Home Technology An eco-friendly synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles with jamun seed extract and their multi-applications
Article Open Access

An eco-friendly synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles with jamun seed extract and their multi-applications

  • Mohammed S. Alqahtani , Rabbani Syed EMAIL logo , Mudassar Shahid , Reem Hamoud Alrashoudi , Ayesha Mateen , R. Lakshmipathy EMAIL logo and Mukesh Goel
Published/Copyright: August 14, 2025
Download Article (PDF)
Become an author with De Gruyter Brill
Submit Manuscript Author Information
REVIEWS ON ADVANCED MATERIALS SCIENCE
From the journal REVIEWS ON ADVANCED MATERIALS SCIENCE Volume 64 Issue 1

Abstract

Zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles were synthesized via an ecofriendly route using Indian Jamun seed aqueous extract. The synthesized ZnO nanoparticles were characterized for their surface properties using characterization techniques such as UV-Visible, FTIR, XRD, SEM, EDX, and TEM. The synthesized ZnO nanoparticles were found to be spherical with a size ≤1 nm, as evidenced from SEM and TEM investigations. The XRD patterns confirm the formation of the wurtzite phase of ZnO nanoparticles. The ZnO nanoparticles were later investigated for their ability to remediate Hg2+ ions from aqueous solutions. Response surface methodology was employed to optimize the independent variables, and optimal results were achieved at pH 6, 45 min of contact time, and an initial concentration of 100 mg·L−1 Hg2+ ions. The applicability of the developed model was supported by a p-value of <0.0001 being significant, and 11 out of 20 runs resulted in above 75% of removal efficiency. The loading capacity of the ZnO nanoparticles was calculated to be 122.7 mg·g−1. The decolourization of methylene blue was achieved successfully with ZnO nanoparticles within 150 min. A moderate antimicrobial activity was exhibited by the ZnO nanoparticles synthesized in this study, with zones of inhibition of 15 and 14 mm for Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus, respectively. The results conclude that the Indian jamun seed extract-mediated ZnO nanoparticles are excellent candidates for the remediation of Hg2+ ion-contaminated water streams.

Keywords: ZnO; Indian jamun seeds; green synthesis; mercury; adsorption

1 Introduction

Metal oxide nanoparticles have gained significant popularity in all domains of industrial applications. Their ability to exhibit excellent stability under higher pressure and temperature has attracted researchers to synthesize various metal oxide nanoparticles [1]. Zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles have attained significance among the metal oxides due to their versatile applications, ranging from engineering to biology [2]. ZnO nanoparticles are used as sensors [3], photocatalysts [4], adsorbents [2], antimicrobials [5], antifungals [6], anticancers [7] antioxidants [8], and antiparasitic [9] agents. Various methods are in practice for the production of ZnO nanoparticles; however, the green synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles is found to be prolific due to ease and ecofriendliness [10]. Further, the cost of the synthesis is economical with minimal reagents and produces nanoparticles that contain biologically active molecules on its surface that can enhance the biological activities and adsorption process [2,5–8].

Literature reveals the use of several natural plants and fruit waste extracts for the prolific production of ZnO nanoparticles. Extracts of green tea were successfully used for the generation of ZnO nanoparticles, and the synthesized ZnO nanoparticles were successfully evaluated for their ability to sense gases [3]. Origanum majorana was employed for the synthesis of spherically shaped ZnO nanoparticles with negative charge [11]. The as-synthesized nanoparticles exhibited less cytotoxicity against normal cells and anticancer activity. Nauclea latifolia fruit extract was used as a bioreductant and stabilizer for the synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles with a size of 12–17 nm [12]. The ZnO nanoparticles were applied in the adsorption of methyl green from aqueous solutions and were able to achieve 99.9% removal efficiency. Acacia catechu leaf extracts were utilized for the fabrication of ZnO nanoparticles, and ZnO was employed in the removal of arsenic from water [13]. Under optimal conditions, 90% removal efficiency of arsenic was achieved by the ZnO nanoparticles. Rubia cordifolia root extract-mediated synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles was reported, and the sizes of the ZnO nanoparticles were reported to be 17 nm [14]. They were applied in the sono-photocatalytic degradation of rhodamine B dye and assessed for their antibacterial activity. Leaf extracts of Syzygium cumini were employed in the generation of the ZnO nanoparticles, and the spherical nanoparticles were confirmed by the TEM technique [15]. Further, the nanoparticles were successfully employed in the photocatalytic degradation of methylene blue (MB) dye. Literature reveals that the plant and agro-wastes are prolific in the production of ZnO nanoparticles; however, the control of size and shape determines the type of application the ZnO nanoparticles exhibit, and it is essential to design a biological synthesis route toward the size and shape-controlled synthesis. In view of this, efforts were made in this study to explore the unexplored Syzygium cumini fruit seed extract as a potential source for the synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles.

Indian Jamun (Syzygium cumini) tree is native to the Indian subcontinent, and its fruits are consumed for their various medicinal values. The seeds of the jamun fruit are usually discarded as waste; however, the seeds are found to be rich in flavonoids, antioxidants, and proteins in addition to calcium [9,16]. The seeds of the jamun fruit have not been explored for the synthesis of zinc nanoparticles, and the objective of this investigation is to use jamun seed extracts for the synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles. The synthesized ZnO nanoparticles were explored for the adsorption of Hg2+ ions from aqueous solutions. Since Hg2+ ions are toxic and detrimental to aquatic ecosystems [17], they were selected as the target analyte in this study. In addition to the above, the photocatalytic ability of ZnO nanoparticles was explored toward MB cationic dye MB. Unlike other dyes, MB is extensively used in the textile and dyeing industries and is released abundantly into the water streams. Considering the potential impacts of MB, such as carcinogenic and degradation of water quality [18], it was chosen as a target analyte for the degradation studies. Further, the antimicrobial activity of the ZnO nanoparticles was evaluated against two pathogens, Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus, and the results are reported.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Preparation of jamun seed aqueous extract

The Indian jamun seeds were collected from the local fruit market and washed several times under running tap water. The water-washed seeds were dried in the sunlight for 7 days, and the shells of the seeds were removed. The shells removed seeds were powdered using a conventional mixture, and the powder was stored in air air-tight container for the preparation of aqueous extract. For preparation of the aqueous extract, 2 g of jamun seed powder was added to 100 mL of deionized water and heated at 65°C with constant stirring for 120 min [10]. The yellowish decoction obtained was filtered using Whatman filters, and the fresh aqueous extract was used for the synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles.

2.2 Preparation of ZnO nanoparticles

To prepare the ZnO nanoparticles, first, 0.1 M of zinc acetate solution was prepared, and to the 100 mL of 0.1 M solution, 10 mL of freshly prepared aqueous extract of Indian jamun seeds was added drop by drop with constant stirring. The addition of aqueous extract turned the solution pale yellow, and to this, 0.1 M NaOH was added drop by drop until the pH turned to 10. The mixture was stirred continuously, and the formation of white precipitate was observed. The white precipitate was separated by filtration and dried in an oven at 75°C for 180 min. The dried samples were stored for further characterization and application studies (Scheme 1).

Scheme 1 Synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles using jamun seed aqueous extract.
Scheme 1

Synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles using jamun seed aqueous extract.

2.3 Characterization techniques

The absorption bands of ZnO nanoparticles were investigated using a UV-visible spectrophotometer (Shimadzu, UV3600 Plus). The surface functional groups of ZnO nanoparticles were studied by FTIR spectroscopy (Shimadzu, IRtracer 100), and the sample was analyzed in ATR mode between 4,000 and 400 cm−1. The diffraction patterns of ZnO nanoparticles were obtained using powder X-ray diffraction (PANalytical, Netherlands). The surface morphology was investigated by scanning electron microscopy (Supra 55 – Carl Zeiss, Germany). The size and shape morphology of ZnO were investigated using a transmission electron microscope (G2-20 Twin, FEI Tecnai) operated at 200 kV. The residual concentration of Hg2+ ions was estimated using an atomic absorption spectrophotometer (AA240, Varian). The hollow cathode lamp was operated at 253.7 nm with acetylene, air, fuel, and oxidant.

2.4 Response surface methodology (RSM)

A popular method that is very commonly used in RSM is the central composite design (CCD). It is used to study how different factors affect metal adsorption. A key benefit of CCD is that it requires fewer experiments compared to other methods while still providing good results. This makes it efficient for fitting data and building models. In this research, a full factorial design with 20 experiments was used. The important factors and their details are provided in Table 1. The software Design Expert 13 was used to create the CCD.

Table 1

Optimization of independent variables, their levels, and symbols

Variables Symbol Levels
−1 0 +1
pH A 4 6 8
Contact time B 30 45 60
Initial concentration C 50 100 150

2.5 Photocatalytic activity

The ability of ZnO nanoparticle synthesis by jamun seed extracts to potentially decolourize the MB cationic dye via photocatalytic activity was investigated. Investigations were performed by the addition of 0.1 g of ZnO nanoparticles to 100 mL of 100 mg·L−1 MB with stirring using a magnetic stirrer. The entire working solution was placed in a photoreactor equipped with a UV light source. Samples were drawn at 10 and 150 min time intervals, and the residual concentration of MB was tested with a UV-visible spectrophotometer. The MB residual concentrations in solution were determined using Eq. (1)

(1) % MB decolourized = MB 0 − MB t MB 0 × 100 ,

where MB0 is the initial MB concentration and MB t is the final concentration.

2.6 Microbial growth and cultivation methods

Microbial cultures were grown on potato dextrose agar (PDA) plates and kept at 4°C, while the stock cultures were incubated in the dark at 25°C on PDA for 7 days. To prepare the growth medium, 80 g of glucose and 500 mL of fresh potato extract were combined with 3.5 L of distilled water. The potato extract was made by dicing 1 kg of potatoes and boiling them in 2 L of distilled water for 30 min. The medium was then portioned into 350 mL beakers, with each receiving 50 mL, and sterilized by autoclaving at 121°C for 30 min. Fresh microbial samples, grown on PDA plates for 7 days at 28°C, were used to inoculate vials. After a 10-day incubation at 25°C, the cultures were filtered using filter paper to separate the filtrate from the mycelium. The filtrate was mixed with ethyl acetate and shaken at 250 rpm for 20 min at room temperature. The mixture was then filtered, and the extract was concentrated using a rotary evaporator under vacuum at 40°C, producing 2 g of a brown product.

2.7 Antimicrobial assay

The antibacterial activity of the ZnO nanoparticles was evaluated using the standard agar well diffusion method on Mueller–Hinton agar (MHA) medium. MHA plates were prepared by pouring the sterilized medium into sterile Petri dishes under aseptic conditions and allowed to solidify for 1 h at room temperature. Overnight bacterial cultures of E. coli (Gram-negative) and S. aureus (Gram-positive) were adjusted to a concentration of approximately 108 CFU·mL−1 (0.5 McFarland standard) and uniformly spread across the surface of the MHA plates using a sterile cotton swab. Sterile wells of 7–8 mm diameter were carefully punched into the agar using a sterile cork borer. The ZnO nanoparticle suspensions were prepared in sterile distilled water, and 50 µL of the suspension was pipetted into the respective wells. Plates were pre-incubated at room temperature for 30 min to facilitate the diffusion of the test samples into the agar. Subsequently, the plates were incubated at 37°C for 24 h to allow bacterial growth and interaction with the ZnO nanoparticles. Following incubation, zones of inhibition (ZOIs) were measured using a calibrated ruler to assess the antibacterial activity. The ZOI around the wells indicated the efficacy of the ZnO nanoparticles against the test bacterial strains. All experiments were performed in triplicate to ensure reproducibility and statistical significance.

3 Results and discussion

3.1 UV-Visible spectroscopy

The initial confirmation of the formation of ZnO nanoparticles was performed with UV-Visible spectral analysis, and the results are displayed in Figure 1. Peaks between 200 and 300 nm are due to the presence of organic molecules that were capping the ZnO nanoparticles. A maximum absorption peak at 376 nm observed in the spectra confirms the formation of ZnO nanoparticles that arise due to an electron transition from the valence band to the conduction band.

Figure 1 UV-Visible spectra of ZnO nanoparticles synthesized using Indian jamun seed extracts.
Figure 1

UV-Visible spectra of ZnO nanoparticles synthesized using Indian jamun seed extracts.

The band gap of the ZnO nanoparticles was calculated applying the Tauc’s relation on the absorbance as follows [19]:

(2) ( α h v ) 1 n = B ( h v − E g ) ,

where α is the molar extinction coefficient, h is Planck’s constant, v represents the frequency, B is a constant, and n is a factor that depends on the type of electron transition.

A band gap of 3.30 eV was calculated for the ZnO nanoparticles synthesized in this study using the plot of (αhv)2 vs hv as shown in the inset of Figure 1. The high band gap can be effective in photocatalytic applications. This is in good agreement with the literature for the green synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles using natural plant extracts [20,21].

3.2 FTIR spectroscopy

The ZnO nanoparticles were subjected to FTIR spectroscopy and displayed several absorption bands corresponding to various functional groups (Figure 2). The strong and broad absorption intensity at 3,094 cm−1 corresponds to the stretching vibrations of the −OH groups of bioactive molecules such as alcohols and phenols from the seed aqueous extract [22]. The bands at 2,117 and 2,004 cm−1 correspond to the stretching vibrations of nitriles and cumulative double bonds of the metal carbonyl complex. A peak at 1,537 cm−1 is due to the stretching vibrations of C═C groups. The bands between 1,321 and 1,012 cm−1 correspond to the complementary stretching bands of the C−O groups of biomolecules [23]. The bands between 740 and 605 cm−1 are overtones of nitrile vibrations. A peak at 445 cm−1 confirms the presence of ZnO that are attributed to the Zn−O bond vibrations [24]. The presence of functional groups in the FTIR spectra confirms that the biomolecules of the jamun seed extract stabilized the ZnO nanoparticles.

Figure 2 FTIR spectra of ZnO nanoparticles synthesized using Indian jamun seed extract.
Figure 2

FTIR spectra of ZnO nanoparticles synthesized using Indian jamun seed extract.

3.3 XRD

The diffraction patterns of ZnO nanoparticles were recorded with the XRD technique, and the results are presented in Figure 3. The XRD patterns displayed well-crystalline ZnO peaks, corresponding to the hexagonal wurtzite structure. The presence of crystalline peaks at the (100), (002), (101), (102), (110), (103), and (112) planes reveals the hcp wurtzite structure and matches the JCPDS file no. 036-1451. Similar patterns were obtained for the ZnO nanoparticles synthesized using the stem extract of Swertia chirayita [25]. The sharp and well-defined peaks in the X-ray diffraction pattern show that the sample is very pure and has a highly ordered crystal structure. The broadening of the peaks and Scherrer’s equation are used to estimate the average size of the tiny crystal domains within the material [26]. The Scherrer equation is expressed as follows:

(3) D = K λ ( β Cos θ ) .

Figure 3 Patterns of X-ray diffraction obtained for the ZnO nanoparticles synthesized using jamun seed extract.
Figure 3

Patterns of X-ray diffraction obtained for the ZnO nanoparticles synthesized using jamun seed extract.

The crystal sizes of the ZnO nanoparticles synthesized using jamun seed extracts were estimated to be in the range of 5–22 nm under our experimental conditions.

3.4 Morphology investigations

The ZnO nanoparticles were investigated using a scanning electron microscope for surface morphology, and the results are depicted in Figure 4. The images revealed the nanosized ZnO particles that are uniformly distributed without any agglomerations. Further, the shapes were found to be spherical, which are distinctly visible in the images. The shape and size of the ZnO nanoparticles were visualized with a transmission electron microscope, and the images are represented in Figure 5. The images revealed the distinct spherical nanoparticles with a size <5 nm. The ZnO nanoparticles were uniformly distributed without agglomeration. The histogram obtained from the TEM image depicts the particle sizes being ≤1, suggesting the formation of ZnO nanoclusters and sub-nanoclusters (Figure 6b). A single major peak at 1 nm suggests the dominance of the nanocluster formation. Similar observations were reported for the synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles using Aspalathus linearis extract [27]. Energy dispersive X-ray was employed to profile the elements of the ZnO nanoparticles, and the EDX pattern is displayed in Figure 6a. It is clearly visible that the patterns depict only peaks of Zn and O atoms, and this confirms the absence of other elements and highlights the purity of the ZnO nanoparticles.

Figure 4 SEM images of ZnO nanoparticles synthesized using jamun seed extract.
Figure 4

SEM images of ZnO nanoparticles synthesized using jamun seed extract.

Figure 5 TEM images of ZnO nanoparticles synthesized using jamun seed extract.
Figure 5

TEM images of ZnO nanoparticles synthesized using jamun seed extract.

Figure 6 (a) EDX pattern of ZnO nanoparticles synthesized using jamun seed extract and (b) histogram obtained from the TEM image.
Figure 6

(a) EDX pattern of ZnO nanoparticles synthesized using jamun seed extract and (b) histogram obtained from the TEM image.

3.5 Point zero charge (PZC) of the ZnO nanoparticles

The PZC of ZnO nanoparticles was determined by the addition of ZnO nanoparticles to a series of solutions with varying pH from 2 to 10. The mixture was agitated for 12 h in an orbital shaker at 30°C and the solution pH was measured. A plot of pH vs ∆pH (pHinitial – pHfinal) was plotted to determine the pHpzc of the ZnO nanoparticles, as shown in Figure 7. It was observed that the pHpzc of the ZnO nanoparticles was found to be around pH 5.7. The surface charge of the ZnO nanoparticles above the PZC will be negative, and it can attract the positively charged Hg2+ ions for binding onto the surface.

Figure 7 Plot determining the pHpzc of the ZnO nanoparticles.
Figure 7

Plot determining the pHpzc of the ZnO nanoparticles.

3.6 RSM-based optimization

To optimize the removal of Hg2+ ions by ZnO nanoparticles, a CCD was employed. Three independent variables, pH, contact time, and initial Hg2+ concentration, were chosen for investigation. The CCD comprised 20 runs, incorporating 6 axial and central points, along with 8 cubic points positioned within the design space. Tables 2 and 3 present the predicted and experimental design matrices, along with the analysis of variance (ANOVA) for this Hg2+ removal process. Design Expert 13 software was used to establish a quadratic model, resulting in a second-order polynomial equation (Eq. (4)) that expresses the relationship between these factors and Hg2+ removal efficiency:

(4) % Removal = 81.32 + 11.3 A + 10.16 B − 2.33 C − 22.89 A 2 − 2.32 B 2 − 1.61 C 2 − 3.36 AB − 5.71 AC + 5.49 BC .

Table 2

CCD runs and comparison of experimental and predicted values for the removal of Hg2+ ions by ZnO nanoparticles

Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Removal (%)
Std Run A: pH B: Contact time (min) C: Initial concentration (mg·L−1) Experimental Predicted
17 1 6 45 100 81.2 81.32
2 2 8 30 50 77.6 75.75
13 3 6 45 15 91.3 89.93
4 4 8 60 50 72.1 78.37
6 5 8 30 150 42.3 48.68
11 6 6 20 100 59.5 57.94
18 7 6 45 100 81.3 81.32
1 8 4 30 50 30.8 35.00
15 9 6 45 100 81.3 81.32
5 10 4 30 150 36.4 30.79
20 11 6 45 100 81.2 81.32
10 12 9 45 100 51.3 46.76
16 13 6 45 100 81.3 81.32
14 14 6 45 180 81.2 81.71
9 15 3 45 100 9.5 12.87
19 16 6 45 100 81.3 81.32
3 17 4 60 50 56.8 51.07
8 18 8 60 150 76.8 73.26
7 19 4 60 150 66.3 68.81
12 20 6 70 100 91.2 91.81
Table 3

ANOVA of Hg2+ ions removal by jamun seed extract-mediated ZnO nanoparticles

Source Sum of squares df Mean square F-value p-value
Model 9178.31 9 1019.81 46.10 <0.0001
A: pH 1595.00 1 1595.00 72.11 <0.0001
B: Contact time 1399.46 1 1399.46 63.27 <0.0001
C: Initial concentration 72.82 1 72.82 3.29 0.0997
AB 90.45 1 90.45 4.09 0.0707
AC 261.06 1 261.06 11.80 0.0064
BC 240.90 1 240.90 10.89 0.0080
A2 5388.95 1 5388.95 243.62 <0.0001
B2 76.14 1 76.14 3.44 0.0932
C2 35.48 1 35.48 1.60 0.2340
Residual 221.20 10 22.12
Lack of fit 221.19 5 44.24 3.87 0.5633
Pure error 0.0133 5 0.0027
Cor total 9399.51 19
R 2 0.9765 Predicted R 2 0.7824
Adjusted R 2 0.9553 Adeq precision 23.7367

The strengths of each factor (pH, contact time, concentration) on Hg2+ removal by ZnO nanoparticles can be determined by the coefficients in the quadratic equation (Eq. (2)). Positive coefficients mean a higher factor level and lead to better removal, while negative coefficients indicate the opposite [28]. The equation also considers interactions between factors (two-factor terms) and how these interactions affect removal efficiency (curvature terms). The good agreement between predicted and experimental results (Table 2) validates the chosen model and suggests that the experiments achieved improved Hg2+ removal.

The ANOVA in Table 3 confirms the strength of the model for predicting Hg2+ removal by ZnO nanoparticles. An incredibly small p-value (<0.0001) indicates statistical significance, meaning that the model is unlikely due to random chance. High F-value (46.10) further supports the model’s reliability. Larger F-values indicate a lower probability (0.01%) that the results occurred by chance [29]. Additionally, a lack-of-fit F-value greater than 0.1 suggests the absence of unexplained variations in this model. To ensure accuracy, it was examined how well the predicted values matched the actual results. Figure 8d displays this analysis, with points scattered randomly along a straight line. This indicates a normal data distribution without any significant deviations. This eliminates the need for data transformation and confirms the model’s validity. Finally, correlation coefficients close to 1 (0.976) and high adjusted and predicted R-squared values (0.955 and 0.782, respectively) further support the model’s applicability. An adequate precision value of 23.7 signifies that the model has strong signals for accurate predictions.

Figure 8 3D surface plots for the removal of Hg2+ ions by ZnO nanoparticles: (a) pH vs contact time, (b) pH vs initial concentration, (c) contact time vs initial concentration, and (d) predicted vs actual plot.
Figure 8

3D surface plots for the removal of Hg2+ ions by ZnO nanoparticles: (a) pH vs contact time, (b) pH vs initial concentration, (c) contact time vs initial concentration, and (d) predicted vs actual plot.

The visualization of independent variables interacting with each other and their effect on the elimination of Hg2+ ions by ZnO nanoparticles was obtained by 3D surface plots. The surface 3D plots obtained in this study, which provide crucial information, are presented in Figure 8. The interaction of independent variables pH and contact time and their effect on the elimination of Hg2+ ions is depicted in Figure 8a. It can be seen that with increasing pH and contact time, the removal efficiency increased and was found to be maximum at pH 6; this was supported by the pHpzc being at pH 5.7. Further increase in the pH beyond 6 reduces the removal efficiency even at higher contact times, and this is due to the formation of several precipitating hydroxides. At low pH, the hydronium ions exhibit competitive adsorption for the surface-active sites, and thus, the removal efficiency is low. With a further increase in pH, the competitive adsorption exhibited by hydronium ions declines, and Hg2+ ion adsorption improves. The increase in removal efficiency with an increase in contact time is due to the availability of time for the Hg2+ ions to interact with the surface of the ZnO nanoparticles. The 3D surface plot depicts that both pH and contact time influence the % removal. The interaction of independent variables, pH and initial concentration, and their effect is depicted in Figure 8b. The efficiency of removal is found to increase up to 100 mg·L−1 of initial concentration and decreases with further increase in the initial concentration at optimal pH 6. With an increase in the initial concentration, the availability of the surface active sites on ZnO nanoparticles disappears due to occupancy, and thus the % removal declines. In the case of initial concentration and contact time, the synergistic influence of the independent variables on the removal percentage of Hg2+ ions is shown in Figure 8c. It was observed that with an increase in the contact time, the removal efficiency increases, and with increasing initial concentration, the efficiency decreases.

A 3D visualization of three independent variables and their % removal at minimum and maximum points is shown in Figure 9a, and a histogram of removal efficiency percentage for 20 runs is depicted in Figure 9b. It is seen that the frequency of % removal being greater than 75% is high compared to lower values. This indicates that the optimal values of independent variables, pH 6, contact time of 45 min, and initial concentration of 100 mg·L−1, cause maximum removal of Hg2+ ions from aqueous solution by ZnO nanoparticles. The loading capacity of the ZnO nanoparticles was found to be 122.7 mg·g−1 toward Hg2+ ions. The higher loading observed in this study is due to the nanoclusters of ZnO nanoparticles providing a higher surface area for enhanced adsorption of Hg2+ ions.

Figure 9 (a) Percentage removal at minimum and maximum points of independent variables and (b) histogram of frequency of percentage removal for the removal of Hg2+ ions by ZnO nanoparticles.
Figure 9

(a) Percentage removal at minimum and maximum points of independent variables and (b) histogram of frequency of percentage removal for the removal of Hg2+ ions by ZnO nanoparticles.

3.7 Photocatalytic analysis

Figure 10 shows how a solution of MB loses its color over time when treated with ZnO nanoparticles made from jamun seed extract. The MB solution has a peak intensity at 665 nm, which weakens as time progresses. This weakening intensity reflects a decrease in MB concentration. In fact, the intensity at 665 nm nearly vanishes after 150 min. This disappearance indicates that the ZnO nanoparticles have decolorized MB, achieving a degradation efficiency of 98%. The ZnO nanoparticles’ effectiveness in this photocatalytic process stems from two key properties: their large surface area due to small particle size nanoclusters, as evidenced in the TEM histogram, and their wide band gap that allows them to absorb a broader range of wavelengths [30]. Additionally, as previously established, ZnO nanoparticles can effectively adsorb cations onto their surface. In this case, the adsorption of MB cations by the ZnO nanoparticles facilitates their degradation. A more detailed explanation of this degradation mechanism is shown in Figure 11. A comparative table of photocatalytic activity of ZnO nanoparticles with other photocatalysts is summarized in Table 4, and it is noticed that the degradation efficiency is high compared to several other photocatalysts reported in the literature.

Figure 10 Photocatalytic decolourization of MB by ZnO nanoparticles synthesized using jamun seed extract.
Figure 10

Photocatalytic decolourization of MB by ZnO nanoparticles synthesized using jamun seed extract.

Figure 11 Mechanism of ZnO nanoparticles synthesized using jamun seed extract decolourizing MB ions.
Figure 11

Mechanism of ZnO nanoparticles synthesized using jamun seed extract decolourizing MB ions.

Table 4

Photocatalytic activity comparison for the degradation of MB

S. no. Catalyst % Degradation Time (min) References
1 Ag nanoparticles 90 105 [31]
2 CuO nanostructures 83.5 120 [32]
3 Ni-doped CdS 91.3 240 [33]
4 Carbon-doped TiO2 53 90 [34]
5 Nb-doped Fe2O3 87 120 [35]
6 ZnO nanoparticles 98 150 This study

3.8 Antimicrobial activity

The antimicrobial assay of ZnO nanoparticles synthesized using jamun seeds extract was tested against E. coli and S. aureus, and the results are presented in Table 5. The results displayed that the ZnO nanoparticles exhibit moderate antimicrobial activity against E. coli and S. aureus, respectively, compared to the standard streptomycin. The moderate activity exhibited by ZnO nanoparticles against both the species is due to the interaction of nanoparticles with the cell membranes of microbes, and thus disrupting the membranes, resulting in the leak of contents. In general, ZnO nanoparticles are known to be potential antimicrobial agents; however, in this study, it is found to be moderate, and this is due to the capping agents from jamun seeds hindering the interaction with the cell membranes of the microbial species. As a result, cell disruptions are not extensive, resulting in the moderate antimicrobial activity [36]. The antimicrobial activity of ZnO nanoparticles synthesized using Jamun seed extract is driven by various mechanisms. Nanoparticles physically damage bacterial membranes due to their nanoscale size and high surface energy, leading to the leakage of cellular contents and compromised membrane integrity. Second, ZnO nanoparticles generate reactive oxygen species such as hydroxyl radicals (˙OH) and superoxide anions ( O 2 − ˙ ), which induce oxidative stress, damaging proteins, lipids, and DNA, ultimately impairing bacterial survival [37]. The release of Zn2⁺ ions disrupts bacterial enzymatic processes and interacts with thiol groups in proteins, further contributing to cell death [36].

Table 5

Antimicrobial activity ZOI of species against ZnO nanoparticles

Species ZOI (mm)
E. coli 15
S. aureus 14
Streptomycin disc 21

4 Conclusion

The use of jamun seed extract for the successful synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles was demonstrated in this study. The synthesized ZnO nanoparticles were spherically shaped with a size ≤1 nm, and the wurtzite structure was confirmed using analytical techniques. The elemental analysis confirmed the purity of the formed ZnO nanoparticles, and optical investigations confirmed a 3.3 eV band gap. The adsorption experiments designed using RSM proved to be prolific for the removal of Hg2+ ions by ZnO nanoparticles. The significance of the developed model is well supported by the p-value <0.001 and higher F-value, and the predicted values coincide with the experimental values. In addition, 11 out of 20 runs exhibited greater than 75% of removal efficiency. The loading capacity was calculated to be 122.7 mg·g−1 under optimal conditions for Hg2+ ions by ZnO nanoparticles, which is noted to be competitive compared to various adsorbents. Further, the decolourization of MB was tested and evaluated with ZnO nanoparticles, and 98% of degradation efficiency was achieved within 150 min. The ZnO nanoparticles were moderately disrupting the cell membranes of E. coli and S. aureus with ZOI of 15 and 14 mm, thus exhibiting moderate antimicrobial activity. However, the standard disc exhibited higher inhibition, and further experiments are in progress to enhance the antimicrobial activity. The results project the ability of ZnO nanoparticles synthesized using Indian jamun seed extract to effectively adsorb Hg2+ ions and efficiently degrade MB from aqueous solution and further disrupt microbes’ cell membranes.

Acknowledgments

The authors acknowledge and extend their appreciation to the Ongoing Research Funding Program (ORF-2025-739), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, for funding this study. For the purpose of open access, the author has applied a Creative Commons Attribution (CC-BY) license to any Author Accepted Manuscript version of this paper arising from this submission.

  1. Funding information: This study was funded by the Ongoing Research Funding Program (ORF-2025-739), King Saud University, Riyadh,Saudi Arabia.

  2. Author contributions: MSA: investigation and data analysis; RS: conceptualization, project management, and formal analysis; MS: investigation and manuscript writing; RHA: investigation, software, and manuscript writing; AM: data analysis and resource management; RL: conceptualization, manuscript editing, and critical revision; and MG: manuscript review and editing and critical revision. All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and approved its submission.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.

  4. Data availability statement: All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article.

References

[1] Aigbe, U. O. and O. A. Osibote. Green synthesis of metal oxide nanoparticles, and their various applications. Journal of Hazardous Materials Advances, Vol. 13, 2024, id. 100401.10.1016/j.hazadv.2024.100401Search in Google Scholar

[2] Dhiman, V. and N. Kondal. ZnO Nanoadsorbents: A potent material for removal of heavy metal ions from wastewater. Colloid and Interface Science Communications, Vol. 41, 2021, id. 100380.10.1016/j.colcom.2021.100380Search in Google Scholar

[3] Umadevi, G. and K. G. Krishna. Camellia sinensis-mediated green synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles: An eco-friendly approach for high-performance gas sensing. Sensors and Actuators A: Physical, Vol. 374, 2024, id. 115479.10.1016/j.sna.2024.115479Search in Google Scholar

[4] Antonette, L. C., N. R. Chandralekha, and J. Shanthi. Enhanced photodegradation of textile dye wastewater using silane/polymer doped ZnO nanocomposites and antibacterial activity. Journal of the Indian Chemical Society, Vol. 101, No. 10, 2024, id. 101254.10.1016/j.jics.2024.101254Search in Google Scholar

[5] Shakib, P., S. Z. Mirzaei, H. E. Lashgarian, R. Saki, G. Goudarzi, S. Alsallameh, et al. Preparation of zinc oxide nanoparticles assisted by okra mucilage and evaluation of its biological activities. Current Drug Discovery Technologies, Vol. 20, No. 2, 2023, id. e011222211472.10.2174/1570163820666221201090006Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[6] Mirzania, F., I. Salimikia, Y. J. Ghasemian, A. Marzban, A. Firouzi, A. Nazarzadeh, et al. Biological activities of zinc oxide nanoparticles green synthesized using the aqueous extract of Dracocephalum kotschyi Boiss. Current Drug Discovery Technologies, Vol. 21, No. 4, 2024, id. e271223224899.10.2174/0115701638284118231220074251Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[7] Vandhana, T., T. Sandhiya, and A. J. C. Lourduraj. In vitro study of antibacterial and anticancer activities of biosynthesized Ag-doped ZnO nanoparticles from Anisochilus carnosus, Nephelium lappaceum, Calotropis gigantea. Journal of Molecular Structure, Vol. 1323, 2025, id. 140750.10.1016/j.molstruc.2024.140750Search in Google Scholar

[8] Ullah, S., M. Shaban, A. B. Siddique, A. Zulfiqar, N. S. Lali, M. Naeem-ul-Hassan, et al. Greenly synthesized zinc oxide nanoparticles: An efficient, cost-effective catalyst for dehydrogenation of formic acid and with improved antioxidant and phyto-toxic properties. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, Vol. 12, No. 5, 2024, id. 113350.10.1016/j.jece.2024.113350Search in Google Scholar

[9] Cheraghipour, K., A. K. Khalaf, K. Moradpour, M. Zivdari, M. Beiranvand, P. Shakib, et al. Synthesis, characterization, and antiparasitic effects of zinc oxide nanoparticles-eugenol nanosuspension against Toxoplasma gondii infection. Heliyon, Vol. 9, No. 8, 2023, id. e19295.10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e19295Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[10] Ragavendran, C., C. Kamaraj, K. Jothimani, A. Priyadharsan, D. A. Kumar, D. Natarajan, et al. Eco-friendly approach for ZnO nanoparticles synthesis and evaluation of its possible antimicrobial, larvicidal and photocatalytic applications. Sustainable Materials and Technologies, Vol. 36, 2023, id. e00597.10.1016/j.susmat.2023.e00597Search in Google Scholar

[11] Abdelsattar, A. S., A. G. Kamel, M. A. Eita, Y. Elbermawy, and A. El-Shibiny. The cytotoxic potency of green synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO-NPs) using Origanum majorana. Materials Letters, Vol. 367, 2024, id. 136654.10.1016/j.matlet.2024.136654Search in Google Scholar

[12] Abegunde, S. M., M. A. Adebayo, and E. F. Olasehinde. Green synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles and its application for methyl green dye adsorption. Green Energy and Resources, Vol. 2, No. 2, 2024, id. 100073.10.1016/j.gerr.2024.100073Search in Google Scholar

[13] Chandan, A. K., G. N. Mallika, and T. B. Narsaiah. A green approach to arsenic removal using ZnO nanoparticles synthesized from Acacia catechu leaf extract. Materials Today: Proceedings, Vol. 72, No. 1, 2023, pp. 110–119.10.1016/j.matpr.2022.06.199Search in Google Scholar

[14] Tharayil, J. M. and P. Chinnaiyan. Biogenic synthesis of ZnO from Rubia cordifolia root extract: A study on sono-photocatalytic dye degradation and anti-bacterial assay. Results in Engineering, Vol. 20, 2023, id. 101567.10.1016/j.rineng.2023.101567Search in Google Scholar

[15] Sadiq, H., F. Sher, S. Sehar, E. C. Lima, S. Zhang, H. M. N. Iqbal, et al. Green synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles from Syzygium cumini leaves extract with robust photocatalysis applications. Journal of Molecular Liquids, Vol. 335, 2021, id. 116567.10.1016/j.molliq.2021.116567Search in Google Scholar

[16] Hammam, M. A., S. A. El-Kadousy, S. M. El-Sayed, and R. M. Rashed. Hypolipidemic effect of Jamun Syzygium cumini. Menoufia Journal of Agricultural Biotechnology, Vol. 4, 2019, pp. 61–72.10.21608/mjab.2019.175003Search in Google Scholar

[17] Driscoll, C. T. Acid and mercury deposition effects on forest and freshwater aquatic ecosystems. In: Encyclopedia of biodiversity, 3rd ed., Academic Press, New York, 2024, pp. 351–368.10.1016/B978-0-12-822562-2.00051-7Search in Google Scholar

[18] Zaman, Y., M. Z. Ishaque, S. Ajmal, M. Shahzad, A. B. Siddique, M. U. Hameed, et al. Tamed synthesis of AgNPs for photodegradation and anti-bacterial activity: Effect of size and morphology. Inorganic Chemistry Communications, Vol. 150, 2023, id. 110523.10.1016/j.inoche.2023.110523Search in Google Scholar

[19] Siddique, A. B., D. Amr, A. Abbas, L. Zohra, M. I. Irfan, A. Alhoshani, et al. Synthesis of hydroxyethylcellulose phthalate-modified silver nanoparticles and their multifunctional applications as an efficient antibacterial, photocatalytic and mercury-selective sensing agent. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, Vol. 256, No. Pt 1, 2024, id. 128009.10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.128009Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[20] Rajiv, P., S. Rajeshwari, and R. Venckatesh. Bio-Fabrication of zinc oxide nanoparticles using leaf extract of Parthenium hysterophorus L. and its size-dependent antifungal activity against plant fungal pathogens. Spectrochimica Acta Part A: Molecular and Biomolecular Spectroscopy, Vol. 112, 2013, pp. 384–387.10.1016/j.saa.2013.04.072Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[21] Elumalai, K. and S. Velmurugan. Green synthesis, characterization and antimicrobial activities of zinc oxide nanoparticles from the leaf extract of Azadirachta indica (L.). Applied Surface Science, Vol. 345, 2015, pp. 329–336.10.1016/j.apsusc.2015.03.176Search in Google Scholar

[22] Schuler, M. J., T. S. Hofer, Y. Morisawa, Y. Futami, C. W. Huck, and Y. Ozaki. Solvation effects on wavenumbers and absorption intensities of the OH-stretch vibration in phenolic compounds – electrical- and mechanical anharmonicity via a combined DFT/Numerov approach. Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics, Vol. 22, 2020, pp. 13017–13029.10.1039/C9CP05594KSearch in Google Scholar

[23] Anandan, M., S. Dinesh, N. Krishnakumar, and K. Balamurugan. Tuning the crystalline size of template free hexagonal ZnO nanoparticles via precipitation synthesis towards enhanced photocatalytic performance. Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Electronics, Vol. 28, No. 3, 2017, pp. 2574–2585.10.1007/s10854-016-5833-2Search in Google Scholar

[24] Rambabu, K., G. Bharath, F. Banat, and P. L. Show. Green synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles using Phoenix dactylifera waste as bioreductant for effective dye degradation and antibacterial performance in wastewater treatment. Journal of Hazardous Materials, Vol. 402, 2021, id. 123560.10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.123560Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[25] Saha, R., K. Subramani, S. Sikdar, K. Fatma, and S. Rangaraj. Effects of processing parameters on green synthesised ZnO nanoparticles using stem extract of Swertia chirayita. Biocatalysis and Agricultural Biotechnology, Vol. 33, 2021, id. 101968.10.1016/j.bcab.2021.101968Search in Google Scholar

[26] Chennimalai, M., V. Vijayalakshmi, T. S. Senthil, and N. Sivakumar. One-step green synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles using Opuntia humifusa fruit extract and their antibacterial activities. Materials Today: Proceedings, Vol. 47, No. 9, 2021, pp. 1842–1846.10.1016/j.matpr.2021.03.409Search in Google Scholar

[27] Diallo, A., B. D. Ngom, E. Park, and M. Maaza. Green synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles by Aspalathus linearis: Structural & optical properties. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, Vol. 646, 2015, pp. 425–430.10.1016/j.jallcom.2015.05.242Search in Google Scholar

[28] Elakkiya, G. T., G. Sundararajan, R. Lakshmipathy, P. Anitha, and N. Muruganantham. Prolific application of green synthesized CdS nanoparticles for the sequestration of cationic dyes from aqueous solution. Bulletin of the Chemical Society of Ethiopia, Vol. 38, No. 3, 2024, pp. 631–645.10.4314/bcse.v38i3.7Search in Google Scholar

[29] Alangari, A., M. A. M. Aboul-Soud, M. S. Alqahtani, M. Shahid, R. Syed, R. Lakshmipathy, et al. Green synthesis of Copper oxide nanoparticles using Inula genus and evaluation of biological therapeutics and environmental applications. Nanotechnology Reviews, Vol. 13, No. 1, 2024, pp. 1–15.10.1515/ntrev-2024-0039Search in Google Scholar

[30] Habib, A. K. M. A., K. M. R. Rifat, M. E. Kabir, J. N. Khan, S. M. N. Rokon, and M. A. Rabbi. Improved photocatalytic activity of (Ni, Mn) co-doped ZnO nanoparticles prepared via green synthesis route using orange peel extract. Results in Materials, Vol. 22, 2024, id. 100581.10.1016/j.rinma.2024.100581Search in Google Scholar

[31] Thankachan, M. K., S. Ganapaty, D. Thomas, R. Chandrasekaran, S. K. Ramachandran, and M. Krishnan. Green fused nanoparticles from seaweed as a sustainable resource: Study on antimicrobial activities against human pathogens and photocatalytic degradation of methylene blue (MB) dye. Inorganic Chemistry Communications, Vol. 170, No. 3, 2024, id. 113415.10.1016/j.inoche.2024.113415Search in Google Scholar

[32] Ahmad, A., A. N. Siyal, A. Elçi, and N. H. Kalwar. Ziziphus nummularia leaves extract mediated CuO nanostructures for photocatalytic degradation of Methylene Blue. Desalination and Water Treatment, Vol. 320, 2024, id. 100667.10.1016/j.dwt.2024.100667Search in Google Scholar

[33] Qi, S., X. Hu, K. Zhang, H. Li, and S. Wu. Investigation of the mechanism and stability of highly efficient photocatalytic degradation of Methylene blue using Ni doped CdS photocatalyst. Polyhedron, Vol. 262, 2024, id. 117176.10.1016/j.poly.2024.117176Search in Google Scholar

[34] Jerin, I., M. A. Rahman, A. H. Khan, and M. M. Hossain. Photocatalytic degradation of methylene blue under visible light using carbon-doped titanium dioxide as photocatalyst. Desalination and Water Treatment, Vol. 320, 2024, id. 100711.10.1016/j.dwt.2024.100711Search in Google Scholar

[35] Cheema, A. N., I. Muneer, F. Yasmeen, and D. Ali. Impact of niobium doping on photocatalytic degradation efficiency of iron oxide nanoparticles for methylene blue dye under UV and sunlight. Materials Science and Engineering: B, Vol. 312, 2025, id. 117878.10.1016/j.mseb.2024.117878Search in Google Scholar

[36] Sirelkhatim, A., S. Mahmud, A. Seeni, N. H. M. Kaus, L. C. Ann, S. K. M. Bakhori, et al. Review on zinc oxide nanoparticles: antibacterial activity and toxicity mechanism. Nano-Micro Letters, Vol. 7, 2015, pp. 219–242.10.1007/s40820-015-0040-xSearch in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[37] Zamana, Y., M. Z. Ishaquea, R. Sattarb, M. M. Rehmanb, I. Sabac, S. Kanwala, et al. Antibacterial potential of silver nanoparticles synthesized using tri-sodium citrate via controlled exploitation of temperature. Digest Journal of Nanomaterials and Biostructures, Vol. 17, No. 3, 2022, pp. 979–987.10.15251/DJNB.2022.173.979Search in Google Scholar
Received: 2024-09-21
Revised: 2025-03-11
Accepted: 2025-07-14
Published Online: 2025-08-14

© 2025 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Review Articles
  2. Utilization of steel slag in concrete: A review on durability and microstructure analysis
  3. Technical development of modified emulsion asphalt: A review on the preparation, performance, and applications
  4. Recent developments in ultrasonic welding of similar and dissimilar joints of carbon fiber reinforcement thermoplastics with and without interlayer: A state-of-the-art review
  5. Unveiling the crucial factors and coating mitigation of solid particle erosion in steam turbine blade failures: A review
  6. From magnesium oxide, magnesium oxide concrete to magnesium oxide concrete dams
  7. Properties and potential applications of polymer composites containing secondary fillers
  8. A scientometric review on the utilization of copper slag as a substitute constituent of ordinary Portland cement concrete
  9. Advancement of additive manufacturing technology in the development of personalized in vivo and in vitro prosthetic implants
  10. Recent advance of MOFs in Fenton-like reaction
  11. A review of defect formation, detection, and effect on mechanical properties of three-dimensional braided composites
  12. Non-conventional approaches to producing biochars for environmental and energy applications
  13. Review of the development and application of aluminum alloys in the nuclear industry
  14. Advances in the development and characterization of combustible cartridge cases and propellants: Preparation, performance, and future prospects
  15. Recent trends in rubberized and non-rubberized ultra-high performance geopolymer concrete for sustainable construction: A review
  16. Cement-based materials for radiative cooling: Potential, material and structural design, and future prospects
  17. A comprehensive review: The impact of recycling polypropylene fiber on lightweight concrete performance
  18. A comprehensive review of preheating temperature effects on reclaimed asphalt pavement in the hot center plant recycling
  19. Exploring the potential applications of semi-flexible pavement: A comprehensive review
  20. A critical review of alkali-activated metakaolin/blast furnace slag-based cementitious materials: Reaction evolution and mechanism
  21. Dispersibility of graphene-family materials and their impact on the properties of cement-based materials: Application challenges and prospects
  22. Research progress on rubidium and cesium separation and extraction
  23. A step towards sustainable concrete with the utilization of M-sand in concrete production: A review
  24. Studying the effect of nanofillers in civil applications: A review
  25. Studies on the anticorrosive effect of phytochemicals on mild steel, carbon steel, and stainless-steel surfaces in acid and alkali medium: A review
  26. Nanotechnology for calcium aluminate cement: thematic analysis
  27. Towards sustainable concrete pavements: a critical review on fly ash as a supplementary cementitious material
  28. Optimizing rice husk ash for ultra-high-performance concrete: a comprehensive review of mechanical properties, durability, and environmental benefits
  29. Research Articles
  30. Investigation of the corrosion performance of HVOF-sprayed WC-CoCr coatings applied on offshore hydraulic equipment
  31. A systematic review of metakaolin-based alkali-activated and geopolymer concrete: A step toward green concrete
  32. Evaluation of color matching of three single-shade composites employing simulated 3D printed cavities with different thicknesses using CIELAB and CIEDE2000 color difference formulae
  33. Novel approaches in prediction of tensile strain capacity of engineered cementitious composites using interpretable approaches
  34. Effect of TiB2 particles on the compressive, hardness, and water absorption responses of Kulkual fiber-reinforced epoxy composites
  35. Analyzing the compressive strength, eco-strength, and cost–strength ratio of agro-waste-derived concrete using advanced machine learning methods
  36. Tensile behavior evaluation of two-stage concrete using an innovative model optimization approach
  37. Tailoring the mechanical and degradation properties of 3DP PLA/PCL scaffolds for biomedical applications
  38. Optimizing compressive strength prediction in glass powder-modified concrete: A comprehensive study on silicon dioxide and calcium oxide influence across varied sample dimensions and strength ranges
  39. Experimental study on solid particle erosion of protective aircraft coatings at different impact angles
  40. Compatibility between polyurea resin modifier and asphalt binder based on segregation and rheological parameters
  41. Fe-containing nominal wollastonite (CaSiO3)–Na2O glass-ceramic: Characterization and biocompatibility
  42. Relevance of pore network connectivity in tannin-derived carbons for rapid detection of BTEX traces in indoor air
  43. A life cycle and environmental impact analysis of sustainable concrete incorporating date palm ash and eggshell powder as supplementary cementitious materials
  44. Eco-friendly utilisation of agricultural waste: Assessing mixture performance and physical properties of asphalt modified with peanut husk ash using response surface methodology
  45. Benefits and limitations of N2 addition with Ar as shielding gas on microstructure change and their effect on hardness and corrosion resistance of duplex stainless steel weldments
  46. Effect of selective laser sintering processing parameters on the mechanical properties of peanut shell powder/polyether sulfone composite
  47. Impact and mechanism of improving the UV aging resistance performance of modified asphalt binder
  48. AI-based prediction for the strength, cost, and sustainability of eggshell and date palm ash-blended concrete
  49. Investigating the sulfonated ZnO–PVA membrane for improved MFC performance
  50. Strontium coupling with sulphur in mouse bone apatites
  51. Transforming waste into value: Advancing sustainable construction materials with treated plastic waste and foundry sand in lightweight foamed concrete for a greener future
  52. Evaluating the use of recycled sawdust in porous foam mortar for improved performance
  53. Improvement and predictive modeling of the mechanical performance of waste fire clay blended concrete
  54. Polyvinyl alcohol/alginate/gelatin hydrogel-based CaSiO3 designed for accelerating wound healing
  55. Research on assembly stress and deformation of thin-walled composite material power cabin fairings
  56. Effect of volcanic pumice powder on the properties of fiber-reinforced cement mortars in aggressive environments
  57. Analyzing the compressive performance of lightweight foamcrete and parameter interdependencies using machine intelligence strategies
  58. Selected materials techniques for evaluation of attributes of sourdough bread with Kombucha SCOBY
  59. Establishing strength prediction models for low-carbon rubberized cementitious mortar using advanced AI tools
  60. Investigating the strength performance of 3D printed fiber-reinforced concrete using applicable predictive models
  61. An eco-friendly synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles with jamun seed extract and their multi-applications
  62. The application of convolutional neural networks, LF-NMR, and texture for microparticle analysis in assessing the quality of fruit powders: Case study – blackcurrant powders
  63. Study of feasibility of using copper mining tailings in mortar production
  64. Shear and flexural performance of reinforced concrete beams with recycled concrete aggregates
  65. Advancing GGBS geopolymer concrete with nano-alumina: A study on strength and durability in aggressive environments
  66. Leveraging waste-based additives and machine learning for sustainable mortar development in construction
  67. Study on the modification effects and mechanisms of organic–inorganic composite anti-aging agents on asphalt across multiple scales
  68. Morphological and microstructural analysis of sustainable concrete with crumb rubber and SCMs
  69. Structural, physical, and luminescence properties of sodium–aluminum–zinc borophosphate glass embedded with Nd3+ ions for optical applications
  70. Eco-friendly waste plastic-based mortar incorporating industrial waste powders: Interpretable models for flexural strength
  71. Bioactive potential of marine Aspergillus niger AMG31: Metabolite profiling and green synthesis of copper/zinc oxide nanocomposites – An insight into biomedical applications
  72. Preparation of geopolymer cementitious materials by combining industrial waste and municipal dewatering sludge: Stabilization, microscopic analysis and water seepage
  73. Seismic behavior and shear capacity calculation of a new type of self-centering steel-concrete composite joint
  74. Sustainable utilization of aluminum waste in geopolymer concrete: Influence of alkaline activation on microstructure and mechanical properties
  75. Optimization of oil palm boiler ash waste and zinc oxide as antibacterial fabric coating
  76. Tailoring ZX30 alloy’s microstructural evolution, electrochemical and mechanical behavior via ECAP processing parameters
  77. Comparative study on the effect of natural and synthetic fibers on the production of sustainable concrete
  78. Microemulsion synthesis of zinc-containing mesoporous bioactive silicate glass nanoparticles: In vitro bioactivity and drug release studies
  79. On the interaction of shear bands with nanoparticles in ZrCu-based metallic glass: In situ TEM investigation
  80. Developing low carbon molybdenum tailing self-consolidating concrete: Workability, shrinkage, strength, and pore structure
  81. Experimental and computational analyses of eco-friendly concrete using recycled crushed brick
  82. High-performance WC–Co coatings via HVOF: Mechanical properties of steel surfaces
  83. Mechanical properties and fatigue analysis of rubber concrete under uniaxial compression modified by a combination of mineral admixture
  84. Experimental study of flexural performance of solid wood beams strengthened with CFRP fibers
  85. Eco-friendly green synthesis of silver nanoparticles with Syzygium aromaticum extract: characterization and evaluation against Schistosoma haematobium
  86. Predictive modeling assessment of advanced concrete materials incorporating plastic waste as sand replacement
  87. Self-compacting mortar overlays using expanded polystyrene beads for thermal performance and energy efficiency in buildings
  88. Enhancing frost resistance of alkali-activated slag concrete using surfactants: sodium dodecyl sulfate, sodium abietate, and triterpenoid saponins
  89. Equation-driven strength prediction of GGBS concrete: a symbolic machine learning approach for sustainable development
  90. Empowering 3D printed concrete: discovering the impact of steel fiber reinforcement on mechanical performance
  91. Advanced hybrid machine learning models for estimating chloride penetration resistance of concrete structures for durability assessment: optimization and hyperparameter tuning
  92. Influence of diamine structure on the properties of colorless and transparent polyimides
  93. Post-heating strength prediction in concrete with Wadi Gyada Alkharj fine aggregate using thermal conductivity and ultrasonic pulse velocity
  94. Experimental and RSM-based optimization of sustainable concrete properties using glass powder and rubber fine aggregates as partial replacements
  95. Special Issue on Recent Advancement in Low-carbon Cement-based Materials - Part II
  96. Investigating the effect of locally available volcanic ash on mechanical and microstructure properties of concrete
  97. Flexural performance evaluation using computational tools for plastic-derived mortar modified with blends of industrial waste powders
  98. Foamed geopolymers as low carbon materials for fire-resistant and lightweight applications in construction: A review
  99. Autogenous shrinkage of cementitious composites incorporating red mud
  100. Mechanical, durability, and microstructure analysis of concrete made with metakaolin and copper slag for sustainable construction
  101. Special Issue on AI-Driven Advances for Nano-Enhanced Sustainable Construction Materials
  102. Advanced explainable models for strength evaluation of self-compacting concrete modified with supplementary glass and marble powders
  103. Analyzing the viability of agro-waste for sustainable concrete: Expression-based formulation and validation of predictive models for strength performance
  104. Special Issue on Advanced Materials for Energy Storage and Conversion
  105. Innovative optimization of seashell ash-based lightweight foamed concrete: Enhancing physicomechanical properties through ANN-GA hybrid approach
  106. Production of novel reinforcing rods of waste polyester, polypropylene, and cotton as alternatives to reinforcement steel rods
https://doi.org/10.1515/rams-2025-0134
Keywords for this article
ZnO; Indian jamun seeds; green synthesis; mercury; adsorption
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Review Articles
  2. Utilization of steel slag in concrete: A review on durability and microstructure analysis
  3. Technical development of modified emulsion asphalt: A review on the preparation, performance, and applications
  4. Recent developments in ultrasonic welding of similar and dissimilar joints of carbon fiber reinforcement thermoplastics with and without interlayer: A state-of-the-art review
  5. Unveiling the crucial factors and coating mitigation of solid particle erosion in steam turbine blade failures: A review
  6. From magnesium oxide, magnesium oxide concrete to magnesium oxide concrete dams
  7. Properties and potential applications of polymer composites containing secondary fillers
  8. A scientometric review on the utilization of copper slag as a substitute constituent of ordinary Portland cement concrete
  9. Advancement of additive manufacturing technology in the development of personalized in vivo and in vitro prosthetic implants
  10. Recent advance of MOFs in Fenton-like reaction
  11. A review of defect formation, detection, and effect on mechanical properties of three-dimensional braided composites
  12. Non-conventional approaches to producing biochars for environmental and energy applications
  13. Review of the development and application of aluminum alloys in the nuclear industry
  14. Advances in the development and characterization of combustible cartridge cases and propellants: Preparation, performance, and future prospects
  15. Recent trends in rubberized and non-rubberized ultra-high performance geopolymer concrete for sustainable construction: A review
  16. Cement-based materials for radiative cooling: Potential, material and structural design, and future prospects
  17. A comprehensive review: The impact of recycling polypropylene fiber on lightweight concrete performance
  18. A comprehensive review of preheating temperature effects on reclaimed asphalt pavement in the hot center plant recycling
  19. Exploring the potential applications of semi-flexible pavement: A comprehensive review
  20. A critical review of alkali-activated metakaolin/blast furnace slag-based cementitious materials: Reaction evolution and mechanism
  21. Dispersibility of graphene-family materials and their impact on the properties of cement-based materials: Application challenges and prospects
  22. Research progress on rubidium and cesium separation and extraction
  23. A step towards sustainable concrete with the utilization of M-sand in concrete production: A review
  24. Studying the effect of nanofillers in civil applications: A review
  25. Studies on the anticorrosive effect of phytochemicals on mild steel, carbon steel, and stainless-steel surfaces in acid and alkali medium: A review
  26. Nanotechnology for calcium aluminate cement: thematic analysis
  27. Towards sustainable concrete pavements: a critical review on fly ash as a supplementary cementitious material
  28. Optimizing rice husk ash for ultra-high-performance concrete: a comprehensive review of mechanical properties, durability, and environmental benefits
  29. Research Articles
  30. Investigation of the corrosion performance of HVOF-sprayed WC-CoCr coatings applied on offshore hydraulic equipment
  31. A systematic review of metakaolin-based alkali-activated and geopolymer concrete: A step toward green concrete
  32. Evaluation of color matching of three single-shade composites employing simulated 3D printed cavities with different thicknesses using CIELAB and CIEDE2000 color difference formulae
  33. Novel approaches in prediction of tensile strain capacity of engineered cementitious composites using interpretable approaches
  34. Effect of TiB2 particles on the compressive, hardness, and water absorption responses of Kulkual fiber-reinforced epoxy composites
  35. Analyzing the compressive strength, eco-strength, and cost–strength ratio of agro-waste-derived concrete using advanced machine learning methods
  36. Tensile behavior evaluation of two-stage concrete using an innovative model optimization approach
  37. Tailoring the mechanical and degradation properties of 3DP PLA/PCL scaffolds for biomedical applications
  38. Optimizing compressive strength prediction in glass powder-modified concrete: A comprehensive study on silicon dioxide and calcium oxide influence across varied sample dimensions and strength ranges
  39. Experimental study on solid particle erosion of protective aircraft coatings at different impact angles
  40. Compatibility between polyurea resin modifier and asphalt binder based on segregation and rheological parameters
  41. Fe-containing nominal wollastonite (CaSiO3)–Na2O glass-ceramic: Characterization and biocompatibility
  42. Relevance of pore network connectivity in tannin-derived carbons for rapid detection of BTEX traces in indoor air
  43. A life cycle and environmental impact analysis of sustainable concrete incorporating date palm ash and eggshell powder as supplementary cementitious materials
  44. Eco-friendly utilisation of agricultural waste: Assessing mixture performance and physical properties of asphalt modified with peanut husk ash using response surface methodology
  45. Benefits and limitations of N2 addition with Ar as shielding gas on microstructure change and their effect on hardness and corrosion resistance of duplex stainless steel weldments
  46. Effect of selective laser sintering processing parameters on the mechanical properties of peanut shell powder/polyether sulfone composite
  47. Impact and mechanism of improving the UV aging resistance performance of modified asphalt binder
  48. AI-based prediction for the strength, cost, and sustainability of eggshell and date palm ash-blended concrete
  49. Investigating the sulfonated ZnO–PVA membrane for improved MFC performance
  50. Strontium coupling with sulphur in mouse bone apatites
  51. Transforming waste into value: Advancing sustainable construction materials with treated plastic waste and foundry sand in lightweight foamed concrete for a greener future
  52. Evaluating the use of recycled sawdust in porous foam mortar for improved performance
  53. Improvement and predictive modeling of the mechanical performance of waste fire clay blended concrete
  54. Polyvinyl alcohol/alginate/gelatin hydrogel-based CaSiO3 designed for accelerating wound healing
  55. Research on assembly stress and deformation of thin-walled composite material power cabin fairings
  56. Effect of volcanic pumice powder on the properties of fiber-reinforced cement mortars in aggressive environments
  57. Analyzing the compressive performance of lightweight foamcrete and parameter interdependencies using machine intelligence strategies
  58. Selected materials techniques for evaluation of attributes of sourdough bread with Kombucha SCOBY
  59. Establishing strength prediction models for low-carbon rubberized cementitious mortar using advanced AI tools
  60. Investigating the strength performance of 3D printed fiber-reinforced concrete using applicable predictive models
  61. An eco-friendly synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles with jamun seed extract and their multi-applications
  62. The application of convolutional neural networks, LF-NMR, and texture for microparticle analysis in assessing the quality of fruit powders: Case study – blackcurrant powders
  63. Study of feasibility of using copper mining tailings in mortar production
  64. Shear and flexural performance of reinforced concrete beams with recycled concrete aggregates
  65. Advancing GGBS geopolymer concrete with nano-alumina: A study on strength and durability in aggressive environments
  66. Leveraging waste-based additives and machine learning for sustainable mortar development in construction
  67. Study on the modification effects and mechanisms of organic–inorganic composite anti-aging agents on asphalt across multiple scales
  68. Morphological and microstructural analysis of sustainable concrete with crumb rubber and SCMs
  69. Structural, physical, and luminescence properties of sodium–aluminum–zinc borophosphate glass embedded with Nd3+ ions for optical applications
  70. Eco-friendly waste plastic-based mortar incorporating industrial waste powders: Interpretable models for flexural strength
  71. Bioactive potential of marine Aspergillus niger AMG31: Metabolite profiling and green synthesis of copper/zinc oxide nanocomposites – An insight into biomedical applications
  72. Preparation of geopolymer cementitious materials by combining industrial waste and municipal dewatering sludge: Stabilization, microscopic analysis and water seepage
  73. Seismic behavior and shear capacity calculation of a new type of self-centering steel-concrete composite joint
  74. Sustainable utilization of aluminum waste in geopolymer concrete: Influence of alkaline activation on microstructure and mechanical properties
  75. Optimization of oil palm boiler ash waste and zinc oxide as antibacterial fabric coating
  76. Tailoring ZX30 alloy’s microstructural evolution, electrochemical and mechanical behavior via ECAP processing parameters
  77. Comparative study on the effect of natural and synthetic fibers on the production of sustainable concrete
  78. Microemulsion synthesis of zinc-containing mesoporous bioactive silicate glass nanoparticles: In vitro bioactivity and drug release studies
  79. On the interaction of shear bands with nanoparticles in ZrCu-based metallic glass: In situ TEM investigation
  80. Developing low carbon molybdenum tailing self-consolidating concrete: Workability, shrinkage, strength, and pore structure
  81. Experimental and computational analyses of eco-friendly concrete using recycled crushed brick
  82. High-performance WC–Co coatings via HVOF: Mechanical properties of steel surfaces
  83. Mechanical properties and fatigue analysis of rubber concrete under uniaxial compression modified by a combination of mineral admixture
  84. Experimental study of flexural performance of solid wood beams strengthened with CFRP fibers
  85. Eco-friendly green synthesis of silver nanoparticles with Syzygium aromaticum extract: characterization and evaluation against Schistosoma haematobium
  86. Predictive modeling assessment of advanced concrete materials incorporating plastic waste as sand replacement
  87. Self-compacting mortar overlays using expanded polystyrene beads for thermal performance and energy efficiency in buildings
  88. Enhancing frost resistance of alkali-activated slag concrete using surfactants: sodium dodecyl sulfate, sodium abietate, and triterpenoid saponins
  89. Equation-driven strength prediction of GGBS concrete: a symbolic machine learning approach for sustainable development
  90. Empowering 3D printed concrete: discovering the impact of steel fiber reinforcement on mechanical performance
  91. Advanced hybrid machine learning models for estimating chloride penetration resistance of concrete structures for durability assessment: optimization and hyperparameter tuning
  92. Influence of diamine structure on the properties of colorless and transparent polyimides
  93. Post-heating strength prediction in concrete with Wadi Gyada Alkharj fine aggregate using thermal conductivity and ultrasonic pulse velocity
  94. Experimental and RSM-based optimization of sustainable concrete properties using glass powder and rubber fine aggregates as partial replacements
  95. Special Issue on Recent Advancement in Low-carbon Cement-based Materials - Part II
  96. Investigating the effect of locally available volcanic ash on mechanical and microstructure properties of concrete
  97. Flexural performance evaluation using computational tools for plastic-derived mortar modified with blends of industrial waste powders
  98. Foamed geopolymers as low carbon materials for fire-resistant and lightweight applications in construction: A review
  99. Autogenous shrinkage of cementitious composites incorporating red mud
  100. Mechanical, durability, and microstructure analysis of concrete made with metakaolin and copper slag for sustainable construction
  101. Special Issue on AI-Driven Advances for Nano-Enhanced Sustainable Construction Materials
  102. Advanced explainable models for strength evaluation of self-compacting concrete modified with supplementary glass and marble powders
  103. Analyzing the viability of agro-waste for sustainable concrete: Expression-based formulation and validation of predictive models for strength performance
  104. Special Issue on Advanced Materials for Energy Storage and Conversion
  105. Innovative optimization of seashell ash-based lightweight foamed concrete: Enhancing physicomechanical properties through ANN-GA hybrid approach
  106. Production of novel reinforcing rods of waste polyester, polypropylene, and cotton as alternatives to reinforcement steel rods
Sign up now to receive a 20% welcome discount
Institutional Access
How does access work?
Have an idea on how to improve our website?
Please write us.
© 2026 De Gruyter Brill
Downloaded on 4.2.2026 from https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/rams-2025-0134/html
Scroll to top button