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Developing low carbon molybdenum tailing self-consolidating concrete: Workability, shrinkage, strength, and pore structure

  • Tao Luo , Yu Yi , Tianqi Zhang , Li Li EMAIL logo , Wenbing Yu , Xuefu Zhang , Kaifeng Zhang and Sahar A. Mostafa EMAIL logo
Published/Copyright: October 29, 2025
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REVIEWS ON ADVANCED MATERIALS SCIENCE
From the journal REVIEWS ON ADVANCED MATERIALS SCIENCE Volume 64 Issue 1

Abstract

Incorporating mineral admixtures is essential to modulate the fresh and hardened properties of self-consolidating concrete (SCC). This study introduced waste molybdenum tailings (MT) as a novel mineral admixture, substituting fly ash in SCC for the first time. The fresh, mechanical properties and drying shrinkage (DS) of SCC were assessed at various MT substitution levels (0, 25, 50, 75, and 100%). Pore structure and microstructure were analyzed using nuclear magnetic resonance and scanning electron microscopy. Increasing MT content resulted in a decline in initial flowability and a gradual increase in early-stage shrinkage. Specifically, at 100% MT replacement, the slump flow decreased by 17.5%, and the DS increased by 65.3%. Notably, the incorporation of MT significantly improved early compressive strength, primarily due to the accelerated hydration reactions. At 3 days, the 25% MT mixture showed a 33.3% increase in compressive strength compared to the control group, demonstrating MT’s positive impact on early-age strength development. At 28 days age, the 25% MT exhibited comparable strength to the control group, with compressive strength and splitting tensile strength of 38.5 and 2.67 MPa, respectively. Our findings illuminated that the strength enhancement at 25% MT was rooted in the refinement of pore structure and interface between aggregate and hydration products, evidenced by a rise in the fraction of pores with dimensions smaller than 100 nm and a marked reduction in bigger ones.

Keywords: waste Mo tailings; high flowability concrete; workability; strength; microstructure

Acronyms list

3D

three-dimensional

CA

coarse aggregate

CG0

control group 0

CPMG

Carr-Purcell-Meiboom-Gill

CVC

conventional vibrated concrete

DS

drying shrinkage

FA

fly ash

f cu

compressive strength

f sts

splitting tensile strength

JF

J-ring flow

MT

molybdenum tailings

MTS

molybdenum tailings self-consolidating concrete

NFA

natural fine aggregate

NMR

nuclear magnetic resonance

SCC

self-consolidating concrete

SEM

scanning electron microscopy

SF

slump flow

T500

slump flow time-T500

UHPC

ultra-high performance concrete

VF

V-funnel flow time

1 Introduction

Self-consolidating concrete (SCC) represents an advanced construction material capable of achieving complete compaction solely through gravitational force, demonstrating exceptional capacity to fill intricate formwork geometries and densely packed reinforcement networks while maintaining rheological stability [1]. Although sharing identical constituent materials (cementitious binder, aggregates, water, and chemical admixtures) with conventional vibrated concrete (CVC), SCC exhibits fundamentally distinct workability characteristics. The incorporation of supplementary cementitious materials at elevated dosages constitutes a critical factor in attaining the unique flowability of SCC, as extensively documented in prior studies [2,3,4].

In recent years, the sustainable utilization of industrial solid wastes in cement-based materials has attracted increasing attention due to environmental and economic considerations [5,6,7]. Among them, fly ash (FA) is one of the most commonly used mineral admixtures in SCC due to its pozzolanic reactivity and spherical particle morphology [8]. Several studies have demonstrated that the reasonable incorporation of FA ensures adequate fluidity and stability in SCC [9,10]. However, policies aimed at reducing pollution from coal-fired power plants and imposing carbon taxes have resulted in a shortage of high-quality FA in certain regions of China, with prices rising rapidly. Martin [11] reported that the material cost of SCC is 10–17% higher than that of CVC due to the high FA content. Consequently, there is a need to identify new admixtures to sustain the concrete industry.

Molybdenum tailings (MT), a by-product of molybdenite concentrate production, are generated in large quantities in China, the world’s leading producer with an estimated annual output of 36 million tons [12]. Their accumulation poses serious environmental challenges, including land occupation, soil contamination, and air and groundwater pollution, thereby elevating potential risks to human health [13,14,15]. In response, growing attention has been directed toward the sustainable utilization of MT in building materials. For instance, Li et al. [16] employed high-temperature roasting to activate MT, producing a novel cementitious binder that reduced CO2 emissions by 42.82% compared to conventional Portland cement. Other researchers have demonstrated the feasibility of using MT in water storage materials, foam ceramics, and glass ceramics [17,18,19].

Although the prospects for MT in building materials are promising, its long-term environmental safety – particularly the potential leaching of heavy metals – remains a critical concern, as these elements can be toxic, mutagenic, and carcinogenic [20], directly affecting the feasibility of widespread application. Fortunately, a body of recent leaching tests and life-cycle assessments has consistently shown that incorporating MT into cementitious systems fundamentally alters its environmental behavior. For example, in ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC), even at high replacement ratios (e.g., 100% fine aggregate substitution), leaching concentrations of heavy metals remain well below the regulatory limits for hazardous material [21]. Notably, the leaching level of molybdenum (Mo) itself, a characteristic pollutant, was measured at only 0.05 mg·L−1, which is below the threshold for centralized drinking water sources (0.07 mg·L−1) [22]. This immobilization effect is attributed to physical encapsulation and chemical fixation within the cement hydration products, such as C–S–H gel and ettringite. Moreover, long-term dynamic leaching experiments under simulated acid rain conditions on MT-based subgrade materials revealed that heavy metal release is a diffusion-controlled slow process. Predictions using the Elovich model indicated that cumulative release over a 20-year service life would remain within acceptable limits for agricultural water use standards [23]. Thus, existing evidence strongly confirms that using MT in concrete not only mitigates its inherent environmental risks but effectively transforms it into a safe and sustainable construction material through stabilization and solidification mechanisms. Furthermore, numerous studies have demonstrated that the incorporation of MT generally enables concrete to maintain satisfactory mechanical properties. For instance, Gao et al. [24] reported that even with 100% replacement of sand by MT, the reductions in compressive and splitting tensile strengths were marginal (less than 10%). Similarly, Quan et al. [25] concluded that the use of MT as a natural fine aggregate substitute is not only energy-efficient but also environmentally favorable. Nevertheless, challenges persist regarding the fresh properties of concrete. Workability, in particular, may be affected inconsistently: Li et al. [26] observed that vanadium-titanium magnetite tailings (as a FA substitute) improved workability yet increased volume shrinkage, whereas Luan et al. [27] found that iron tailings reduced the flowability of UHPC paste, increasing yield stress and plastic viscosity. These divergent results underscore the need for further research to clarify the influence of MT- especially as a mineral admixture – on the workability and strength of SCC, an area that remains underexplored.

In SCC, supplementary cementitious materials are commonly used to optimize both the fresh and hardened properties. However, the use of MT as a mineral admixture in SCC has not been explored to date. As such, the effects of MT on the macro-properties and microstructure of SCC remain unclear. To address this gap, this study investigates, for the first time, the impact of substituting FA with MT at various replacement levels on the fresh, hardened properties, and microstructural characteristics of SCC. The study evaluates workability, early drying shrinkage (DS), compressive strength (f cu), splitting tensile strength (f sts), pore structure, and micro-morphology. Furthermore, the internal relationship between strength development and pore structure at the interface is discussed.

2 Materials and test methods

2.1 Materials

Grade 42.5 ordinary Portland cement with a specific surface area of 358 m2·kg−1 was used, as specified in GB 175 [28]. Grade I FA and MT were used as filler materials, with their physical properties and origins presented in Table 1. Table 2 shows the chemical composition of cement and mineral admixtures.

Table 1

Basic characters of filler materials

Physical characters Filler materials
FA (D50 = 12.71 µm) MT (D50 = 59.98 µm)
Specific surface area 994 m2·kg−1 441 m2·kg−1
Soundness Qualified Qualified
Apparent density (kg·m−3) 2,560 2,910
45 µm sieve pass rate (%) 10.8 64.9
Moisture (%) 0.4 0.3
Water demand ratio (%) 88.0 95.0
Table 2

Oxide mass fraction of cement, FA, and MT

Composition Weight (%)
Cement FA MT
SiO2 22.81 49.02 45.26
Al2O3 5.62 31.56 6.29
CaO 61.43 4.88 9.67
Fe2O3 3.36 6.97 11.22
MgO 1.35 0.83 —
SO3 2.17 1.20 —
MnO2 — — 2.20
K2O — — 1.82
Loss on ignition 4.00 3.65 12.70

Table 3 displays the properties of natural fine aggregate (NFA) and coarse aggregates (CA). Figure 1 illustrates the grading curve of powder materials and aggregates.

Table 3

Characteristics of sand and CA

Aggregate Apparent density (kg·m−3) Bulk density (kg·m−3) Fineness modulus Size range (mm) Water content (%) Mud content (%)
Natural river sand 2,630 1,480 2.70 — 0.4 0.3%
Crushed limestone Coarse aggregate 2,835 1,720 — 5–20 — —
Figure 1 Grading curve of mineral materials and aggregates.
Figure 1

Grading curve of mineral materials and aggregates.

The admixture used in this study was provided by Beijing Sinoconfix Technology Co., Ltd. It consisted of two chemical admixtures, a water reducer and a retarder, in a mass ratio of 4:6, as specified in GB 8076 [29]. The solid content of the water reducer was 20%, and ordinary tap water was used in this study.

2.2 Mix design

In line with the Chinese standard JGJ/T283, the SCC mix proportions were calculated [30]. The trial process was conducted in the sequence of paste, mortar, and SCC. Initially, the cement content was determined based on the SCC’s design strength grade, and parameters such as the water-powder ratio, admixture dosage, and admixture type were selected for the paste experiment. The mix proportions were adjusted until the paste met the workability requirements, and the paste mix proportion for the mortar experiment was finalized. The sand ratio in the mortar mix was initially set, the admixture dosage was increased, and the water-powder ratio was adjusted to meet the workability requirements. The mortar mix proportion for the SCC experiment was derived from the results of the mortar experiment. Subsequently, the sand ratio and CA content were adjusted based on the sieve results. The mix proportion for the control group in this study was obtained following this process. The SCC mix design process is shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2 SCC mix design process.
Figure 2

SCC mix design process.

In this study, five substitution levels were tested for FA, replacing an equal mass of FA at 0, 25, 50, 75, and 100%. The SCC mixture with 0% MT was designated as the control group (CG0). The water-binder ratio (w/b = 3.6) and admixture dosage were kept constant across all SCC mixes. Table 4 presents the mix proportions. The decision to partially replace FA with MT was primarily driven by sustainable waste management objectives, aiming to valorize an abundant industrial by-product. Although MT exhibits lower pozzolanic reactivity compared to FA, it was introduced primarily for its physical contributions to the cementitious system. The particle size distribution of the processed MT was engineered to complement and optimize the overall gradation of the solid ingredients. This approach enhances the packing density of the matrix, reduces the interstitial porosity, and improves the compactness of the concrete. This strategy aligns with the principles of the circular economy by providing a high-volume utilization pathway for MT, while also mitigating the dependency on conventional supplementary cementitious materials.

Table 4

Mix ratio of SCC

Mix group Weights of constituents (kg·m−3) Admixtures
Cement MT FA NFA <5 mm CA 5–20 mm Water Water reducer (40%) Retarder (60%)
CG0 341 0 117 958 651 165 18.412 27.618
MTS25 341 29.25 87.75 958 651 165 18.412 27.618
MTS50 341 58.5 58.5 958 651 165 18.412 27.618
MTS75 341 87.75 29.25 958 651 165 18.412 27.618
MTS100 341 117 0 958 651 165 18.412 27.618

2.3 Sample producing

The concrete preparation procedure is outlined in Figure 3.

  1. To prevent water absorption, 5–10 L of mortar with the same mix ratio was used to clean the mixer and remove any remaining mixtures before the first mixing.

  2. The raw materials were prepared according to the mix proportion, with CA, sand, and mineral materials (cement, MT, and FA) added sequentially to the mixer for dry mixing (30 s).

  3. After dry mixing, 80% of the water was added and mixed for 60 s. The remaining 20% of water was mixed with the admixture, stirred evenly, and then added to the mixer for an additional 180 s of mixing.

  4. The mixed SCC was poured into molds for curing, and the remaining mixtures were utilized for workability and DS experiments. Before molding and testing, the mixtures were stirred uniformly to prevent the aggregate from settling.

  5. After pouring, all SCC mixtures were kept at 20°C and 95% humidity for 24 h before demolding. Subsequently, all samples were cured at 20°C and 95% humidity until 28 days of aging.

Figure 3 Mixing procedure and preparation of SCC.
Figure 3

Mixing procedure and preparation of SCC.

2.4 Experimental methods

2.4.1 Fresh properties

This study evaluated the workability of fresh SCC following the standards JGJ/T283 [30] and CECS 203 [31]. The following experiments were conducted sequentially to assess the flowability, viscosity, filling, and passing ability of fresh SCC: slump flow (SF), slump flow time-T500 (T500), J-ring flow (JF), and V-funnel flow time (VF). Additionally, the air content of the fresh SCC was measured.

To evaluate the maximum deformability of fresh SCC, the SF test was conducted, where the fresh SCC was poured continuously into a slump cone placed at the center of a horizontal plate. The SF value was obtained as the average of the two diameters in perpendicular directions after lifting the cone and when the SCC stopped flowing. T500, which indicates the viscosity of SCC, is the time required for the SCC to expand to a diameter of 500 mm.

The V-funnel test evaluated the deformation ability of SCC flowing via a restricted area. Fresh SCC was poured into a V-funnel placed on a horizontal surface until filled. After standing for 1 min, the VF time was recorded, which is the time taken for the bottom opening to be exposed, accurate to 0.1 s.

The J-ring test evaluated the flowability of fresh SCC under a narrow opening. The J-ring was placed at the center of the horizontal plate, with the inverted cone positioned in the middle of the J-ring and filled with SCC, similar to the SF test. The JF value was obtained as the average of the two diameters in perpendicular directions after lifting the cone and when the SCC stopped flowing. The passing ability of SCC was evaluated using the JF value and the difference between SF and JF (SF-JF).

2.4.2 DS

The early DS deformation of SCC was measured using the NES non-contact concrete shrinkage deformation instrument, as specified in GB/T 50082 [32].

The non-contact method was used to measure displacement, with a range of 0–3.0 mm and an accuracy of ±0.002 mm. Prior to pouring the SCC mixtures, the mold (100 mm × 100 mm × 515 mm) was lined with plastic film and coated with oil. The initial setting time of SCC was recorded after pouring, and the DS experiment commenced after 3 h. The samples were placed in an environment with a temperature of 20°C and 60% humidity. Data were recorded every hour for the first 6 h, then every 6 h up to 72 h, as shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4 DS device.
Figure 4

DS device.

2.4.3 Mechanical properties

In accordance with GB/T 50081 [33], the f cu and f sts of SCC were measured using a WAW-2000KN universal testing machine. The f cu tests were conducted at 1, 3, 7, 14, and 28 days, with a loading rate of 0.5 MPa·s−1 and a conversion coefficient of 0.95. The f sts test was performed at 28 days, with a loading speed of 0.05 MPa·s−1 and a conversion coefficient of 0.85. The test samples were cubes with a side length of 100 mm.

2.4.4 Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) test

The NMR test was conducted using a MacroMR12–150H–I. The probe coil used in the experiment had a diameter of 150 mm. The NMR samples were cubes with a side length of 100 mm. At 28 days of age, the samples were placed in the magnet for the experiment after 24 h vacuum saturation in water [34], as shown in Figure 5. The pore structure of the sample was analyzed using the Carr-Purcell-Meiboom-Gill pulse sequence [35]. The collected relaxation data were processed using InvFit inversion software to obtain the T 2 value distribution curve, which was then used to determine the pore volume for further analysis [36].

Figure 5 NMR and SEM tests process.
Figure 5

NMR and SEM tests process.

2.4.5 Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) test

In this study, a JSM-7610F SEM, manufactured by Japan Electronics Co., Ltd, was used. After crushing the SCC samples, a sample approximately 10 mm in size was taken, mounted, and gold-coated before being tested in the sample exchange chamber, as shown in Figure 5.

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Workability

Table 5 illustrates the findings of the fresh properties of SCC with varying MT contents, including filling ability (measured as SF), viscosity (measured as T500 and VF), passing ability (measured as JF and SF–JF), and comparisons with standard limits and related literatures [37,38]. The data indicate that MT significantly affected the fresh properties of SCC.

Table 5

Results of fresh characters of SCC with various MT substitution ratios

Mix group Slump spread experiment V-funnel time experiment JF experiment Air fraction (%)
SF (mm) T500 (s) VF (s) JF (mm) SF-JF (mm)
CG0 685 5.6 10.8 660 25 3.5
MTS25 670 6.4 11.6 642 28 3.6
MTS50 645 6.9 22.3 613 32 3.1
MTS75 600 8.4 43.2 564 36 2.6
MTS100 565 9.8 48.3 520 45 2.2
Limitation* 550–850 3–7 7–25 ≥SF-50 [38] 0–50 —

*The limitations are presented based on EFNARC-2005 and JGJ/T283.

Figure 6 presents the SF of fresh SCC with varying MT substitution levels. As the MT substitution level increased, the SF gradually decreased, showing a 17.52% reduction at 100% MT substitution. This is attributed to the multi-angular morphology and rough surface texture of MT particles, which increases the yield stress and plastic viscosity of the fresh SCC [39]. These rheological changes reflect increased interparticle friction and flow resistance, ultimately impairing the workability of concrete [40]. This trend is consistent with the findings of Quan et al. [41], who reported a significant negative correlation between MT content and the flowability of concrete. Other studies [22] also indicate that irregular particle shapes create more contact points and friction between solid particles, further hindering flowability. Moreover, the incorporation of MT has been found to accelerate early hydration reactions, resulting in an increased rate of hydration product formation on the particle surfaces [21]. This rapid accumulation of hydration products contributes to early structural stiffening, which restricts particle mobility, thereby increasing the plastic viscosity and reducing the SF of the fresh mix. Notably, the SF of the MTS25 mixture reached SF2 (650–800 mm), suitable for conventional wall and column construction.

Figure 6 The SF and JF of fresh SCC with various MT substitution ratios, low passing ability is referenced from literature [22].
Figure 6

The SF and JF of fresh SCC with various MT substitution ratios, low passing ability is referenced from literature [22].

The viscosity parameters, T500 and VF, are essential for accessing the flowability of fresh SCC [42]. Table 5 shows that the T500 values of all fresh SCCs tested ranged from 5.6 to 9.8 s, with an increase in T500 as the MT substitution level rose. The increase in viscosity is due to the rough, angular shape of MT particles, which increases friction and resistance between particles, thereby raising the water demand during mixing [43]. As shown in Figure 7, there is a strong correlation (R 2 = 0.99) between T500 and SF, indicating a robust linear relationship between the two parameters.

Figure 7 The correlation between SF and T500.
Figure 7

The correlation between SF and T500.

Furthermore, Table 5 presents that the incorporation of MT negatively affected the viscosity of fresh SCC, with VF increasing as the MT substitution fraction elevated. The MTS25 mixture achieved a VF of 11.6 s and maintained a continuous, uniform flow without segregation, while the MTS50 mixture exhibited aggregate blocking but still met the standard requirement (7–25 s). However, SCC mixtures with 75 and 100% MT substitution levels showed significant aggregate separation during the flow, with only part of the mortar flowing out. The viscosity and segregation resistance of these two mixtures failed to meet the requirements.

The results of JF and SF–JF are shown in Table 5 and Figure 6. The JF of all fresh SCCs was over 500 mm, and the maximum SF-JF was below 50 mm, indicating that the MT self-compacting concrete (MTS) had sufficient flow to pass through the blocked steel bars [44]. However, the JF of fresh SCC decreased as the MT substitution fraction increased, and the SF–JF value gradually increased. These results can be attributed to the replacement of a significant portion of FA by MT. The rough, multi-angular shape of MT particles increases the internal resistance and friction in SCC mixtures during mixing, leading to higher viscosity and aggregate blocking, which negatively impacts the passing ability of fresh SCC [45].

As shown in Table 5, as the MT substitution level increased, the air content of fresh SCC initially increased and then decreased. When the substitution fraction of MT replacing FA was 100%, the air content reached the minimum value of 37.1% lower than that of the fresh SCC without MT.

Based on the above discussion of fresh SCC properties, the flowability of fresh mixture was evaluated using the workability box [46], shown in Figure 8. The fresh properties of SCC mixtures were also assessed using the workability box and classified as proper SCC, marginal SCC, or unacceptable SCC. The CG0 and MTS25 mixtures were observed to fall within the acceptable SCC range, with SF values of 650–800 mm and VF values of 8–20 s. The SF and VF results for these mixtures were similar, indicating that the SCC mixture with a 25% MT substitution fraction can maintain favorable fresh properties. According to the authors, mixtures classified as marginal SCC (SF: 600–850 mm, VF: 5–25 s) may exhibit slight segregation or insufficient flowability but still comply with the standard requirements, which is consistent with the short-term aggregate blocking observed in the MTS50 during the V-funnel test. However, MTS75 and MTS100 mixtures are classified as unacceptable SCC and unsuitable for practical applications.

Figure 8 Workability boxes of several SCC mixtures.
Figure 8

Workability boxes of several SCC mixtures.

The acceptance criteria for SCC mixtures are based on the visual inspection of their slump-flow area. The “Visual Stability Index” [47] classifies SCC self-compatibility into four levels, presented in Figure 9.

Figure 9 SF area of SCC mixtures: (a) proper, (b) acceptable, (c) marginal, and (d) unacceptable.
Figure 9

SF area of SCC mixtures: (a) proper, (b) acceptable, (c) marginal, and (d) unacceptable.

3.2 Early DS

The impact of MT substitution fraction on the early DS of SCC is presented in Figure 10. As testing time progressed, the DS exhibited a rapid rise followed by a slowdown. Notably, over 65% of the total DS deformation occurred within the first 24 h, as reported by Shi et al. [48]. This early DS is primarily attributed to the rapid release of hydration heat during cement paste hardening, which causes water evaporation and shrinkage deformation due to overheating [49].

Figure 10 The DS of SCC with various MT substitution ratios.
Figure 10

The DS of SCC with various MT substitution ratios.

An increase in MT content led to progressively higher DS values, with rises of 7.06, 23.5, 41.8, and 65.3% compared to the CG0. This trend can be attributed to two primary mechanisms. First, as reported by Wang et al. [21], the incorporation of MT increases the early-age cumulative heat, indicating an acceleration of initial hydration reactions. This accelerated hydration process promotes greater internal water consumption, thereby intensifying moisture loss during early curing and contributing to the observed increase in early-age DS. Second, the high water absorption capacity and large specific surface area of MT particles reduce the amount of free water in the mix by physically “locking” water within the particles [43]. This reduction in free water not only impairs hydration and lubrication between particles but also increases internal friction during flow, further contributing to shrinkage development [50,51]. These combined effects – faster hydration-induced water loss and limited free water availability – jointly explain the observed rise in DS with higher MT substitution levels.

3.3 Compressive strength

The f cu of MTS was tested at various curing ages to investigate the strength development over time, as shown in Figure 11. A comparison of f cu values for all samples revealed that the samples containing MT exhibited a higher rate of strength gain than CG0 within the first 3 days. At 3 days, the f cu of MTS samples raised by 33.3, 24.2, 16.1, and 13.4%, respectively, compared to CG0, indicating that MT had a beneficial effect on the early-age strength of SCC. This is consistent with the previous research [21], which reported that the incorporation of MT increases the cumulative heat release during early hydration, thereby accelerating initial reactions such as C3A hydration. Additionally, due to its high water absorption capability, MT lowers the effective water-to-binder ratio in the early stages, leading to a denser microstructure that facilitates hydration. Zhang et al. [22] also observed that the addition of MT significantly enhanced the early strength development of UHPC. This strength improvement can be attributed to the distinctive properties of MT particles. The increased surface roughness and angular shape of MT particles strengthen the bond between the binder materials and aggregates. This contributes to a more durable interfacial transition zone and enhances the mechanical interlocking between the cementitious materials and aggregates, thereby boosting the overall strength [52].

Figure 11 The early-age compressive strength of SCC with various substitution ratios of MT.
Figure 11

The early-age compressive strength of SCC with various substitution ratios of MT.

At day 1, no clear correlation was observed between f cu and MT substitution fraction. However, after 3 days, f cu gradually decreased with increasing MT substitution fraction. By 7 and 14 days, the f cu of all samples reached approximately 75 and 85% of the 28 days strength, respectively. Notably, the strength growth rate of CG0 during these stages was significantly higher than that of MTS mixtures, primarily due to the pozzolanic effect of FA. As a key cementitious component, FA undergoes a pozzolanic reaction with calcium hydroxide to form additional C–S–H gel, which plays a crucial role in strength enhancement over time [53]. In contrast, while MT contributes to early hydration through increased heat release, strength development in the mid-to-late stages is more strongly influenced by the sustained pozzolanic activity of FA, which promotes continuous formation of hydration products and thus improves long-term strength. Consequently, CG0 achieved a maximum f cu of 33.4 MPa at 14 days.

At 28 days, the f cu of MTS25 slightly exceeded that of CG0, reaching 38.5 MPa. This indicates that a 25% MT substitution is optimal, contributing to a denser microstructure due to a more favorable particle size distribution within the composite cementitious system [54]. The improved compactness not only supports early-age strength development but also helps reduce internal porosity [55]. In contrast, the f cu of MTS50 was only 7.5% lower than that of CG0, which is still within an acceptable range for applications with moderate strength requirements. However, when the MT substitution rate increased to 75 and 100%, the f cu dropped by 17.4 and 20.9%, respectively.

3.4 Splitting tensile strength

The impact of MT substitution on the f sts of SCC at 28 days is shown in Figure 12. Similar to f cu, f sts initially increases with MT substitution, but then decreases as the substitution fraction rises. Among all the substitution fractions, MTS25 exhibits the highest f sts value of 2.67 MPa. According to the literature [56], the correlation between f cu and f sts in concrete can be expressed by Eq. (1).

(1) f sts = a f cu b ,

where a and b are constants.

Figure 12 The splitting tensile strength of SCC with various substitution ratios of MT.
Figure 12

The splitting tensile strength of SCC with various substitution ratios of MT.

Figure 13 demonstrates a strong correlation (R 2 = 0.9886) between f cu and f sts. However, it is important to note that f sts is also influenced by other factors, such as paste volume and powder content [38]. When the MT substitution fraction exceeds 25%, f sts decreases by 3.9, 10.4, and 14.7%, respectively, compared to CG0. This reduction may be attributed not only to the low reactivity of MT, but also to the DS characters of SCC. The beneficiation process of MT leads to an increase in dust content, which results in higher DS values for SCC. The shrinkage strain caused by this effect can induce microcracks at the interface between the aggregate and hydration products, which adversely impacts the development of f sts [57]. Furthermore, the increased use of superplasticizers promotes the formation of large quantities of Ca(OH)2 and ettringite in the hydration products, which can hinder the interfacial adhesion between the aggregate and the paste, thereby further contributing to the decrease in f sts [58].

Figure 13 Correlation between f cu and f sts.
Figure 13

Correlation between f cu and f sts.

3.5 Pore structures

3.5.1 NMR T 2 spectrum curve

The NMR method measures the T 2 spectral area, which is indirectly proportional to the amount of fluid present in concrete pores and, therefore, can be used to determine the effective porosity of concrete [59]. Longer T 2 times and a rightward shift of the T 2 spectral peak indicate higher porosity, while shorter T 2 times and a leftward shift of the T 2 spectral peak indicate lower porosity [60]. Figure 14 illustrates the T 2 spectra of SCC with varying MT substitution fractions after 28 days of curing. Additionally, the three-dimensional (3D) curve of the T 2 spectrum presented in Figure 14(b) provides a clearer view of the dimension of the three peaks.

Figure 14 The T 2 spectrum of SCC with various substitution ratio of MT. (a) T 2 spectrum. (b) 3D T 2 spectrum.
Figure 14

The T 2 spectrum of SCC with various substitution ratio of MT. (a) T 2 spectrum. (b) 3D T 2 spectrum.

Figure 14 illustrates the T 2 spectral curves of the highest peak (peak Ⅰ) and the two lower peaks (peak Ⅱ and peak Ⅲ). The highest peak is observed at a short transverse relaxation time, spanning three T 2 ranges from 0.01 to 10 ms. Obviously, the area under the T 2 spectrum curve of peak Ⅰ is significantly larger than those of the other two peaks. The value of peak Ⅰ reflects the frequency of pores of the corresponding size, indicating that the internal pores of MTS is primarily composed of small pores [61]. The transverse relaxation times of peak Ⅱ and Ⅲ are relatively longer, corresponding to medium and large pores, respectively. The areas under both the total and individual peak curves of the T 2 spectrum for MTS are presented in Table 6. As the MT substitution fraction increases, the total area under the T 2 spectrum curve initially decreases and then increases. The total area under the T 2 spectrum curve of MTS25 decreased by 1.46% compared to CG0. Analysis of the individual peaks shows that the area of peak Ⅰ for MTS25 increased by 6.72%, while the areas of peaks Ⅱ and Ⅲ decreased by 44.9 and 33.9%, respectively, indicating a reduction in the total number of pores and a more refined pore structure in the SCC. With further increases in the MT substitution fraction, the total area under the T 2 spectrum curve of MTS was 10.7, 17.5, and 26.8% higher than that of CG0, respectively. Among these, the total area under T 2 spectrum curve for MTS100 was the largest, with all three peak areas increasing, suggesting that the average pore size of the SCC increased due to the excessive incorporation of MT.

Table 6

NMR T 2 spectrum area and the fraction of various SCCs

Mix group T 2 spectrum area Highest peak Middle peak Lowest peak
Area Fraction (%) Area Fraction (%) Area Fraction (%)
CG0 4029.146 3360.970 83.42 528.397 13.11 139.780 3.47
MTS25 3970.211 3586.960 90.35 290.916 7.33 92.335 2.33
MTS50 4458.755 3394.690 76.14 792.639 17.78 271.425 6.09
MTS75 4920.007 3726.384 75.74 881.397 17.91 312.226 6.35
MTS100 5108.256 3816.982 74.72 930.443 18.21 373.513 7.06

3.5.2 Pore size distribution

In addition to porosity, pore size distribution is another critical factor affecting the properties of concrete. The NMR experiment was used to measure the relaxation rates of pore surfaces and specific surface area, and to analyze the correlation between these factors and the transverse relaxation time, thereby obtaining information on pore size distribution [62]. Various methods are employed to classify pore sizes in concrete pore structure studies, leading to different results [63,64]. Herein, the pores in MTS were categorized into four ranges based on diameter: gel size (below 10 nm), transitional size (10–100 nm), capillary size (100–1,000 nm), and macro-size (greater than 1,000 nm) [65]. The three signal peaks in the T 2 spectral curves correspond to the distributions of transitional, capillary, and macro-pores. The fraction of each pore size category was determined through cumulative calculations. The total porosity and grading porosity of MTS are presented in Table 7. Notably, the T 2 spectral area shows a positive correlation with the total porosity of SCC.

Table 7

Total porosity and grading porosity of several SCCs

Mix group Total porosity (%) Grading porosity (%)
<10 nm (gel pores) 10–100 nm (transitional pores) 100–1,000 nm (capillary pores) >1,000 nm (macropores)
CG0 1.3963 0.1888 0.8185 0.2744 0.1146
MTS25 1.3937 0.2004 0.8286 0.2697 0.0950
MTS50 1.5561 0.1880 0.8832 0.3338 0.1511
MTS75 1.6140 0.1926 0.8919 0.3705 0.1590
MTS100 1.7415 0.1907 0.8876 0.4234 0.2398

Figure 15 illustrates the pore size distribution of SCC with varying MT substitution levels. The majority of pores in MTS are transitional pores, consistent with findings in the literature [66]. Compared to CG0, MTS25 exhibited a rise in the fraction of gel and transitional pores, while the fraction of capillary and macro-pores decreased from 19.65 and 8.21% to 19.35 and 6.82%, respectively. These changes in the three pore categories align with the variations in the corresponding peak areas in the T 2 spectral curve. These results suggest that the optimal MT substitution content improves the particle size distribution within the multivariate compound cementitious powder system, resulting in a denser structure with fewer large pores in the SCC. Furthermore, the incorporation of an appropriate amount of MT promotes the hydration process, with the increased formation of hydration products filling the pores. Statistical analysis revealed a gradual increase in total porosity with higher MT substitution levels. Combined with the pore size distribution data, it can be concluded that the fraction of gel and transitional pores decreased linearly as the MT substitution increased in MTS50, MTS75, and MTS100. Conversely, the fractions of capillary and macro-pores increased, indicating a gradual transition of smaller pores (<100 nm) into medium and large pores (> 100 nm) as the MT content rose.

Figure 15 The pore dimension distribution of SCC with various substitution ratios of MT.
Figure 15

The pore dimension distribution of SCC with various substitution ratios of MT.

3.6 Correlation of the microstructures and mechanical properties of MTS

The microstructure plays a crucial role in determining the f cu and f sts of concrete [67,68,69]. Previous studies have investigated the relationship between pore characteristics and strength of concrete, developing porosity-strength models. In this study, three representative models were employed to analyze the regression of f cu and f sts for SCC with varying MT substitution fractions. The fitting curves equations and the regression parameters of the porosity-strength model are presented in Table 8 and Figure 16. As shown in the figure, total porosity exhibits a negative relationship with both strengths: as porosity increases, strength decreases. This observation aligns with findings from previous studies [70,71].

Table 8

Correlation models of porosity and strengths

Researcher [66] Compressive strength Splitting tensile strength
Regression formula R 2 Regression formula R 2
Hasselman f cu = 73.472–25.496P 0.9429 f sts = 4.234–1.161P 0.9995
Ryshkewithch f cu = 109.141exp(−0.757P) 0.9464 f sts = 5.127exp(−0.481P) 0.9481
Schiller f cu = 39.509 ln(3.647/P) 0.9459 f sts = 1.812 ln(5.926/P) 0.9466
Figure 16 Correlation between porosity and strengths of MTS: (a) f cu and (b) f sts.
Figure 16

Correlation between porosity and strengths of MTS: (a) f cu and (b) f sts.

The pore structure in cement-based materials is diverse, with different pore types affecting concrete strength in varying degrees. In particular, the correlation analysis between large pores (>100 nm) and strength is shown in Figure 17. The results reveal a significant negative correlation between both f cu and f sts and the large pores. Experimental data indicate that, compared to CG0, the number of capillary and macropores in MTS75 increased by 25.9 and 27.9%, respectively, while the f cu and f sts decreased by 17.4 and 10.4%, respectively. When the MT substitution fraction was raised to 100%, the number of capillary and macropores rose by 35.2 and 52.2%, respectively, leading to a reduction in f cu and f sts by 20.9 and 14.7%, respectively. Li et al. [72] also observed that the f cu of concrete dropped by 30–45% when the proportion of capillary and macropores exceeded 50%. These findings suggest that pores larger than 100 nm have a significant negative impact on the strength of MTS. The larger particle size of MT, relative to FA, necessitates the substitution of a substantial amount of FA, which diminishes the micro-aggregate effect and increases the average pore size in SCC, ultimately reducing the compactness of the pore structure.

Figure 17 Correlation between large pores (>100 nm) and relative change in strengths of MTS.
Figure 17

Correlation between large pores (>100 nm) and relative change in strengths of MTS.

Figure 18 presents the SEM images of SCC after 28 days of curing with various MT substitution fractions. As displayed in Figure 18(a), spherical FA particles are embedded in the SCC matrix, with their surfaces covered by hydration products, indicating a complete hydration reaction in CG0. In Figure 18(b), overlapping amorphous C–S–H gels are visible, contributing to a compact matrix microstructure. However, when the MT substitution fraction exceeds 50%, as depicted in Figure 18(c) and (d), the reduced formation of hydration products due to the substitution of FA with the less reactive MT leads to visible penetrating cracks and interconnected pores in the matrix. Furthermore, some FA particles exhibit smooth surfaces with little to no hydration product coverage, indicating a lower degree of hydration compared to CG0. Figure 18(e) presents interconnected microcracks forming extensive penetrating cracks, with the large pore in the image being locally enlarged. Figure 18(f) demonstrates acicular ettringite crystals filling the pore. Literature [73,74] has suggested that ettringite formation can provide a structural framework for concrete strength during early hydration. However, excessive ettringite formation during late hydration can induce tensile stress within the concrete, leading to expansion and cracking of the internal structure, ultimately resulting in significant deterioration of concrete strength.

Figure 18 The 28 days micro-morphology of SCC with various substitution ratio of MT: (a) 0%; (b) 25%; (c) 50%; (d) 75%; (e) and (f) 100%.
Figure 18

The 28 days micro-morphology of SCC with various substitution ratio of MT: (a) 0%; (b) 25%; (c) 50%; (d) 75%; (e) and (f) 100%.

Figure 19 illustrates the distribution of hydration products and unreacted particles across varying MT contents. In the MTS100 group, the excessive incorporation of low-reactivity MT leads to insufficient hydration and the development of a more porous microstructure. In contrast, the MTS25 mixture, with an optimal MT dosage, benefits from the enhanced hydration process due to the water absorption capacity of MT, which lowers the effective water-to-binder ratio and accelerates the formation of hydration products. In addition, the interlocking effect induced by the rough morphology of MT particles enhances the interfacial bonding between solid particles and the matrix, contributing to a more cohesive structure [52]. In comparison, the control group, predominantly composed of FA with a relatively smooth and spherical morphology, exhibits lower packing efficiency, leading to a higher proportion of unfilled voids and a less compact structure.

Figure 19 Effects of MT variation on SCC: (a) MTS100; (b) MTS25; (c) Control group.
Figure 19

Effects of MT variation on SCC: (a) MTS100; (b) MTS25; (c) Control group.

4 Conclusion

In conclusion, the impacts of incorporating various MT substitution fractions on the workability, early DS, and strengths of SCC were explored, with microstructural analysis conducted using NMR and SEM. Among all substitution levels, 25% MT was identified as the optimal ratio, offering the best balance of fresh and hardened properties. Based on the findings, the following conclusions can be drawn:

  1. The incorporation of MT negatively impacted the workability of fresh SCC. As the MT substitution fraction increased, the SF and JF decreased, while the T500, VF, and SF-JF values increased. The air content initially increased and then decreased. SCC mixtures with 25% MT substitution exhibited satisfactory fresh properties, while those with 50% MT met the standard requirements. When the MT substitution fraction exceeded 50%, the viscosity of SCC mixtures increased, and it is recommended to adjust the superplasticizer content accordingly.

  2. The early DS of SCC mixtures increased as the MT substitution fraction rose. A sustainable SCC with DS comparable to CG0 can be achieved with a 25% MT substitution. The rapid growth stage of DS deformation occurred from the initial setting time to 24 h, accounting for 66–70% of the total DS rate after 72 h.

  3. MT substitution significantly influenced the strength of SCC. The incorporation of MT enhanced the f cu at 1, 3, and 7 days. Compared to CG0, the SCC with 25% MT substitution exhibited increases of 22.2, 33.3, and 7.12%, respectively. After 14 days, f cu began to decrease with increasing MT substitution. However, SCC with 25% MT substitution showed a slight decrease of 1.50% at 14 days. At 28 days, the f cu and f sts of SCC with 25% MT substitution increased by 2.86 and 1.50%, respectively. Based on these findings, a 25% MT substitution fraction is recommended.

  4. The majority of pores in SCC were found to be small (<100 nm). With the addition of 25% MT, the fraction of small pores increased compared to the control group, while pores larger than 100 nm decreased. The pore structure of SCC with 25% MT substitution was more compact, significantly enhancing its strength.

  5. The porosity of SCC initially decreased and then increased with higher MT substitution fractions. Porosity showed a negative correlation with both f cu and f sts, with the fraction of pores larger than 100 nm having the most significant impact on strength. SEM images revealed large penetrating cracks and interconnected pores in SCC with 50, 75, and 100% MT substitution, leading to a reduction in the compactness and strength of the SCC.

Acknowledgments

The authors acknowledge the support by the Second Tibetan Plateau Scientific Expedition and Research Program (STEP) (No. 2021QZKK0202), Shaanxi Provincial Youth Science and Technology Rising Star Project (No. 2022KJXX-85), Key Scientific Research Project of Shaanxi Provincial Department of Education (No. 22JS041) and Youth Innovation Team Research Project of Shaanxi Provincial Department of Education (Nos. 22JP099, 21JP137). The Youth Innovation Team of Shaanxi Universities and the Support Program for Outstanding Young Talents of Shaanxi Universities (Dr. Tao Luo) are also acknowledged.

  1. Funding information: This research is supported by the Second Tibetan Plateau Scientific Expedition and Research Program (STEP) (No. 2021QZKK0202), Shaanxi Provincial Youth Science and Technology Rising Star Project (No. 2022KJXX-85), Key Scientific Research Project of Shaanxi Provincial Department of Education (No. 22JS041) and Youth Innovation Team Research Project of Shaanxi Provincial Department of Education (Nos. 22JP099, 21JP137). The Youth Innovation Team of Shaanxi Universities and the Support Program for Outstanding Young Talents of Shaanxi Universities (Dr. Tao Luo) are also acknowledged.

  2. Author contributions: All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and approved its submission.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.

  4. Data availability statement: All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article.

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Received: 2024-12-20
Revised: 2025-08-31
Accepted: 2025-10-08
Published Online: 2025-10-29

© 2025 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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  3. Technical development of modified emulsion asphalt: A review on the preparation, performance, and applications
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https://doi.org/10.1515/rams-2025-0170
Keywords for this article
waste Mo tailings; high flowability concrete; workability; strength; microstructure
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Review Articles
  2. Utilization of steel slag in concrete: A review on durability and microstructure analysis
  3. Technical development of modified emulsion asphalt: A review on the preparation, performance, and applications
  4. Recent developments in ultrasonic welding of similar and dissimilar joints of carbon fiber reinforcement thermoplastics with and without interlayer: A state-of-the-art review
  5. Unveiling the crucial factors and coating mitigation of solid particle erosion in steam turbine blade failures: A review
  6. From magnesium oxide, magnesium oxide concrete to magnesium oxide concrete dams
  7. Properties and potential applications of polymer composites containing secondary fillers
  8. A scientometric review on the utilization of copper slag as a substitute constituent of ordinary Portland cement concrete
  9. Advancement of additive manufacturing technology in the development of personalized in vivo and in vitro prosthetic implants
  10. Recent advance of MOFs in Fenton-like reaction
  11. A review of defect formation, detection, and effect on mechanical properties of three-dimensional braided composites
  12. Non-conventional approaches to producing biochars for environmental and energy applications
  13. Review of the development and application of aluminum alloys in the nuclear industry
  14. Advances in the development and characterization of combustible cartridge cases and propellants: Preparation, performance, and future prospects
  15. Recent trends in rubberized and non-rubberized ultra-high performance geopolymer concrete for sustainable construction: A review
  16. Cement-based materials for radiative cooling: Potential, material and structural design, and future prospects
  17. A comprehensive review: The impact of recycling polypropylene fiber on lightweight concrete performance
  18. A comprehensive review of preheating temperature effects on reclaimed asphalt pavement in the hot center plant recycling
  19. Exploring the potential applications of semi-flexible pavement: A comprehensive review
  20. A critical review of alkali-activated metakaolin/blast furnace slag-based cementitious materials: Reaction evolution and mechanism
  21. Dispersibility of graphene-family materials and their impact on the properties of cement-based materials: Application challenges and prospects
  22. Research progress on rubidium and cesium separation and extraction
  23. A step towards sustainable concrete with the utilization of M-sand in concrete production: A review
  24. Studying the effect of nanofillers in civil applications: A review
  25. Studies on the anticorrosive effect of phytochemicals on mild steel, carbon steel, and stainless-steel surfaces in acid and alkali medium: A review
  26. Research Articles
  27. Investigation of the corrosion performance of HVOF-sprayed WC-CoCr coatings applied on offshore hydraulic equipment
  28. A systematic review of metakaolin-based alkali-activated and geopolymer concrete: A step toward green concrete
  29. Evaluation of color matching of three single-shade composites employing simulated 3D printed cavities with different thicknesses using CIELAB and CIEDE2000 color difference formulae
  30. Novel approaches in prediction of tensile strain capacity of engineered cementitious composites using interpretable approaches
  31. Effect of TiB2 particles on the compressive, hardness, and water absorption responses of Kulkual fiber-reinforced epoxy composites
  32. Analyzing the compressive strength, eco-strength, and cost–strength ratio of agro-waste-derived concrete using advanced machine learning methods
  33. Tensile behavior evaluation of two-stage concrete using an innovative model optimization approach
  34. Tailoring the mechanical and degradation properties of 3DP PLA/PCL scaffolds for biomedical applications
  35. Optimizing compressive strength prediction in glass powder-modified concrete: A comprehensive study on silicon dioxide and calcium oxide influence across varied sample dimensions and strength ranges
  36. Experimental study on solid particle erosion of protective aircraft coatings at different impact angles
  37. Compatibility between polyurea resin modifier and asphalt binder based on segregation and rheological parameters
  38. Fe-containing nominal wollastonite (CaSiO3)–Na2O glass-ceramic: Characterization and biocompatibility
  39. Relevance of pore network connectivity in tannin-derived carbons for rapid detection of BTEX traces in indoor air
  40. A life cycle and environmental impact analysis of sustainable concrete incorporating date palm ash and eggshell powder as supplementary cementitious materials
  41. Eco-friendly utilisation of agricultural waste: Assessing mixture performance and physical properties of asphalt modified with peanut husk ash using response surface methodology
  42. Benefits and limitations of N2 addition with Ar as shielding gas on microstructure change and their effect on hardness and corrosion resistance of duplex stainless steel weldments
  43. Effect of selective laser sintering processing parameters on the mechanical properties of peanut shell powder/polyether sulfone composite
  44. Impact and mechanism of improving the UV aging resistance performance of modified asphalt binder
  45. AI-based prediction for the strength, cost, and sustainability of eggshell and date palm ash-blended concrete
  46. Investigating the sulfonated ZnO–PVA membrane for improved MFC performance
  47. Strontium coupling with sulphur in mouse bone apatites
  48. Transforming waste into value: Advancing sustainable construction materials with treated plastic waste and foundry sand in lightweight foamed concrete for a greener future
  49. Evaluating the use of recycled sawdust in porous foam mortar for improved performance
  50. Improvement and predictive modeling of the mechanical performance of waste fire clay blended concrete
  51. Polyvinyl alcohol/alginate/gelatin hydrogel-based CaSiO3 designed for accelerating wound healing
  52. Research on assembly stress and deformation of thin-walled composite material power cabin fairings
  53. Effect of volcanic pumice powder on the properties of fiber-reinforced cement mortars in aggressive environments
  54. Analyzing the compressive performance of lightweight foamcrete and parameter interdependencies using machine intelligence strategies
  55. Selected materials techniques for evaluation of attributes of sourdough bread with Kombucha SCOBY
  56. Establishing strength prediction models for low-carbon rubberized cementitious mortar using advanced AI tools
  57. Investigating the strength performance of 3D printed fiber-reinforced concrete using applicable predictive models
  58. An eco-friendly synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles with jamun seed extract and their multi-applications
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  60. Study of feasibility of using copper mining tailings in mortar production
  61. Shear and flexural performance of reinforced concrete beams with recycled concrete aggregates
  62. Advancing GGBS geopolymer concrete with nano-alumina: A study on strength and durability in aggressive environments
  63. Leveraging waste-based additives and machine learning for sustainable mortar development in construction
  64. Study on the modification effects and mechanisms of organic–inorganic composite anti-aging agents on asphalt across multiple scales
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  66. Structural, physical, and luminescence properties of sodium–aluminum–zinc borophosphate glass embedded with Nd3+ ions for optical applications
  67. Eco-friendly waste plastic-based mortar incorporating industrial waste powders: Interpretable models for flexural strength
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  69. Preparation of geopolymer cementitious materials by combining industrial waste and municipal dewatering sludge: Stabilization, microscopic analysis and water seepage
  70. Seismic behavior and shear capacity calculation of a new type of self-centering steel-concrete composite joint
  71. Sustainable utilization of aluminum waste in geopolymer concrete: Influence of alkaline activation on microstructure and mechanical properties
  72. Optimization of oil palm boiler ash waste and zinc oxide as antibacterial fabric coating
  73. Tailoring ZX30 alloy’s microstructural evolution, electrochemical and mechanical behavior via ECAP processing parameters
  74. Comparative study on the effect of natural and synthetic fibers on the production of sustainable concrete
  75. Microemulsion synthesis of zinc-containing mesoporous bioactive silicate glass nanoparticles: In vitro bioactivity and drug release studies
  76. On the interaction of shear bands with nanoparticles in ZrCu-based metallic glass: In situ TEM investigation
  77. Developing low carbon molybdenum tailing self-consolidating concrete: Workability, shrinkage, strength, and pore structure
  78. Experimental and computational analyses of eco-friendly concrete using recycled crushed brick
  79. High-performance WC–Co coatings via HVOF: Mechanical properties of steel surfaces
  80. Special Issue on Recent Advancement in Low-carbon Cement-based Materials - Part II
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  82. Flexural performance evaluation using computational tools for plastic-derived mortar modified with blends of industrial waste powders
  83. Foamed geopolymers as low carbon materials for fire-resistant and lightweight applications in construction: A review
  84. Autogenous shrinkage of cementitious composites incorporating red mud
  85. Special Issue on AI-Driven Advances for Nano-Enhanced Sustainable Construction Materials
  86. Advanced explainable models for strength evaluation of self-compacting concrete modified with supplementary glass and marble powders
  87. Analyzing the viability of agro-waste for sustainable concrete: Expression-based formulation and validation of predictive models for strength performance
  88. Special Issue on Advanced Materials for Energy Storage and Conversion
  89. Innovative optimization of seashell ash-based lightweight foamed concrete: Enhancing physicomechanical properties through ANN-GA hybrid approach
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