PMMA LDS nanohybrid film fabrication

First, PMMA solution was created by combining 5 g of PMMA powder with 100 mL of toluene, the mixture was then stirred for 2 h in a closed flask at a temperature of 40°C. Then, InP/ZnS QDs were added to the solution with concentrations of 0.02, 0.04, 0.06, 0.08, and 0.1 wt%, respectively. PMMA-InP/ZnS nanohybrid films were prepared by pouring the solutions into glass Petri dishes and allowing them to dry at room temperature. After drying, the films were annealed at 100°C for 8 h for complete evaporation of solvent to obtain good optical quality. The film thickness was determined using the Fizeau interferometer technique, resulting in an average thickness of around 50 ± 1 μm. The performance of PMMA-InP/ZnS nanohybrid films as LDS coatings for five commercial c-Si PV cells obtained from Arab International Optronics Co. in Egypt. A shadow mask was used to cover the finger electrodes on the window side of the PV cells before applying LDS films through the spin coating at 4,000 rpm for 60 s. The I–V characteristics of PV cells were then tested indoors using a digital multimeter (PeakTech, Germany) under artificial AM1.5 illumination using a 100 W halogen lamp that was calibrated to simulate sunlight, as described in our previous research.

2.3 Measurements and characterization

A transmission electron microscope (JEOL JEM-1400, Japan) was used to characterize the shape and size of InP/Zns QDs. A carbon-coated copper grid was loaded with a drop of the InP/ZnS QDs toluene colloidal solution. As shown in Figure 3, InP core diameter varied between 3.5 and 4 nm, while the ZnS shell thickness ranged from 1 to 1.5 nm. X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns for PMMA-InP/ZnS nanohybrid films were obtained using a SHIMADZU XRD-6100 (Japan) with CuKα (λ = 1.5406 Å) radiation, over a 2θ range of 5–100° at a scan speed of 2°·min−1. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy was performed using an FT-IR spectrophotometer (Genesis series, USA) in the wavenumber range (4,000–400 cm−1). Thermal analysis (TGA) was conducted using a thermogravimetric analyzer (TGA-50H Shimadzu, Japan). The films were heated in a nitrogen atmosphere from 30°C to 600°C at 20°C·min−1. The spectrophotometer (JASCO, V-770, UV-VIS-NIR, Japan) was used to measure the optical absorption and transmission spectra at room temperature in the wavelength range (200–1,100 nm). Fluorescence spectra were recorded using Shimadzu RF-6000 Spectrofluorometer (Japan) in the temperature range (0–60°C), and wavelength range (500–800 nm).

Figure 3 TEM image of InP/ZnS core-shell QDs.
Figure 3

TEM image of InP/ZnS core-shell QDs.

3 Results and discussion

3.1 XRD

The structure of PMMA LDS nanohybrid films doped with different concentrations of InP/ZnS QDs have been investigated by XRD characterization in the scanning range 5° ≤ 2θ ≤ 100° as depicted in Figure 4. The absence of distinct XRD sharp peaks indicates that all PMMA LDS nanohybrid films have an amorphous structure. Based on the XRD pattern, it can be observed that all samples display two broad, amorphous peaks at 2θ values of 15.3° and 30.7°, which are near the characteristic peaks of PMMA at 17° and 27°. This suggests that including InP/ZnS QDs in PMMA does not result in long-range order or crystallinity. Instead, it leads to a random arrangement of polymer chains as the positions and intensities of the peaks can exhibit slight variations based on factors such as the molecular weight, tacticity, and thermal history of PMMA (26,27). Additionally, it is observed that the broad peaks of PMMA remain unchanged as the concentration of the QDs increases. This can be attributed to the random arrangement of the PMMA backbone chain both before and after the addition of the QDs because the doping process does not affect the durable amorphous nature of PMMA as the dopant molecules are trapped within the polymer-free volume, preventing crystallization (28,29).

Figure 4 XRD patterns of PMMA LDS nanohybrid films doped with different concentrations of InP/ZnS core-shell QDs.
Figure 4

XRD patterns of PMMA LDS nanohybrid films doped with different concentrations of InP/ZnS core-shell QDs.

3.2 Thermal stability and chemical bonding

TGA was used to determine the thermal stability of PMMA LDS nanohybrid films doped with various concentrations of InP/ZnS QDs, the results were obtained through TGA thermographs shown in Figure 5. The weight loss by increasing temperature is shown in the temperature range (30–600°C) and the weight residue at 600°C is shown on each thermograph. Determining the initial weight loss temperature (T i) relies on the first baseline shift, which is essential for understanding the thermal degradation behavior of polymers. This parameter refers to the temperature at which a polymer begins to lose weight due to the decomposition or volatilization of low molecular weight components (30). The specific value of T i is influenced by various factors such as the mobility of the polymer chain, the chemical composition of the polymer, and the extent of crystallinity (31). It is also noted that all PMMA LDS nanohybrid films have a similar T i value of approximately 87°C, this suggests that PMMA and InP/Zns QDs are thoroughly mixed, indicating a high level of compatibility and interaction between the polymer and nanoparticles. Consequently, PMMA LDS nanohybrid films exhibit chemical stability and no phase separation (32,33,34). On the other hand, it is observed that by increasing the amount of InP/ZnS QDs to 0.1 wt%, the weight residue values of PMMA LDS nanohybrid films are increased to 30.8%. This can be ascribed to the higher thermal stability by increasing the amount of InP/ZnS QDs as inorganic dopants, which act as a barrier that prevents the degradation of polymer chains during thermal decomposition (35,36).

Figure 5 TGA curves for PMMA LDS nanohybrid films doped with different concentrations of InP/ZS core-shell QDs, the weight residue is shown on each thermograph.
Figure 5

TGA curves for PMMA LDS nanohybrid films doped with different concentrations of InP/ZS core-shell QDs, the weight residue is shown on each thermograph.

FT-IR is a significant analytical technique that utilizes infrared radiation to analyze the functional groups and chemical bonds present in a material. It is particularly crucial in studying polymer nanohybrids to gain insights into how the nanofillers interact with the polymer matrix and structural modifications by detecting changes in the spectrum (37,38). Figure 6 demonstrates FT-IR transmission spectra of pure PMMA and PMMA LDS nanohybrid film doped with 0.1 wt% InP/ZnS QDs as a representative chart of all doping concentrations. The main vibrational bands for the main characteristic functional groups for PMMA are determined on the spectra as C–H streching (2,976 cm−1), C═O streching (1,720 cm−1), and C–H bending (950–480 cm−1). On the other hand, two new bands appeared at 2,225 cm−1 and 1,590 cm−1 for PMMA LDS nanohybrid film doped with 0.1 wt% InP/ZnS QDs. This peak observed at 2,225 cm−1 is most likely attributed to the C═O stretching vibration of CO2 gas on the QD ZnS shell surface (39). Previous research has indicated that FT-IR spectra were obtained by blending the ZnS powders with KBr, which cannot eliminate CO2 molecules completely from the sample. Hence, the observed CO2 peak in the FT-IR spectrum of ZnS is not an inherent feature of its structure but rather a result of impurities or contaminants. The presence of a vibrational peak at 1,590 cm−1 may be attributed to the stretching vibration of the vinyl group in the polymer backbone, specifically the C═C bond. It is important to note that this peak is also influenced by the C═O stretching vibration of the ester group, resulting in overlap with the C═C peak (40). The intensity and position of this peak can vary depending on factors such as the degree of polymerization, crosslinking, and degradation of PMMA.

Figure 6 FT-IR transmission spectra for pure PMMA film and PMMA LDS nanohybrid film doped with 0.1 wt% InP/ZnS QDs, the newly identified bands are indicated in the highlighted areas.
Figure 6

FT-IR transmission spectra for pure PMMA film and PMMA LDS nanohybrid film doped with 0.1 wt% InP/ZnS QDs, the newly identified bands are indicated in the highlighted areas.

3.3 Spectral photophysical properties

The impact of QDs concentration is illustrated in Figure 7. on the transmission spectra of PMMA LDS nanohybrid films at room temperature, in the wavelength range of 200–1,100 nm. Incorporating InP/ZnS QDs into the PMMA matrix caused a remarkable wavelength-dependent red shift in the transmission spectra from the ultraviolet to the red region of the electromagnetic spectra. This shift can be attributed to hydrogen bond formation between the nanoparticle surface and the carbonyl functional group (C═O) of PMMA (41,42). Various factors, such as the size, shape, distribution of the QDs, solvent type, pH, and processing temperature, can potentially affect this interaction. On the other hand, the average transmittance T max of PMMA LDS nanohybrid films dropped from 92% to 83% by increasing the concentration of InP/ZnS QDs to 0.1 wt%, as indicated by Table 1. This decrease is influenced by various factors related to the properties and distribution of QDs dopants inside PMMA matrix (43). These factors include high absorption by increasing doping concentration, which reduces the amount of light that can pass through the film, the increased reflection or deviation of light caused by nanoscale-induced light scattering, and the irregular distribution of QDs in PMMA matrix results in local variations in the refractive index of the film (44).

Figure 7 Transmission spectra of PMMA LDS nanohybrid films doped with different InP/ZnS QDs concentrations.
Figure 7

Transmission spectra of PMMA LDS nanohybrid films doped with different InP/ZnS QDs concentrations.

Table 1

Spectral photophysical properties of PMMA LDS films doped with different InP/ZnS QDs concentrations: Transmission T%, the fluorescence quantum yield Φ F %, band gap E g, the activation energy for thermal quenching E a, the absorption and fluorescence peak wavelengths λ a and λ f

Concentration (wt%) λ a (nm) λ f (nm) T max% (nm) Φ F% E g (eV) E a (kJ·mol−1)
Pure PMMA 250 — 92 — 4.92 NA
0.02 380 649 90 11 3.87 2.58
0.04 435 651 88 22 3.24 3.27
0.06 505 653 87 92 2.96 4.21
0.08 525 647 86 59 2.14 4.82
0.1 535 645 83 39 1.69 5.57

The optical absorption coefficient, α, is related to the film transmission “T” and thickness “d” by the following relation (45,46),

(1) α = 1 d ln ⁡ ( 1 / T )

The optical band gap energy, E g, can be calculated from the photon energy, E, the equation expressed as (47,48)

(2) α = B E ( E − E g ) r

where B is a constant, and the index, “r” depends on the type of electronic transition responsible for photon absorption. The index “r” can have values of 2, 3, 1/2, or 3/2, which correspond to different types of electronic transitions (49,50). The optical band gap, E g, was calculated by the least square fitting (αE)2–E plots shown in Figure 8, the study revealed the direct allowed transitions in PMMA LDS nanohybrids consistent with prior research (51). Concerning the values of E g listed in Table 1, it is noted that E g of PMMA LDS nanohybrid films is decreased by increasing the concentration of InP/ZnS QDs. This remarkable decrease in E g can be explained by the formation of localized (exciton-like) states within the band gap of the PMMA matrix by increasing the doping level of InP/ZnS QDs (52). This leads to a reduction in the effective band gap of the nanohybrid and indicates that the optical characteristics of PMMA LDS nanohybrid films and the optical properties of the nanohybrid can be modified by varying nanoparticle concentration (53,54).

Figure 8 The dependence (αE)2 on photon energy “E” for PMMA LDS nanohybrid films doped with different concentrations of InP/ZnS QDs.
Figure 8

The dependence (αE)2 on photon energy “E” for PMMA LDS nanohybrid films doped with different concentrations of InP/ZnS QDs.

The fluorescence spectra of the PMMA LDS nanohybrid films is displayed in Figure 9 within the wavelength range of 500–800 nm. The films exhibit fluorescence at approximately 650 nm, and the fluorescence intensity is enhanced by increasing the concentration of fluorophores (InP/ZnS QDs) up to 0.06 wt%. However, beyond this concentration, the fluorescence intensity decreases, this behavior can be ascribed to the increased spectral overlap (decreased Stokes’ shift) and self-quenching effect, which causes non-radiative energy transfer and reduce their emission efficiency. The emission efficiency can be quantified by the fluorescence quantum yield by calculating the ratio of the number of photons emitted to the number of photons absorbed. The fluorescence quantum yield, Φ F , can be calculated using the following formula (55,56)

(3) Φ F = Φ r F r A s n s 2 F s A r n r 2

where Φ r refers to the quantum yield of the reference (Rhodamine 6G in ethanol), I r and I s are integrations of the fluorescence spectra of the reference and the sample systems, A r and A s are the absorbances of the reference and the sample systems at the excitation wavelength, and n r and n s are the indices of the refraction media for the reference and the sample systems. The results for Φ F (fluorescence quantum yield) are presented in Table 1. It can be noted that the fluorescence quantum yield of PMMA LDS nanohybrid films increases with the doping concentration, reaching a peak value of 92% at a concentration of 0.06 wt%. After this concentration, the quantum yield starts to decrease. The fluorescence quantum yield in PMMA LDS nanohybrid films is influenced by the concentration of QDs in the polymer matrix in two ways. First, the concentrations up to 0.06 wt% result in a higher absorption coefficient, leading to increased absorption of photons and an increase in fluorescence emission. However, a higher concentration (>0.06 wt%) also increases the spectral overlap and subsequently the probability of self-quenching (33,57). Self-quenching occurs when an excited fluorophore transfers its energy to another or the polymer matrix instead of emitting a photon, this process reduces the fluorescence quantum yield by decreasing the number of emitted photons (58).

Figure 9 Fluorescence spectra of PMMA LDS nanohybrid films doped with different InP/ZnS QDs concentrations.
Figure 9

Fluorescence spectra of PMMA LDS nanohybrid films doped with different InP/ZnS QDs concentrations.

The CIE 1976 (u′, v′) chromaticity diagram, commonly called the chromaticity 1976 diagram, is a visual representation of colors derived from the CIE 1931 XYZ color space (59). Its purpose is to determine the color coordinates and gamut of colors displayed. Unlike earlier CIE diagrams, it is designed to be perceptually uniform, meaning that the distance between points on the diagram corresponds to the perceived color difference (60). The CIE 1976 diagram for PMMA LDS nanohybrid films can be obtained by converting the fluorescence spectrum to the CIE 1931 XYZ color space and then to the CIE 1976 (u′, v′) color space using the following formulas (61)

(4) u ′ = 4 X X + 15 Y + 3 Z

(5) v ′ = 9 Y X + 15 Y + 3 Z

where X, Y, and Z are the tristimulus values of the emission spectrum. Figure 10 shows the CIE 1976 diagram for PMMA LDS nanohybrid films which demonstrated the perceptual changes in the red emission colors caused by varying InP/ZnS QDs concentrations. The films show a range of pure red colors that become more diverse as the concentration increases, which aligns with the fluorescence findings.

Figure 10 CIE 1976 chromaticity diagram of red-emitting PMMA LDS nanohybrid films doped with different concentrations of InP/ZnS QDs.
Figure 10

CIE 1976 chromaticity diagram of red-emitting PMMA LDS nanohybrid films doped with different concentrations of InP/ZnS QDs.

The temperature dependence of the fluorescence spectra has been examined for PMMA LDS nanohybrid films at a heating rate of 1°C·min−1 in the range (0–80°C). The results revealed that the emission intensity drops to a fraction “I T” of its original value “I o” as the temperature elevated, while the spectrum shape and peak position remain unchanged. This phenomenon can be ascribed to the increased vibrational relaxation processes (62), as the excited electrons are scattered by phonons resulting from thermal vibrations in the host matrix (PMMA) and the energy levels of the dopant fluorophores (InP/ZnS QDs). Thus, thermally activated processes can occur to quench fluorescence from the excited singlet state by adjusting the temperature of the host medium, this energy transfer is illustrated in Figure 11, which represents Arrhenius equation (63)

(6) I o I T = A e − E a / kT ⁡

where I o/I T represents the fraction of fluorescence intensities at the initial and final temperature, respectively, the universal gas constant R and the activation energy of thermal quenching E a. The relationship of ln(I o/I T) against 103/T exhibits a linear fit for all the doping concentrations of PMMA LDS nanohybrid films. The values of E a are shown in Table 1, these values indicate the better thermal stability of PMMA LDS nanohybrid films, which is achieved due to the increase in the inorganic content InP/ZnS QDs. Additionally, after cooling, the PMMA LDS nanohybrid films returned to their initial fluorescence intensity, suggesting that the films are not significantly affected by thermal effects. The transmission spectra exhibited similar trends, indicating the excellent weathering resistance of PMMA LDS nanohybrid films for a wide range of atmospheric temperatures.

Figure 11 Arrhenius plot of relative fluorescence intensities, I o/I T, for PMMA LDS nanohybrid films doped with different InP/ZnS QDs concentrations.
Figure 11

Arrhenius plot of relative fluorescence intensities, I o/I T, for PMMA LDS nanohybrid films doped with different InP/ZnS QDs concentrations.

3.4 Performance evaluation of LDS-coated PV cells

The normalized absorption and fluorescence spectra of a PMMA LDS nanohybrid film incorporating 0.06 wt% of InP/ZnS QDs is illustrated in Figure 12. The graph is compared with the external quantum efficiency curve of a c-Si PV cell and the AM1.5 solar irradiance spectrum. The nanohybrid film can absorb photons with high energies in the UVA region and emit photons with lower energies at 653 nm in the red region of the electromagnetic spectrum. This process, known as down-conversion, enhances the performance of the c-Si PV cell, which has a poor response to UV light. Therefore, the PMMA LDS nanohybrid film is a potential candidate for down-conversion applications, especially for boosting the efficiency of c-Si PV cells, which are the most common type of solar cells in the market. The fluorescence intensity and wavelength of the PMMA LDS films can be tuned by varying the concentration and size of the InP/ZnS QDs, which allows for optimizing the down-conversion process for different types of solar cells.

Figure 12 External quantum efficiency of c-Si PV cell, UV-vis absorption spectra, and fluorescence spectra of the optimized PMMA LDS nanohybrid film doped with 6 × 10−3 InP/ZnS QDs (normalized to AM1.5 solar spectrum).
Figure 12

External quantum efficiency of c-Si PV cell, UV-vis absorption spectra, and fluorescence spectra of the optimized PMMA LDS nanohybrid film doped with 6 × 10−3 InP/ZnS QDs (normalized to AM1.5 solar spectrum).

The applicability of PMMA LDS PV coatings has been evaluated by the current density–voltage (J–V) curves measured for c-Si PV cells at light intensity 100 mW·cm−2, as presented in Figure 13. The coatings enhanced the short circuit current density, J sc, of the PV cells by converting high-energy photons into lower-energy photons that match the band gap of the PV cells. This enhancement is more significant than the enhancement in the open circuit voltage V oc, which is affected by other factors such as the series and shunt resistances of the PV cells. The fill factor FF and the PCE are the key indicators of the performance of the PV cells, and they are computed using the equations given by refs. (64,65)

(7) FF = J m V m J sc V oc

(8) PCE = J sc × V oc × FF P in

where P in is the incident power density of light (100 mW·cm−2), J m and V m are the current density and voltage measured at the maximum output power, respectively. The relative percentage enhancement in the PCE for LDS-coated PV cells can be calculated using the following formula (66):

(9) ∆ PCE % = PCE ( coated cell ) − PCE ( uncoated cell ) PCE ( uncoated cell ) × 100

Figure 13 J–V curves of crystalline silicon PV cells coated with PMMA LDS nanohybrid films doped with different InP/ZnS QDs concentrations.
Figure 13

J–V curves of crystalline silicon PV cells coated with PMMA LDS nanohybrid films doped with different InP/ZnS QDs concentrations.

The performance parameters of c-Si PV cells are summarized in Table 2 before and after applying PMMA LDS nanohybrid coatings with various concentrations of InP/ZnS QDs. An inspection of the table showed no variations in the fill factor, FF, of the coated PV cells, indicating that the quality of the PV cells is not significantly affected by the coatings. On the other hand, the short-circuit current, J sc, is increased due to the down-conversion effect of the dopant fluorophores. This effect converts high-energy UVA photons into lower-energy red photons to match the band gap of the c-Si PV cells, leading to the enhancement of PCE to a maximum value of 24.28% for PV cell coated with PMMA LDS nanohybrid film containing 0.06 wt% of InP/ZnS QDs. The rise in efficiency can be ascribed to the improved fluorescence quantum yield and reduced reabsorption losses exhibited by the InP/ZnS QDs at this concentration when compared to other levels of doping. Therefore, the PMMA LDS nanohybrid coatings with InP/ZnS QDs have effectively improved the performance of c-Si PV cells by utilizing UVA region of solar spectra.

Table 2

Calculated parameters for coated and uncoated c-Si PV cells: short circuit density J sc, open circuit voltage V OC, fill factor FF, power conversion efficiency, PCE, and the relative percentage enhancement in PCE, ΔPCE%

Concentration (wt%) J SC (mA·cm−2) V OC (V) FF PCE (%) ΔPCE (%)
Uncoated cell 36.55 0.53 0.70 13.56 —
0.02 37.78 0.54 0.71 14.48 6.78
0.04 38.29 0.55 0.73 15.37 13.35
0.06 43.29 0.55 0.73 17.38 28.17
0.08 40.81 0.55 0.72 16.16 19.17
0.1 39.15 0.56 0.73 15.94 17.55

4 Conclusion

The study focused on developing LDS nanohybrid films based on red-emitting PMMA-InP/ZnS QDs to enhance the performance of c-Si PV cells, the impact of QDs doping on the stability and spectral photophysical properties was investigated. XRD analysis indicated that the tacticity of PMMA remained unchanged, as no crystalline peaks were observed, confirming the stability of the amorphous structure. The study revealed that increasing the concentration of InP/ZnS QDs allows tuning of the direct allowed band gap energy of the investigated PMMA-InP/ZnS nanohybrid films. It was found that the optimal doping concentration for InP/ZnS QDs was 0.06 wt% as this concentration resulted in a significant increase in the PCE (24.28%) of c-Si PV cells coated with the film. The improved performance can be attributed to the optimized spectral properties and high fluorescence quantum yield (92%) of the InP/ZnS QDs at this concentration. These factors enhanced the down-conversion effect due to the minimized reabsorption losses. Consequently, PMMA-InP/ZnS QDs nanohybrid coatings can effectively utilize the UVA region of solar spectra to enhance the performance of c-Si PV cells. Moreover, PMMA LDS nanohybrid films have remarkable stability as the weight residue values of PMMA LDS nanohybrid films increased to 30.8% by increasing the concentration of InP/ZnS QDs to 0.1 wt%. The results of the present work have important implications for Saudi Arabia’s energy strategy to achieve sustainability goals and reduce the dependence on fossil fuels.

Acknowledgement

The authors would like to thank the Deanship of Scientific Research at Majmaah University for supporting this work.

  1. Funding information: No funding is involved.

  2. Author contributions: N. A. Althumairi: conceptualization, methodology, validation, data curation, formal analysis, and writing the original draft. S.M. El-Bashir: visualization, review, editing, and supervision.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this study.

  4. Data availability statement: The data supporting this study’s findings are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

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Received: 2024-03-05
Revised: 2024-04-27
Accepted: 2024-04-27
Published Online: 2024-06-11

© 2024 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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https://doi.org/10.1515/epoly-2024-0030
Keywords for this article
PMMA nanohybrids; InP/ZnS quantum dots; thermal stability; fluorescence; down conversion
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Research Articles
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