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Experimental investigation on damage mechanism of GFRP laminates embedded with/without steel wire mesh under low-velocity-impact and post-impact tensile loading

  • Ye Wu , Peiyu You EMAIL logo , Wuchao Hua , Cuilong Liu , Shuaimin Zhang and Youping Liu
Published/Copyright: April 2, 2024
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e-Polymers
From the journal e-Polymers Volume 24 Issue 1

Abstract

To investigate the impact behavior and residual strength of glass fiber-reinforced polymer (GFRP) laminates embedded with/without steel wire mesh, low-velocity-impact (LVI) and post-impact tensile tests are conducted carefully. According to the wire diameter and spacing of steel wire mesh, we manufactured two groups of specimens via conventional vacuum-assisted resin infusion. Further, the digital image correlation technique was applied to record the strain evolution. Based on the results, including impact response history, failure morphology, strain contour, the failure mechanism and effect of the parameters of steel wire mesh is revealed in detail. The results show that the embedding of wire mesh can improve the impact resistance and residual strength, with a more significant effect as both the increase of wire diameter and decrease of wire spacing. Compared with GFRP laminates, the peak force of specimens with the thickest and densest wire mesh increase by 105% and 141% under LVI tests and 254% and 141% in post-impact tensile tests, respectively.

Keywords: GFRP laminate; steel wire mesh reinforced; low-velocity impact; damage mechanism

1 Introduction

Glass fiber-reinforced polymer (GFRP) composites, renowned for their high strength, ease of construction, corrosion resistance, and noise and vibration attenuation, have found extensive applications in aerospace, civil engineering, automotive, and maritime domains (1–5). However, GFRP composites are inevitably subjected to various loads induced by natural disasters and human activities, resulting in a significant degradation of structural performance and safety concerns. Consequently, the low-velocity impact (LVI) resistance and damage tolerance have emerged as pivotal considerations in composites design (6–9). Furthermore, fiber-reinforced composites, owing to their poor impact resistance and brittleness, are susceptible to internal damage under impact loads. This damage includes fiber breakage, matrix crack, and interlaminar delamination (10–12), leading to a notable reduction in residual strength.

To enhance the impact resistance and energy absorption properties of fiber-reinforced composites, researchers have explored the incorporation of various metals such as aluminum (13,14) and copper (15,16) between the fibers. This approach aims to address deficiencies in the performance of single-fiber composites. Singh and Rajamurugan (17) investigated the mechanical properties of composites prepared with epoxy and vinyl ester resin reinforced with stainless steel wire mesh and natural fibers such as flax and hemp. They found that the steel wire mesh enhanced the tensile and impact properties of epoxy resin composites and bending resistance of vinyl ester resin composites. Prabu et al. (18), through a comparative analysis of the layering angles of aluminum and copper in flax fiber composites, observed that the tensile strength of the metal mesh at a 45° fiber orientation was higher than that at 90°. Liu et al. (19) conducted double-impact and compression-after-impact (CAI) tests to investigate the influence of steel wire mesh on GFRP laminates. Their findings indicated that the embedding of steel wire mesh effectively dispersed the impact energy around the impact region. Yao et al. (20) studied the multiple impact behavior of fiber metal laminates (FML) composed of carbon fiber composites and aluminum sheets. The results demonstrated that the initial hardening of the aluminum sheet after the first impact can enhance the stiffness of the FML. Wan et al. (21) developed a GFRP laminate by combining steel wire mesh and foam, finding that its impact resistance and residual strength increased with the increase of layers of steel wire mesh. Kubranur et al. (22) found lower interfacial performance in the laminates with larger mesh number of aluminum wire based on the LVI tests.

However, secondary damage is frequently identified in composite material structures, underscoring the significance of research into the residual strength after impact (23–27). Habibi et al. (28) investigated the influence of various impactor shapes and impact energies on the residual tensile properties of composites. Yang et al. (29) conducted LVI and CAI tests on foam-filled sandwich panels with hybrid face sheet, the best performance is found in the cases with face sheet of GFRP laminate. In CAI tests of stitched woven-knit hybrid composites, Alaattin et al. (30) found that the cases with both circular and square weaving exhibited the best impact resistance and CAI strength, respectively. Wu et al. (31) explored the failure mechanisms of foam core sandwich panels with shape memory alloy hybrid face-sheets. Higher elasticity and larger damage area are found under LVI tests, and initial failure is observed in the sandwich structure in CAI tests. Under LVI, CAI, shear, and flexure loading, the characteristics of embedded steel wire mesh, such as layer number of wire mesh, laying angle and position, are studied extensively (32–36). However, few studies have focused on the influence of steel wire diameter and spacing.

Herein, mechanical behaviors and failure modes of glass fiber-wire mesh reinforced laminates under LVI and post-impact tensile loads are investigated based on typical response history, failure morphologies, and strain contours. Furthermore, the influence of wire diameter and spacing on the impact resistance and residual tensile strength is analyzed and discussed.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Raw materials and fabrication

GFRP laminates with six layers of woven glass fiber (density 450 g·m−2, 0.30 mm/layer) are fabricated via the vacuum-assisted resin infusion (VARI) process (shown in Figure 1) as presented in our previous studies (32,33). Besides, one layer of steel wire mesh, with various wire spacing and diameters, is inserted into the middle interface of GFRP. In the experiment, vinyl ester resin (Dacheng Xinxin Plastic Products Co., Ltd, Langfang, China), the hardening agent (methyl ethyl ketone peroxide), and the accelerating agent (cobalt isooctanoate) are mixed by a mass ratio of 100:1:1 and cured at room temperature. Further, two groups of specimens are prepared according to various wire spacing and diameters of steel wire mesh. The specimens with the same wire spacing of 1.1 mm and six wire diameters of 0.12/0.15/0.23/0.3/0.4/0.5 mm are defined as the wire diameter group. The wire spacing group, with the same wire diameter of 0.4 mm and seven wire spacing of 0.7/0.9/1.1/1.5/1.8/2.2/2.8 mm, are also manufactured. The VARI process in detail are as follows: first, various preparation materials, including the diversion net, release cloth, glass fiber layers, and metal wire mesh, are laid on the workbench in sequence. Then, vacuum bags and glues are used to seal them. Next, the resin fully penetrates the glass fiber with the help of the vacuum pump. After curing at room temperature for 24 h, the specimens are cut into a rectangle with the size of 150 × 100 mm2.

Figure 1 Progress of fabrication.
Figure 1

Progress of fabrication.

2.2 LVI tests

In Figure 2, LVI tests are conducted using an INSTRON 9340 drop-weight device, following ASTM D7136 standard. The specimens are fixed by four toggle clamps on the impact support fixture base and are impacted at the center. The incident energies of both the wire diameter group and wire spacing group are set to 40 J (impact speed of 4.56 m·s−1) and 55 J (impact speed of 5.63 m·s−1), respectively. During the LVI tests, we captured the contact force and displacement history of the impactor, of a hemispherical top with a 16 mm diameter and a total mass of 4.5 kg. The specimen is identified as A–B–C, where A is the wire diameter, B represents the wire spacing, and C stands for impact energy. For example, the specimen, with wire spacing of 1.1 mm, wire diameter of 0.12 mm, and incident energy of 40 J, is named as 0.12–1.1–40 J. Specially, pure glass fiber laminates are named as G-40 J or G-55 J.

Figure 2 Set-up for LVI testing.
Figure 2

Set-up for LVI testing.

Since the total mass of specimens increases with the increase of wire diameter and the decrease of wire spacing, it is necessary to evaluate their lightweight and high strength from an index. Therefore, the specific strength of specimens is calculated according to the following equation:

(1) Q = F max · V M

where Q is the specific strength (N·cm−3·g−1), F max is the maximum force (N), V is the volume (cm3), and M is the mass of the specimen (g).

2.3 Post-impact tensile tests

To explore the effect of LVI damage on subsequent mechanical properties, the specimens subjected to impact are symmetrically cut off on both the sides, then the size of tensile specimens is 25 mm in width and 150 mm in length. Further, the post-impact tensile tests are conducted carefully via universal testing machine at a rate of 2 mm·min−1 as shown in Figure 3. More details of the fixture, such as a clamping length of 40 mm at each end of specimens, are shown in Figure 3. Meanwhile, the strain evolution is monitored and analyzed by digital image correlation system. Besides, to ensure the accuracy of the data, three parallel tests are conducted for each type of specimens.

Figure 3 Set-up for post-impact tensile testing.
Figure 3

Set-up for post-impact tensile testing.

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Response history and damage patterns of LVI

3.1.1 Comparison of typical GFRP laminate embedded with/without steel-wire mesh

Comparison of GFRP laminate embedded with/without steel wire mesh subjected to 40 J impact on both the damage morphology and contact force–displacement curve are shown in Figure 4. Overall, the impactor with the incident energy of 40 J penetrates GFRP laminate but does not penetrate GFRP laminate embedded with steel wire mesh. In the damage morphology, diagonal and more severe horizontal cracks are observed in GFRP laminates. It is interesting to note that diagonal cracks propagate along the rectangle diagonal of specimens because of four-point constraints. However, the wire mesh can prevent the crack propagation and induces a pit at the impact point. For the contact force–displacement curve, GFRP laminate embedded with steel wire mesh has a curve in similar parabola shape due to its dominant elastic failure. However, compared with GFRP laminate embedded with steel wire mesh, the curve slope of GFRP laminate is smaller before the peak force is reached, and dramatic fluctuations are observed clearly after reaching the peak force because of the crack propagation. Moreover, the peak force of GFRP laminate embedded with/without steel wire mesh is 4,327.90/1,959.23 N, and their displacement is, respectively, 16.65 and 27.70 mm. Therefore, the significant increase in peak force by over twofold alongside a substantial reduction in displacement strongly indicates that the embedding of the steel wire mesh significantly enhances both strength and stiffness.

Figure 4 Comparison of GFRP laminate embedded with/without steel wire mesh subjected to 40 J impact on both (a) the damage morphology and (b) contact force–displacement curve.
Figure 4

Comparison of GFRP laminate embedded with/without steel wire mesh subjected to 40 J impact on both (a) the damage morphology and (b) contact force–displacement curve.

3.1.2 Effect of the wire diameters on impact properties

To investigate the influence of wire diameter on the impact performance of specimens, we analyze uniformly the results of the wire diameter group. Three views of damage morphology, comparison on both the peak force and displacement, as well as the response history, including contact force–displacement, absorbed energy–time, and displacement–time curves are shown in detail in Figures 5 and 6, respectively. The specimens with the wire diameter not larger than 0.3 mm suffer more serious damage, which has some characteristics of the severe indentation, fiber breakage, and deformation of steel wire. It is worth noting that damage propagation along steel wire mesh shows two crosses in shape. However, the damage characteristics of the specimens with the wire diameter ranging from 0.5 to 1.1 mm, including larger delamination damage projected area (DDPA) and smaller displacement, are found to be due to the thicker steel wire mesh, which bears more impact energy and propagates it farther. Besides, the specimens have no visible dents, fiber breakage, and deformation of steel wire at the impact point. For GFRP laminates embedded without steel wire mesh, they suffer worst cracks rather than severe dents.

Figure 5 Comparison of the wire diameter group on three views of damage morphology.
Figure 5

Comparison of the wire diameter group on three views of damage morphology.

Figure 6 Typical results of the wire diameter group under LVI tests: (a) contact force–displacement, (c) displacement–time, (d) absorbed energy–time curves, and (b) comparison on both the peak force and displacement.
Figure 6

Typical results of the wire diameter group under LVI tests: (a) contact force–displacement, (c) displacement–time, (d) absorbed energy–time curves, and (b) comparison on both the peak force and displacement.

Overall, all types of curves are distinguished by two trends like the typical shape as described in Section 3.1.1. The curve of specimens with the wire diameter larger than 0.23 mm is similar parabola shape with a sharp fall after peak force, while there is a period of slow and fluctuating decline in other curves because the specimens are subjected to more steel wire and fiber breakages. We compare the peak force and displacement of the specimens of the wire diameter group in Figure 6(b) and (c). It is found that the impact performance has improved dramatically due to steel wire embedded in the GFRP laminates, even the embedding of thinnest steel wire in the peak force has risen by 63% and the displacement dropped by 33%. Furthermore, the peck force increases and the displacement decreases as the steel wire thickens. The displacement–time curves of GFRP laminates embedded with steel wire mesh show a fast and then a slow rise rather than a uniform rise of that of GFRP laminates. Therefore, it is concluded that the strength and stiffness of GFRP laminates enhance with the increase of wire diameter.

Comparison of all types of specimens on absorbed energy–time curves is shown in Figure 6(d). It is worth noting that, in tests of both 0.12–1.1–40 J and 0.12–1.1–40 J, the energy recorded by impactor is higher than the incident energy because the steel wire mesh is broken by impact. However, during the impact process of GFRP laminates, a small portion of energy is not recorded by the impactor due to too large crack propagation. Furthermore, the rest is at the level of incident energy.

Further, the crucial information of specific strength of the wire diameter group is listed in Table 1. The specific strength of GFRP laminates embedding wire mesh is significantly higher than virgin case. The highest specific strength is found in the specimen with 0.3 mm wire diameter rather than the case with the thickest wire mesh. Therefore, GFRP laminates embedded appropriate wire diameter have more excellent lightweight and high strength under LVI loading.

Table 1

Crucial information of specific strength of the wire diameter group

Specimen Mass (g) Volume (cm3) Maximum force (N) Specific strength (N·cm−3·g−1)
0.12–1.1–40 J 43.1 31.8 3,144 2,312
0.15–1.1–40 J 44.4 32.3 3,457 2,523
0.23–1.1–40 J 47.2 33.5 3,781 2,682
0.3–1.1–40 J 52.5 34.5 4,209 2,769
0.4–1.1–40 J 59.5 36.0 4,428 2,684
0.5–1.1–40 J 71.4 37.5 4,513 2,375
G-40 J 41.7 30.0 2,172 1,563

3.1.3 Effect of the wire spacing on impact properties

Likewise, we performed a comparative analysis of the wire spacing group under the LVI tests. Three views of damage morphology, a comparison on both the peak force and failure displacement, as well as the response history, including contact force–displacement, absorbed energy–time, and displacement–time curves are shown in detail in Figures 7 and 8, respectively. In summary, the damage morphologies of the wire spacing group are similar to those of the wire diameter group. Specimens featuring a less dense wire mesh heightened instances of interlaminar delamination, matrix cracks, fiber breakage, and deformation of the steel wire. However, a larger DDPA is observed in the specimens with a denser wire mesh, because the denser the wire mesh, the more the energy propagates outward. Especially, 0.4–0.7–55 J displays some characteristics such as a larger DDPA, slighter fiber breakage, and smaller displacement like the specimens of thick wire diameter as described in Section 3.1.2. Moreover, a hole is observed clearly on the upper surface of the specimens mentioned above, which indicates that they are penetrated. Owing to the embedding of steel wire mesh amplifies lower fiber layer damage propagation, the damage area on the front is greatly smaller than that on the back. As the wire spacing increases, the bulge in the back of specimens is more serious.

Figure 7 Comparison of the wire spacing group on three views of damage morphology.
Figure 7

Comparison of the wire spacing group on three views of damage morphology.

Figure 8 Typical results of the wire spacing group under LVI tests: (a) contact force–displacement, (c) displacement–time, (d) absorbed energy–time curves, and (b) comparison on both the peak force and displacement.
Figure 8

Typical results of the wire spacing group under LVI tests: (a) contact force–displacement, (c) displacement–time, (d) absorbed energy–time curves, and (b) comparison on both the peak force and displacement.

The contact force–displacement curves of two specimen groups have essentially the same trend. Since the specimens with a wire spacing thicker than 1.8 mm suffer more serious plastic damage, sharp fluctuations are found in the descending section of their curves. Therefore, thicker wire mesh can bring better performance of elastic deformation to the GFRP laminates. Furthermore, severe plastic deformation can create a dent at the impact point and significantly increase the failure displacement. In Figure 8(b), it is clearly seen that the peak force increases and the displacement decreases as the wire spacing decreases. The characteristics and trends of displacement–time curves of the wire spacing group are like those of the wire diameter group. As a result, it is concluded that the strength and stiffness of GFRP laminates also enhance with the increase of wire spacing. Additionally, the curves of specimens with a hole spacing above 1.8 mm all showed double peaks. The second peak appeared due to the friction between the hammerhead and the broken resin fiber/wire mesh after the hammerhead crashed through the wire mesh. In contrast, only one peak was observed on the curves of smaller spacing specimens. As the spacing of the wire increased, the peak load of the specimen decreased and the displacement of the specimen increased, since the wire with a smaller spacing possesses higher resistance to deformation.

Overall, a phenomenon like in Figure 6(d), absorbed energy of specimens increases with the wire sparing, is found in Figure 8(d). Owing to the absorbed energy–time curves of both two specimen groups have the same trends and characteristics. Detailed analysis of the energy absorbed by the wire spacing group can be drawn in Section 3.1.2.

Further, the crucial information of specific strength of the wire spacing group is listed in Table 2. Likewise, the specific strength of GFRP laminates embedded wire mesh is greatly higher than that of virgin case. The highest specific strength is found in the specimen with 1.5 mm wire spacing rather than the case with the smallest wire mesh. Therefore, GFRP laminates embedded appropriate wire spacing have more excellent lightweight and high strength in LVI tests.

Table 2

Crucial information of specific strength of the wire spacing group

Specimen Mass (g) Volume (cm3) Maximum force (N) Specific strength (N·cm−3·g−1)
0.4–0.7–55 J 68.7 30.0 6,048 2,641
0.4–0.9–55 J 62.6 30.0 5,455 2,610
0.4–1.1–55 J 59.5 30.0 5,315 2,684
0.4–1.5–55 J 54.5 30.0 5,209 2,862
0.4–1.8–55 J 52.5 30.0 4,828 2,759
0.4–2.2–55 J 50.3 30.0 4,213 2,508
0.4–2.8–55 J 48.4 30.0 3,987 2,476
G-55 J 41.7 30.0 2,569 1,848

3.2 Behaviors of post-impact tensile loading

3.2.1 Comparison of all kinds of specimens on failure progress

The damage evolution of both G-55 J and 0.7–0.4–55 J, including 1–5 stages corresponding to their curves, is compared on strain contour in Figure 9. For the strain evolution of G-55 J, tensile strain increases at the impact cracks, and finally one side of the impact point breaks along the diagonal crack and the other side breaks along the horizontal crack. However, 0.7–0.4–55 J shows consistently a uniformly symmetric strain domain above and below, and finally breaks at the cross-section of the impact point. It is observed clearly that, in damage morphology of 0.7–0.4–55 J, obvious interlaminar delamination around the crack indicates failure of early warning rather than sudden breaking. Besides, the blank area is shown in the strain contours because the raised and broken areas of the specimens cannot be captured. The failure contours of all kinds of specimens are shown in Figure 10. Similarly, the specimens with steel wire mesh finally breaks at the cross-section of the impact point, and GFRP laminates pull off at the impact cracks.

Figure 9 Strain contour of damage evolution in both (a) G-55 J and (b) 0.7–0.4–55 J cases.
Figure 9

Strain contour of damage evolution in both (a) G-55 J and (b) 0.7–0.4–55 J cases.

Figure 10 Comparison of all cases on failure contour: (a) the wire diameter group and (b) the wire spacing group.
Figure 10

Comparison of all cases on failure contour: (a) the wire diameter group and (b) the wire spacing group.

3.2.2 Effect of the wire diameter on tensile behavior

The visual damage of the wire diameter group on both planform and cross-section after post-impact tensile tests is shown in Figure 11, and their force–displacement curves and comparison of both peak force and failure displacement are pictured in Figure 12. Overall, the severe fiber breakage, matrix crack, and a net-section failure are observed in the failure morphology. However, the breaking of steel wire mesh is found in the specimens with the wire diameters no smaller than 0.23 mm because their steel wires suffer more serious impact damage. In other cases, when we finished the test, the integrity of the steel wire mesh showed that the specimen embedded with the steel wire mesh had a certain residual strength. Moreover, interlaminar delamination around the cracks after tension propagates further, and the interlaminar delamination and debonding of steel wire mesh are more severe with increase of the wire diameter.

Figure 11 Comparison of the wire diameter group under post-impact tensile tests on damage morphology: (a) side view and (b) front view.
Figure 11

Comparison of the wire diameter group under post-impact tensile tests on damage morphology: (a) side view and (b) front view.

Figure 12 (a) Force–displacement curves and (b) comparison on peak force and failure displacement of the wire diameter group under post-impact tensile tests.
Figure 12

(a) Force–displacement curves and (b) comparison on peak force and failure displacement of the wire diameter group under post-impact tensile tests.

Overall, a linear increase followed by a sudden drop is found in all force–displacement curves. It is concluded in Figure 12(b) that the peak force and failure displacement increase with the increase of wire diameter. For specimens embedded in the steel wire mesh, the peak force and failure displacement are three times and two times higher than those of the virgin cases, respectively. Therefore, this means that the embedding of thicker wire mesh has higher strength and ductility.

3.2.3 Effect of the wire spacing on tensile behavior

The damage morphology of the wire spacing group under post-impact tensile tests are pictured in Figure 13, and their force–displacement curves and comparison of both peak force and failure displacement are shown in Figure 14. During tensile progress of the wire spacing group, their fiber and wire mesh are stretched at the same time, but the fiber breaks faster and the wire mesh is intact. However, broken wire mesh is observed in the damage morphology of the wire diameter group. The difference is because the wire spacing group suffers more serious damage (especially fiber breakage and matrix cracks) under higher incident energy. Besides, compared with the peak force and failure displacement between two groups, there is a significant decrease in the wire spacing group. Likewise, the failure mode of both groups is consistent.

Figure 13 Comparison of the wire spacing group under post-impact tensile tests on damage morphology: (a) side view and (b) front view.
Figure 13

Comparison of the wire spacing group under post-impact tensile tests on damage morphology: (a) side view and (b) front view.

Figure 14 (a) Force–displacement curves and (b) comparison on peak force and failure displacement of the wire spacing group under post-impact tensile tests.
Figure 14

(a) Force–displacement curves and (b) comparison on peak force and failure displacement of the wire spacing group under post-impact tensile tests.

Figure 14 shows that both peak force and failure displacement increase with the decrease of wire spacing. For specimens embedded in the steel wire mesh, the peak force and failure displacement are significantly higher than those of the virgin cases. Therefore, it can be drawn that the embedding of denser wire mesh has higher strength and ductility.

4 Conclusion

To investigate the mechanical behavior of GFRP laminates embedded with steel wire mesh, two groups of specimens based on wire diameter and spacing are prepared via VARI progress. Further, the LVI and post-impact tensile tests are conducted carefully. Based on the experimental results, the following conclusions can be drawn:

  1. With the increase of steel wire diameter and the decrease of wire spacing, the impact resistance and residual tensile strength of reinforced GFRP laminates are improved dramatically. For the GFRP laminates with 0.4 mm wire diameter and 0.7 mm wire spacing compared with the virgin cases, its impact ultimate force and tensile strength increase, respectively, by 141% and 140%. Further, the failure displacement decreases by 48% under LVI tests, but increases by 65% in post-impact tensile tests. However, GFRP laminates with appropriate wire diameter and spacing have more excellent specific strength.

  2. For the GFRP laminates reinforced with denser and thicker wire mesh, there are some characteristics under LVI tests, including the larger DDPA, slighter fiber breakage, and matrix cracks. In post-impact tensile tests, interlaminar delamination around the cracks propagates further, and debonding of steel wire mesh is more severe.

  3. A net-section failure along the cross-section of impact point is observed in reinforced GFRP laminates. However, virgin GFRP laminates are pulled off at the oblique impact cracks.

  1. Funding information: This work was supported by the Foundation of Jiangxi Province of China Educational Committee (grant numbers GJJ201907, GJJ211908, and GJJ2201503) and the innovative projects of NIT (YC2023-S997).

  2. Author contributions: Peiyu You: writing – original draft, writing – review & editing, methodology, formal analysis; Wuchao Hua: writing – original draft, formal analysis, visualization, project administration; Ye Wu: formal analysis, visualization, project administration, methodology, resources, funding; Cuilong Liu, Shuaimin Zhang, and Youping Liu: experiment, data processing.

  3. Conflict of interest: Authors state no conflict of interest.

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Received: 2024-01-05
Revised: 2024-02-20
Accepted: 2024-02-21
Published Online: 2024-04-02

© 2024 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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https://doi.org/10.1515/epoly-2024-0002
Keywords for this article
GFRP laminate; steel wire mesh reinforced; low-velocity impact; damage mechanism
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

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  2. Flame-retardant thermoelectric responsive coating based on poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiphene) modified metal–organic frameworks
  3. Highly stretchable, durable, and reversibly thermochromic wrapped yarns induced by Joule heating: With an emphasis on parametric study of elastane drafts
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