Study on the spatial equilibrium of cultural and tourism resources in Macao, China

2.1 Overview of the study area

The Macau Special Administrative Region is situated on the western bank of the Pearl River estuary on the southeastern coast of China. It comprises the Macau Peninsula, Taipa Island, and Coloane Island, which are connected by the Cotai area – reclaimed land forming a single landmass. Its total land area is 33.3 km² (2023).

Physically, Macau features an undulating landscape of low hills interspersed with alluvial plains. Its highest point is Coloane Peak (Altinho de Coloane) on Coloane Island, standing at 170.6 m. The climate is subtropical monsoon, with an annual average temperature of 23.4°C and an average annual precipitation of 2176.8 mm. The region is frequently impacted by typhoons during summer and relies on external sources for its freshwater supply [25].

Socially and geographically, Macau is characterized by the world’s highest population density (20531.53 people per square kilometer). Its 683,000 permanent residents are highly concentrated on the Macau Peninsula. The economy is heavily dependent on gaming and tourism (accounting for over 70% of GDP), with a per capita GDP of approximately US$69,000. This has resulted in a unique spatial pattern: “high-density mixed development in the Historic Centre + functional zoning on the outlying islands.” The territory preserves sixteenth-century Portuguese colonial architectural complexes (22 UNESCO World Heritage sites) while also hosting large-scale integrated gaming resorts and emerging residential communities [25].

As a micro-city economy shaped by over 400 years of Sino-Western cultural fusion, the functional dislocation and spatial fragmentation between these elements reflect developmental tensions arising from high-intensity human-land interaction. This makes Macau a prime case study for research on the spatial equilibrium of cultural and tourism resources in coastal cities.

2.2 Data sources

The data for this study primarily originate from multiple data platforms. Information concerning the Historic Centre of Macao, as documented in the World Heritage List, is primarily based on the resolution adopted at the 29th Session of the World Heritage Committee held in South Africa on July 15, 2005 [26,27].

Administrative boundary vector polygon data were collected and organized using the National Geomatics Center of China (NGCC) Geographic Information Resource Directory Service System. This ensured the acquisition of the latest and most accurate administrative boundary information. Figure 1 clearly depicts the national borders, provincial boundaries, and the extent of the Macao Special Administrative Region relevant to the study.

Figure 1

Overview of the study area.

Furthermore, tourism resource data were obtained using the Points of Interest (POI) dataset from Amap (AutoNavi Map). Preprocessing was performed on the acquired POI data. From the original 351 tourism resource data points, effective information was extracted to generate a table containing latitude and longitude coordinates. This tabular data was imported into ArcGIS and converted into a shapefile (shp) format. Subsequently, the tabular data were transformed into a point vector layer under the WGS84 coordinate system and reprojected to the CGCS2000 coordinate system. Data cleaning was conducted, including the removal of duplicate and irrelevant data. The remaining valid data were then classified and integrated, resulting in a final effective dataset comprising 209 samples.

The classification of the valid data was performed according to the Classification, Investigation, and Evaluation of Tourism Resources (GB/T 18972-2017) standard and the specific characteristics of Macao’s tourism resources. Based on these criteria, the Macao tourism resource POI data were categorized into six classes, as detailed in Table 1.

Finally, through the integration and synthesis of these data sources, a comprehensive GIS database was constructed. The entire data processing workflow and methodological framework are illustrated in Figure 2.

Figure 2

Flowchart.

2.3 Research methodology

3.1 Quantitative analysis

Macao’s tourism resources possess distinct advantages in geographical location and unique cultural elements. Its most prominent features stem from the integration of Eastern and Western multicultural components, manifested in cultural, religious, and natural landscapes [44]. Unlike neighboring destinations, visitors can appreciate the cultural heritage of Sino-Western exchange since the Ming and Qing dynasties without leaving the country [45], experiencing Portuguese-inspired architecture and Southeast Asian cultural customs that fulfill travelers’ desire for foreign cultural immersion. A prime example is the “Historic Centre of Macao” – a UNESCO World Heritage site centered around the old city [46]. As China’s oldest, largest, best-preserved, and most concentrated collection of coexisting Eastern and Western architectural landmarks [47], it vividly exemplifies East-West cultural synthesis. Furthermore, Macao’s strategic position within the Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Greater Bay Area ensures proximity to neighboring cities like Hong Kong and Zhuhai, with highly convenient transportation meeting short-term visitors’ experiential needs [48,49]. For mainstream tourists, Macao offers an exceptional value proposition: minimal cost and travel time to witness distinctive Portuguese and Southeast Asian tropical charm without transoceanic journeys. Crucially, the spatial distribution of Macao’s tourism resources – characterized by diversity and concentration – creates exceptionally favorable conditions for high-frequency visitor flows and immersive travel experiences.

According to official statistics, Macau has witnessed explosive growth in tourist arrivals, reflecting its unique appeal. In 2023, Macau received 28.213 million (28,213,000) inbound visitors, recovering to 71.6% of pre-pandemic 2019 levels. Overnight and same-day visitors totaled 14.227 million and 13.986 million, increasing by 4.7- and 3.3-fold year-on-year, respectively. Among these, 19.049 million visitors (67.5% of total arrivals) were from mainland China, a 2.7-fold increase. Notably, travelers from the nine Pearl River Delta cities in the Greater Bay Area surged by 1.8-fold to 9.305 million. Visitors from Hong Kong and international markets reached 7.196 million (25.5%) and 1.46 million (5.2%), rising by 13- and 105.9-fold, respectively. By November 2024, preliminary data indicate that Macau’s tourist arrivals exceeded 30 million, underscoring the industry’s robust growth potential [25].

A classification of tourism resources across the Macau Peninsula, Taipa, and Coloane reveals significant spatial disparities influenced by historical development [50], economic activities [36], population distribution [51], and urban planning [52,53]. While resources are concentrated in the Macau Peninsula, all three regions possess unique resource potentials and opportunities for coordinated development. The classification of tourism resources is detailed in Table 2.

According to Table 2, architectural landscape resources constitute the most abundant category of tourism resources in Macau, totaling 125 sites, reflecting the diversity and uniqueness of Macau’s architectural heritage. The Kao Wang Parish contains the highest concentration of resources, with 39 sites, followed closely by the Freguesia de Nossa Senhora de Fátima with 38 tourism resource points. This distribution aligns with the historical and cultural significance of these two regions. In contrast, the Cotai Reclamation Area has the fewest tourism resources, with only one site, primarily due to its late development and peripheral location relative to traditional urban centers. Nevertheless, the Cotai Reclamation Area has emerged as a modern tourism and entertainment hub, characterized by high-density contemporary architecture and integrated casino resorts. These modern facilities complement the heritage-focused resources of the Macau Peninsula, creating a diversified tourism landscape that caters to varied visitor demands. As evidenced by the statistics in Table 2, tourism resources in the Macao Peninsula and Cotai exhibit distinct characteristics. The former centers around UNESCO World Heritage sites – exemplified by the Ruins of St. Paul’s (Figure 3) – featuring ancient church relics and cultural landscapes reflecting East-West fusion. In contrast, Cotai is characterized by modern gaming-entertainment complexes represented by integrated resorts such as Sands Cotai Resort (Figure 4). Together, they form Macao’s unique tourism landscape, creating optimal conditions for visitors to experience both the cultural synthesis of Eastern and Western civilizations and the thrilling excitement of contemporary gaming entertainment.

Figure 3

Ruins of St. Paul’s.

Figure 4

Sands Macao resort.

Historical site ruins rank as the second most prevalent resource type, with 32 sites. The lobby area alone hosts 13 historical sites, reflecting its historical prominence and central urban location. These landmarks, such as the seventeenth-century Mount Fortress (1617), the Baroque-style Ruins of St. Paul’s, the neo-classical Senado Square, A-Ma Temple, and the Mandarin’s House, serve as vital windows into Macau’s multicultural evolution and are key attractions for understanding its Sino-Western heritage.

Despite its limited territory, Macau features distinctive geological landscapes. Guia Hill (94 m, 308 ft), the highest peak on the peninsula, integrates historical landmarks like the Guia Fortress, Chapel of Our Lady of Guia, and Guia Lighthouse into an iconic urban vista that once served defensive and observational purposes. Taipa’s highest point, Grande Taipa Hill, offers panoramic views of modern casino resorts alongside ecological hiking trails, while Coloane’s highest peak, Alto de Coloane, preserves pristine natural scenery that contrasts sharply with urbanized areas. These geological features – spanning historical, recreational, and ecological dimensions – collectively enhance Macau’s tourism appeal.

Macau also hosts three biological landscapes (e.g., wetlands and biodiversity reserves) and three water-based landscapes (e.g., coastal zones and beaches). These natural resources, combined with cultural and entertainment assets, create a multifaceted tourism environment that supports ecological tourism and coastal leisure activities. As a historic international port city and the first Portuguese-administered enclave in China, Macau’s 400-year history of global exchange has fostered a unique cultural synthesis. The peninsula concentrates UNESCO-listed World Heritage sites reflecting this hybrid identity, while Taipa and Coloane showcase modern entertainment and natural conservation, respectively. This spatial imbalance in resource distribution highlights Macau’s dual character as both a cultural repository and a contemporary tourism destination.

3.2 Spatial pattern of Macau’s tourism resources

The ANN index analysis of Macao’s world heritage tourism resources (Figure 5) reveals that the observed mean distance (107.9519 m) is significantly smaller than the expected mean distance (244.0127 m), with an R-value of 0.442403 (<1). Furthermore, the highly significant z-score (<−15.421429) and p-value (<0.01) collectively confirm a clustered spatial pattern. This clustering phenomenon stems from Macao’s unique geographical constraints, centuries-long historical evolution, and targeted heritage conservation policies. As an international port city with over 400 years of history, Macao’s immovable core cultural assets – particularly UNESCO-listed architectural ensembles and archaeological sites – are predominantly concentrated within the Peninsula’s Historic Centre. These heritage resources testify to Macao’s historical transformations and cultural syncretism, while preservation, restoration, and adaptive reuse policies have reinforced this centralized distribution pattern.

Figure 5

Average nearest neighbor index of Macao’s tourism resources.

Further analysis of nearest neighbor indices across resource categories (Table 3) demonstrates significant typological variations: architectural landscapes, site ruins, and world heritage properties exhibit clustered distributions, whereas geological, aquatic, and biological landscapes display dispersed patterns with relative spatial sparsity. This divergence reflects distinct regional historical trajectories, cultural characteristics, and implemented tourism planning strategies.

To visually elucidate spatial characteristics, Voronoi diagram analysis was applied to tourism attractions using ArcGIS (Figure 6). Results indicate: (1) high-density clustering in northern Peninsula parishes (Freguesia de Nossa Senhora de Fátima, Santo António, São Lázaro, and São Lourenço), evidenced by smaller Voronoi cells and concentrated attractions; (2) extensive exposed areas in Cotai reclamation zones and casino lobby districts, indicating sparse resource distribution – particularly pronounced in coastal lobby areas; and (3) relatively homogeneous Voronoi tessellation in Freguesia do Carmo and São Francisco parishes, suggesting balanced attraction distribution despite moderate quantity, providing favorable conditions for integrated tourism development.

Figure 6

Thiessen polygons of Macao’s tourism resources.

This clustered distribution – especially of core heritage assets – delivers significant visitor advantages: proximity between major attractions enables efficient multi-destination itineraries with minimized time and cost, effectively addressing key tourist demands. Such spatial synergy enhances Macao’s destination appeal as a premier must-visit location. Crucially, attraction clustering generates synergistic effects where sites mutually reinforce visitation, allowing tourists to experience diverse cultural-natural offerings efficiently. This amplifies experiential satisfaction, creates destination hot spots, and establishes exemplary models for regional tourism development.

3.3 Kernel density analysis of Macau tourism resource spatial distribution

In studying the spatial distribution of Macau’s tourism resources, the application of kernel density analysis provides clear insights into the relationship between Macau’s World Heritage sites and its tourist attractions. As shown in Figure 7, Macau’s tourism resources exhibit an uneven distribution pattern characterized by secondary centers forming a concentric arrangement around a single core. Currently, the highest concentration of tourism resources is observed in the surrounding areas of the Macau Peninsula. The ring-shaped distribution of secondary centers indicates that while these areas possess relatively lower tourism attractiveness, they still play crucial roles in the overall tourism landscape. For instance, Taipa’s advantageous geographical position and the construction of large-scale hotels and entertainment venues have transformed it into a tourism and leisure hub, attracting visitors seeking modern recreational experiences. In contrast, Coloane remains relatively underdeveloped, retaining more natural landscapes and traditional fishing village features that appeal to tourists desiring tranquility away from urban bustle. Moreover, the development of secondary centers provides diversified options for visitors, allowing them to experience Macau’s unique blend of Chinese-Western multiculturalism while enjoying distinctive entertainment and leisure facilities from modern tourism and gaming infrastructure. This spatial distribution pattern not only alleviates visitor congestion pressure at the single core but also fosters economic interactions and cultural exchanges between different regions, forming mutually reinforcing relationships.

Figure 7

Comparative analysis of kernel density for Macao’s World Heritage sites and tourist attractions: (a) Tourism resource, (b) geological landscape, (c) architectural landscape, (d) water landscape, (e) biological landscape, (f) site ruins, and (g) Macau World Heritage.

Macao’s geological landscapes comprise tourism resources primarily featuring peaks and beaches, with high-density clusters concentrated within the Macao Peninsula. As indicated in Figure 7, beach resources predominantly occur in Zone 8 (Freguesia de São Francisco); water landscapes form high-density clusters along the Nam Van Lake waterfront; and biological landscapes in Zones 7 (Cotai Reclamation Area) and 8 consist of wetlands and ecological reserves. Site ruins and Macao’s World Heritage resources share identical distribution areas in the Peninsula’s historic core. Crucially, heritage ruins are interspersed among architectural and cultural activity hubs – a spatial pattern mirroring Macao’s historical trajectory that showcases epoch-defining cultural elements.

The Historic Centre of Macao, designated a UNESCO World Heritage site, exemplifies this convergence. Its recognition underscores both exceptional historical-cultural value and tangible testimonies to Macao’s global significance: Every brick, street, and structure – including churches, theaters, residences, praças, and gardens of distinctive European classical architecture [54] – along with religious relics, embodies Macao’s legacy as an international trading port and crucible of East-West cultural synthesis. These physical remnants preserve profound narratives of historical figures and events, enabling visitors to witness panoramic historical processes through immersive, time-travel experiences that transform tourism into meaningful engagement with living heritage [55].

3.4 Tourism resource distribution and development trends

Based on the spatial distribution characteristics of Macau’s tourism resources, the standard deviation ellipse analysis tool in ArcGIS software can be applied to study and predict future development directions and trends. As illustrated in Figure 8, the distribution of six major tourism resource categories exhibits a distinct northwest-southeast orientation, closely aligned with Macau’s geographical and urban planning layout [56]. This unique pattern is tied to historical urban development during the Portuguese administration period, where key historical buildings and cultural heritage sites were concentrated in the central peninsula area, often distributed along major roads and squares, forming the pronounced northwest-southeast directional trend. Additionally, southern Macau’s coastal zones, constrained by natural marine factors, have limited tourism development but retain coastal resources such as beaches and seascapes, which also follow a similar directional distribution [57].

Figure 8

Standard deviational ellipse of Macao’s tourism resource categories.

The length of the X-axis reflects the spatial spread and centrality of tourism resources. A longer X-axis indicates broader distribution and weaker centrality, while a shorter X-axis suggests higher concentration and stronger centrality. According to Table 4, the biological landscape has the longest X-axis, indicating its widespread distribution and minimal centrality. This is followed by geological landscape, architectural landscape, site ruins, water landscape, and Macau’s World Heritage, which occupy progressively shorter ranges. Notably, Macau’s World Heritage has the shortest X-axis, reflecting its compact spatial distribution and strong centrality.

The length of the Y-axis represents the directional alignment of resource distribution. All tourism resource categories in Macau exhibit a northwest-southeast orientation, consistent with the territorial shape of the region. Among the six categories, water landscape displays the most pronounced directional alignment, while Macau’s World Heritage shows the least directional distinctiveness. The remaining categories – geological landscape, architectural landscape, site ruins, and biological landscape – fall between these extremes.

The rotation angles of the ellipses are ranked as follows: site ruins (173.52°), architectural landscape, geological landscape, water landscape, biological landscape, and Macau’s World Heritage (smallest angle). The largest rotation angle for site ruins aligns with Macau’s historical development trajectory, reflecting over four centuries of multicultural integration. Conversely, the minimal rotation angle for Macau’s World Heritage underscores its spatially concentrated and compact distribution, highlighting its role as a core cultural and historical hub.

4.1 Necessity and feasibility of tourism resource development

Necessity: The post-pandemic era has seen tourists increasingly favoring flexible travel modes like independent travel, presenting an opportunity for the development of short-haul tourism. Analysis of Macao’s tourism resource distribution characteristics using the ANN index and the Thiessen polygon method reveals that Macao has a compact territory with densely concentrated attractions, making resource development and integration particularly necessary. Through integration, Macao can optimize resource allocation, enhance the quality and diversity of tourism products, and strengthen its tourism appeal and competitiveness. This approach can increase the depth and breadth of tourism, attracting visitors for repeat visits and consumption, while also improving the overall tourism experience. Facing intensifying global tourism market competition, Macao needs to integrate its dispersed tourism resources to build a more distinctive and influential tourism brand, thereby countering competitive pressures from neighboring regions (such as Zhuhai and Hong Kong) and other international tourism destinations. Kernel Density Analysis of Macao’s tourism resources indicates that although resources are relatively concentrated, the competitive pressure stemming from the booming tourism industries in nearby cities cannot be ignored. To maintain a competitive edge, Macao must leverage resource integration to fully utilize its unique characteristics, avoid homogenized competition, and promote the high-quality development of its tourism industry.

Feasibility: Macao is situated in the subtropical zone and features a typical maritime monsoon climate. Moderated by the ocean in summer, temperatures are high but not intensely hot; winters are cool but rarely severely cold. The climate is distinct across the four seasons, with summers being warm and humid and winters cool and dry, making it suitable for year-round tourism. With rising consumption levels and the popularization of travel culture, the number of visitors to Macao continues to grow. In recent years, Macao’s tourism economy has developed steadily, with most tourism sectors achieving positive growth, laying a foundation for sustainable development. Macao possesses a rich cultural heritage, a unique history blending Eastern and Western influences, and modern entertainment facilities, providing a solid foundation for the comprehensive development of tourism resources. Particularly in the Macao Peninsula, the core tourism area, infrastructure is continuously improving. Standard Deviational Ellipse analysis shows that Macao’s tourism resources are oriented in a northwest-southeast direction, aligning with the layout of the road network in the Macao Special Administrative Region, creating favorable conditions for resource development and integration. The Macao SAR Government attaches great importance to tourism development, investing corresponding funds and policy resources to ensure the integration process. The improvement of transportation infrastructure, such as the Hong Kong-Zhuhai-Macao Bridge, has also strengthened Macao’s connectivity with surrounding regions, creating advantageous conditions for the in-depth development and integration of tourism resources.

4.2 Macao tourism resources spatial optimization strategies

Based on the preceding assessment of tourism resource spatial integrity and analysis of tourism spatial elements, the following spatial optimization strategies are proposed to achieve the research objectives – promoting the initiation and continuation of tourist spatiotemporal behaviors, fulfilling behavioral motivation needs, optimizing time allocation, extending dwell time, and stimulating multi-destination exploration: (1) rational resource development and core tourism circle enhancement fully harness the value of historical-cultural heritage and modern urban landscapes through scientifically planned protective utilization of tourism resources. While enhancing the appeal of core attractions like the Ruins of St. Paul’s and The Venetian Macao, focus on developing new tourism nodes such as art exhibitions and cultural experiences. This will establish an interconnected multi-node pattern, comprehensively boosting the attractiveness of area-wide tourism. (2) Transportation corridor improvement and accessibility enhancement expand road networks connecting major scenic areas and introduce direct bus or rail transit routes to key attractions. Optimize pedestrian environments and signage systems to facilitate walking exploration. Upgrade port facilities, streamline entry procedures, and improve customs clearance efficiency to strengthen the appeal for international tourists. (3) Service system optimization and spatial coverage expansion providing high-quality services is crucial for visitor retention. Strengthen multilingual service training for staff to ensure international service standards implementation. Expand service facilities (rest areas, restrooms, information centers) with priority coverage in popular attractions and tourist gathering zones, achieving comprehensive service network penetration across the destination.