Shallow geological structure features in Balikpapan Bay East Kalimantan Province – Indonesia

Lukman Arifin; Hananto Kurnio; Susilohadi; Djoni Widodo; Sony Mawardi

doi:10.1515/geo-2022-0693

Article Open Access

Shallow geological structure features in Balikpapan Bay East Kalimantan Province – Indonesia

Lukman Arifin , Hananto Kurnio , Susilohadi , Djoni Widodo and Sony Mawardi

Published/Copyright: September 9, 2025

Published by

Become an author with De Gruyter Brill

Submit Manuscript Author Information

From the journal Open Geosciences Volume 17 Issue 1

Abstract

Research to determine the shallow geological structure features was carried out in Balikpapan Bay, East Kalimantan Province, using the sub-bottom profiling (SBP) method. The aim is to contribute marine geological data for regional development. Some geological structures are observed at the bottom of Balikpapan Bay based on the analyses of SBP records. These features are interpreted as representing and as the continuation of terrestrial geological data and information surrounding Balikpapan Bay obtained from the Geological Agency. The observed geological structures in the bay are bedding planes, folds, thrusts, and strike-slip faults. The geological structures observed in Balikpapan Bay are due to compressional stress derived from the Makassar Strait spreading center. These results support Terrestrial Geological Agency data surrounding the bay that occurred in the marine environment. It is hoped that the results of this research will become supporting data when a bridge over Balikpapan Bay will be built in the future which will connect Balikpapan City to the new National Capital. The development of shallow geological structures in Balikpapan Bay is influenced by a branch of the regional Adang Fault passing through the bay. This strike-slip fault manifests itself as many shallow geological structures as observed in SBP records. Spreading center in the middle of Makassar Strait that generates compressional forces was causing the development of such structures in either Balikpapan Bay or its terrestrial areas.

Keywords: geological structures features; terrestrial geology; SBP analysis; Balikpapan Bay

1 Introduction

Indonesia built a new capital in Eastern Kalimantan. For this purpose, it needs geological information either terrestrial or marine. Terrestrial geological information has been much discussed. This article tries to discuss marine geological conditions, especially in Balikpapan Bay, based on data from sub-bottom profiling (SBP) obtained by a survey team of the Marine Geological Institute in 2011. Hopefully, this research will contribute to the development of the New Indonesia Capital City through the usage of marine geological data Balikpapan Bay belongs to the area of Kutai Kartanegara Regency and Penajam Paser North Regency, East Kalimantan Province with coordinates 1°00′00″–1°19′00″ South Latitude and 116°42′00″–116°54′00″ East Longitude (Figure 1). The marine geological data are also very important if there is going to be a bridge construction across Balikpapan Bay to Penajam Paser Nort Regency (Figure 2) [1]. The bridge is very useful because it will shorten the distance from Balikpapan to the New Capital City. The new capital construction plan is due to Jakarta’s burden as Indonesia’s primary center and development inequality between Java and other islands. Considerations of the selected site: firstly, it has minimum risk of natural disasters such as floods, tsunamis, forest fires, volcanoes, earthquakes, and landslides; as stated by the Indonesia President in State Palace Jakara on August 28, 2019; secondly, the proposed new national capital city is strategically located in the middle of the Indonesian Territories; thirdly, its vicinity to the existing and developed cities of Balikpapan and Samarinda; fourthly, supportive infra structures in East Kalimantan; and fifthly, government-owned land property of 180 thousand hectares [2]. Status of geological research in Balikpapan Bay mostly relates to hydrocarbon occurrences in the Lower Kutai Basin, East Kalimantan as this bay is also situated in this lower basin. The studies include the characterization of surface outcrops of facies and stratigraphy of shallow marine and deltaic sequences in the areas of Balikpapan to Samarinda, to see the similarity with subsurface data in order to find a particular succession for a better reservoir geometry prediction [3] The study on geological structures that affect Balikpapan Bay and the surrounding area noticed that the bay is also affected by branch of Adang Fault of dextral strike-slip fault behavior that produce normal faults. The fault was recognized through marine seismic record interpretation in the middle of Makassar Strait [4]. The water depth in the study area is 2–4 m in the north, 6–8 m in the middle, and 8–18 m offshore [5].

Figure 1

Research area and Terrestrial Geology Surrounding Balikpapan Bay [22].

Figure 2

Balikpapan – Penajam Paser Utara Bridge Plan [1].

2 Regional East Kalimantan and Balikpapan’s Bay geology

The regional tectonic of East Kalimantan is characterized by distinct mechanism deformation under compressional forces [6,7] derived from seafloor spreading in the middle of the northern part of Makassar Strait [6,8] (Figure 3). On the other hand, the characteristic geology of east Kalimantan belongs to Kutai Basin, the largest (60,000 km²) and deepest (15,000 m) basin in Indonesia [9]. Basin Tertiary sedimentation has been continuous since the mid- to late Eocene with the depocenter slowly shifting to the Mahakam Delta. Deltaic clastic progradation to the east was started in the west of Kutai Basin since the early Miocene before reaching present-day Mahakam Delta. The lower or eastern part of Kutai Basin is a major oil and gas province, especially in the coastal and offshore areas. This basin was developed above the top of oceanic crust continuous from North Makassar Basin [9] and is surrounded by granite batholith in the southwest (Schwaner Mountain), turbidites of late Cretaceous to early Tertiary in the northwest, and basic igneous rocks of Kalimantan Central Ranges. The eastern side is bounded by the deep North Makassar Basin. Kutai Basin is an extensional basin that formed in a foreland setting relative to the deformed Central Kalimantan Ranges [9]. The extension was initially driven by the continuation of extension in the Celebes Sea and Makassar Straits aided by the gravitational collapse of east Kalimantan orogen. On the other hand, Kutai Basin's location within the eastern edge of the Sunda craton during the Tertiary makes it different from other basins in Indonesia, especially in the western regions. Regionally, East Kalimantan is located on the western side of Makassar Strait and its geotectonic setting which started during the Eocene was influenced by crustal extension from the Celebes Sea spreading center in the north that propagated southwest ward [6] In the beginning, the tectonic of this area was extensional and became compressional in the Plio-Pleistocene era [6,10]. Balikpapan Bay itself is a continuation of the Adang Fault splay in the northern margin of the Paternosfer Platform [4]. The fault is interpreted as the boundary between the platform and North Makassar Basin. Observation on marine seismic records that the fault occurred as a zone consisting of branching dextral transtensional strike-slip faults in the northwest-southeast direction where some are forming normal faults. Basement of basins formed in eastern Kalimantan has affinities to Meratus in the southeast and continued to the north until Sabah, Malaysia where ophiolitic rocks are well exposed [11,12,13]. This eastern Kalimantan suture is assumed occurred at Mid-Cretaceous [10]. Sedimentary basins of the Cenozoic age one of them is Kutai Basin overly this suture. These basins are separated by basement highs and major faults involve the basement. Middle Eocene extension together with the opening of Makassar Strait formed these basins, and they have abundant hydrocarbon reserves resulting from exploration since the beginning of the twentieth century. Of the three basins, the Kutai Basin is the biggest and the deepest [7]. Kutai Basin is underlain by a basement consisting of deformed serpentinites and layered gabbros of Cretaceous age [14] cut by lateral offset basement lineaments of west-northwest to east-southeast orientation [15,16] The basin in the east is characterized by Samarinda Anticlinorium, Mahakam fold and thrust belt, and Mahakam delta [7]. This anticlinorium consists of a series of elongated anticlines and synclines. In addition, the margins of present-day Kutai Basin in the north are Mangkalihat Ridge and Barito-Cross High in the south while in the west Central Kalimantan Ranges consisted of uplifted sedimentary rocks. The unconformable sedimentary succession lies above basement rocks from the middle Eocene to Neogen. Balikpapan Bay lies in the southern part of Kutai Basin which developed during the Tertiary [17], and it is separated from Barito Basin in the south by an approximate basement high Adang Line – Paternoster Fault [7]. The bay itself actually is a fault zone associated with the spreading of Makassar Strait, and since it is a syn-depositional fault zone, the sedimentation process in this bay was affected by this fault [17]. Uplift in Balikpapan Bay occurred twice; the first was at the end of the Middle Miocene, and the second was in the early Pliocene together with the uplift of Meratus Mountains in the south [17]. Basins in eastern Kalimantan belong to a Paleogene lineament feature from the Miocene onward enabling variable reaction to compression derived from Australia–Eurasia collision. North of Adang-Paternoster, lithospheric deformation was widely distributed as observed in Samarinda Anticlinorium which was manifested as uplifts, faulting, and folding. The study area is assumed tectonically active as revealed by the deformation of young age Tertiary rocks. The deformation is represented by dips up to 70° [18]. Rocks from Pre-Tertiary to Late-Tertiary mostly are deformed. Folding at Tertiary rocks reaches a dip of 10°–70° while at the Pre-Tertiary more than 40°. Folds show an inner dip higher than external. Its orientations are north–south and northeast–southwest. Faults consist of normal, thrust, and transform, and their orientation is almost the same as the fold axis [17,18]. Balikpapan Bay it self is a structural depression cut into the coastal plateau as deep as 45 m below the glacial lowered sea level of the Quaternary [18]. Research on rock engineering properties for the bridge foundation purpose at Balang Island in the middle of Balikpapan Bay found that Recent and Holocene sediment thickness at the bridge proposed site is 1.56–4.89 m while the foundation rocks thickness is between 7.03 and 21.6 m. This data was obtained from the interpretation of single-channel seismic tied to the core drilling profile [19]. Observation on drilling cores, foundation rocks were found at 3–4 m below the seafloor. The foundation rocks are deformed which is characterized by anticline and fold and consist of claystone, sandstone, and coal layers of the Middle Miocene age.

Figure 3

Spreading centers in Makassar Strait and its earthquake distribution. Major shallow earthquakes occur close to the western coast of Sulawesi [8].

2.1 Oceanography and coastal environment

Balikpapan Bay is characterized by meso tidal and strong freshwater flow while its shorelines are dynamic due to rapid sedimentation and low morphology either in the foreshores or back shores. The direction of long-shore current is from south and east to north and west while the bay outflow all the time is to the north. The simulation results of current modeling [20] show that there are differences in the pattern of distribution of suspended sediment particles between the west and east monsoons, where the distribution of particles in the west monsoon moves farther and wider than the distribution of particles in the east monsoon. The speed of river currents during the west monsoon is greater, with a value of 0.71 m/s and during the east monsoon, it is 0.2 m/s. Sediment transport is quite low because the currents carrying particles are very weak [21].

There are only a few coastal sands in the estuary mouth. Anthropogenically high rates of sedimentation also appear to result from logging, clearing, and agricultural practices in the catchment area as well as laying accumulation of large soil on steep slopes. In the coastal area, mangroves are the most important which provide protection and sediment stabilization as well as the role in the food chains to maintain local fisheries. Exploitation of mangroves is carried out in the scheme of sustainable development although in reality appears careless.

2.2 Physiography

As a typical tropical estuary, Balikpapan Bay appears as a dendritic fluvial system at present sea level. Since infilled, the bay extends south to the continental shelf. As deep as 50 m, the bay incised the seafloor of Balikpapan Bay. The rising sea level in the Holocene has drawn the bay to form its present estuary. Coastal deposits are absent to the east of Balikpapan Bay while at the west is developed a progradation area consisting of a distinctive Holocene barrier where many coastal villages are situated. Further inland is found an older Pleistocene red sand coastal deposits [18]

The appearance of a shallow bar extending across the mouth of Balikpapan Bay indicates a coastal longshore current from west to east. This phenomenon occurs due to poor development of ebb tide at the mouth and the lack of a flood delta inside the bay [18].

As a consequence, the incoming tide produces minimal flow up-estuary which further prevents pollution upstream from the development and industrialization of the lower estuary.

The geomorphology of Balikpapan Bay’s surrounding area seems controlled by developed structural geology features, as noticed in the geological map (Figure 4 right above). It indicated that the elongated morphology of northeast–southwest orientation consists of thrust faults and folds [22]. On the other hand, the outcrop appeared due to road construction mentioned in Figure 4 belongs to the Mid-Miocene Pulau Balang Formation of the Mid-Miocene age. It was deposited in a shallow sub-littoral deposition environment shown by occurrences of Cycloclypeus sp., Lepidocyclina sp., Miogypsina, Miogypsinoides and Flusculinella fossils with thickness reaches approximately 900 m. Relations with other formations below (Pamaluan Fm) and above (Balikpapan Fm) are conformity [22].

Figure 4

The geomorphology of the terrestrial area surrounding Balikpapan Bay (left above), geology of Balikpapan quadrangle (right above) [22], and the outcrop consisted alternation of quartz sandstone, sandstone, and claystone with coal seam (below) (Note: geomorphology, geology, and outcrop photos are derived from Google Terrain Map, https://lh5.ggpht.com/p/AF1QipM2VGLpkGLZ_AWmDobTl9dnLcd64TcMEkYOIh5E=w3200).

3 Methods

The high-resolution shallow penetration seismic method was used to investigate sea bottom and subsea bottom geology and geological structures in Balikpapan Bay. The equipment used was SBP of strata box odectype which used acoustic signal or wave. This tool utilized an energy source from a transducer that emits acoustic waves and was digitally recorded by GPS positioned atintervals one minute. The signal penetration was limited to less than 100 m.

This tool can be used to characterize seafloor physical properties and geological information a few meters below the sea floor [23]. In current years SBP has been used to map small objects with high resolution results and its ability to collect data quickly without destroying the objects.

The SBP used is a single channel source that emits sound or acoustic waves into the sea- and sub-seafloor. The waves are then reflected by the buried geological targets according to differences in their acoustic impedance or hardness. While acoustic impedance is correlated to the density of the material and the rate at which waves travel through the material. Returned waves at different times and recorded by SBP demonstrate how deep the objects are located below the sea floor.

SBP interpretation was carried out based on the deposition sequence concept developed by [24]. On the records can be observed sediment termination as well as its distribution and its reflection configuration [25,26,27]. For geological structure features of Sub-Bottom Profiles, the interpretation refers to the study by Somoza et al. [28].

4 Results and discussion

4.1 Results

The trajectory of the SBP survey and the displayed records can be seen in Figure 5. Results of SBP analyses show that the seafloor of Balikpapan Bay demonstrates many structural geology of the surrounding bay coastal area.

Figure 5

Survey SBP line and the displayed records.

Some features identified are bedding planes, folds, transform or strike-slip faults, and thrust. Folded sedimentary beds are identified in the SBP records (Figure 6). It represents Balikpapan Formation in the coastal area west of Balikpapan Bay. The formation outcrop reveals the bedding formation (Figure 7). Formation is Late Miocene age. It demonstrates folded layers possibly as the continuation of the north-to-south direction syncline in the geological map. The record location is noted on the left (Figure 5).

Figure 6

Records on the side interpreted as part of the folded Balikpapan Formation (Fm).

Figure 7

Outcrop of Balikpapan Formation bedding plane exposed on land close to Samarinda City north of Balikpapan Bay (Source: https://gprgindonesia.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/dscn08822.jpg).

Figures 8 and 9 demonstrate the transform fault resulting from the interpretation of SBP in the north of Balikpapan Bay. This fault is the continuation of the terrestrial transform fault surrounding the bay and the fault influences Pulau Balang and Balikpapan Formations. Most seismic records in Balikpapan Bay can be separated into two sequences A and B. The Boundary between these two sequences is erosional truncation which is noticed as an eroded part of unconformity surface. Positioned below, sequence A is considered as the acoustic basement the lowest part where it still can be reached by the sound signal. Sequence A is interpreted as deltaic deposits as revealed by chaotic and oblique reflection patterns showing an un-continuous bedding structure. Simple divergent reflection patterns of sequence A in some places can be interpreted as either sedimentary surface uplift or fault (Figure 16).

Figure 8

Bedding planes and northwest to southeast direction fault zone observed in SBP records. It is also interpreted to influence the Balikpapan Formation.

Figure 9

Active strike-slip fault of North–South, SBP line L 30A.

The above or the younger sequence B is shown by free-reflector configuration and simple layers which indicates the uniformity of a stable deposit. The deposition process of this Holocene sediments is continuous, and channels are formed at the upper boundary of this sequence or sea-bottom due to base sea current (Figures 10–14).

Figure 10

Buried thrust fault indication observed in SBP records L52 B. The thrust fault at Balikpapan Formation continued to the bay and was covered by recent marine sediment.

Figure 11

Indication of active strike-slip fault appeared at seafloor.

Figure 12

Bedding planes interpreted parts of Balikpapan Formation.

Figure 13

Line 9A record shows recent marine sediment progrades seaward.

Figure 14

Thrust fault and gas-charged sediment indications noticed in the middle of Balikpapan Bay.

Reflector configuration shows no bedding homogenous sediment consisting of mud or silt of fine grain sizes. Geological structures interpreted from the seismic records are sometimes buried under Recent or Holocene sediments such as faults in line L22 Figure 15 but some appear in the seafloor, line L48 (Figure 16). On the other hand, very active sedimentation in the bay and its vicinity to the mangrove in the coastal area sometimes can be observed as a feature that is interpreted as gas in the seafloor (Figure 15, line L22 right side). Interpretation of the record under gas indication shows a free reflector pattern assumed as gas-charged sediment where gas in the seafloor is derived.

Figure 15

Seismic interpretation of line L22 demonstrates fault indication and gas-charged sediment. Channel at the sea bottom surface possibly represents the Balikpapan Bay distributary channel east side of the bay as the seismic line is located in front of the distributary channel.

Figure 16

SBP interpretation of line L48 demonstrates fault and channel indication. The SBP records all show erosional truncation surfaces between sequences A and B. Reviewers’ comments and author’s answer.

5 Discussion

The shallow geological structures in Balikpapan Bay actually is developed and influenced by the regional Adang Fault through its branch passing through the bay. This fault which is recognized from marine seismic records bounds the Paternosfer Platform in the south with North Makassar Basin [4]. As having a strike-slip character, the fault manifests itself as a normal fault in the research area as shown in some SBP records.

Compressional forces derived from the spreading center in the middle of Makassar Strait seem responsible for the development of folding and thrust faults either in Balikpapan Bay or in terrestrial areas surrounding the bay [6,7,8].

Balikpapan Bay may experience rapid sedimentation problems as its surrounding catchment area experiences accelerated erosion due to land clearance. On the other hand, bay pollution may occur result of lower bay development as well as inappropriate use of mangroves on coastal zones. Further studies related to problems of high sedimentation, sea pollution, sea level changes, and mangroves are recommended.

Tectonism in the area surrounding Balikpapan Bay shows different activity levels where the western part uplifts less than the eastern part. This phenomenon is demonstrated by geological structures being less developed in the west compared to the east. Folds, faults, and thrust are more developed in the east portion of Balikpapan Bay. As demonstrated above, these geological features are observed continued to the bay based on sub-bottom profile analyses. It is assumed that Balikpapan Bay itself was formed due to differences of tectonic activity between the west and east parts as the bay has been noticed as the result of structural geology development. Its coastlines are controlled by some structures such as thrust in the northern bay and transform fault in the middle of Balikpapan Bay; both are at eastern coastlines. Geomorphology of the terrestrial area surrounding Balikpapan Bay shows tectonic control on the formation of landscapes.

6 Conclusions

Analyses of SBP records reveal that Balikpapan’s Bay subsurface geology condition supports terrestrial geology surrounding the bay based on the information derived from the Geological Agency. Many geological structures are observed either in the bottom or sub-sea-bottom Balikpapan Bay, some are thrust and strike-slip fault, dipping bedding planes, and folds. The results of this research are expected to be used as data for regional development and construction of bridges in the waters of Balikpapan Bay. The construction of the bridge seems very important because it can shorten the distance from the city of Balikpapan to the National Capital.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank to colleagues involved in preparing the manuscript, special thanks are dedicated to Mr Yusuf Adam Priohandono for permission to use sub-bottom profiling records. It is acknowledged that surface and sub-sea-bottom geology heavily depend on these records. Thanks also devoted to Marine Geological Institute management for entrusting us to conduct the research in the area that is supposed for New Nation Capital.

Funding information: Authors state no funding involved.
Author contributions: Lukman Arifin and Hananto Kurnio: conceptualization, methodology, resources, writing – original draft preparation, writing – review and editing, and visualization. Susilohadi and Djoni Widodo: formal analysis, investigation, and data curation. Soni Mawardi: software, validation. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Conflict of interest: Authors state no conflict of interest.
Data availability statement: All data used in this manuscript have been provided by the Marine Geological Institute (MGI) of Indonesia. Access to the data requires permission from MGI, which can be contacted at the following address: Balai Besar Survei dan Pemetaan Geologi Kelautan. Jl. Dr. Junjunan no. 236, Bandung-40174, Indonesia, e-mail: bbspgl@esdm.go.id; web site: www.mgi.esdm.go.id.

References

[1] Kementerian Pekerjaan Umum dan Perumahan Rakyat. http://simpulkpbu.pu.go.id/project/read/143/jalan-tol-jembatan-balikpapan-penajam-passer-utara [accessed 28 April 2023].Search in Google Scholar

[2] Eliraz G. The Many Reasons to Move Indonesia’s Capital. 2020. https://thediplomat.com/2020/03/the-many-reasons-to-move-indonesias-capital/.Search in Google Scholar

[3] Septama E, Suseno P, Mustopa C, Nuansa G, Iswanto F, Andi R. How did channel systems survive high sea level periods? new sedimentological 293294 insights from outcrop, modern analogue and subsurface data in the lower Kutai Basin, E. Kalimantan. Berita Sedimentol. 2019;42:5–21.Search in Google Scholar

[4] Nainggolan HB, Argakoesoemah RMI, Wahyudi I, Hidayat A, Shahab MF. Structural description of Adang Fault, Makassar Strait, Indonesia. Proceedings Indonesian Petroleum Association, Thirty-Ninth Annual Convention & Exhibition. 2015.Search in Google Scholar

[5] Sinaga AT, Alfi S, Hariyadi, Franto N. The pattern of distribution of suspended sediment depends on the tidal current model. Balikpapan Bay, East Kalimantan. J Oceanogr. 2013;2(3):329–36.Search in Google Scholar

[6] Wijaya PH, Kusnida D. Tinjauan geotektonik selat makassar utara, implikasinya terhadap potensi hidrokarbon laut dalam cekungan kutai kalimantan timur. J Geol Kelautan. 2009 Dec;7(3):109–21.10.32693/jgk.7.3.2009.176Search in Google Scholar

[7] Witts D, Davies L, Morley RJ, Anderson L. Neogene deformation of east kalimantan: a regional perspective. Proceedings, Indonesian Petroleum Association. Thirty-Ninth Annual Convention & Exhibition. 2015.Search in Google Scholar

[8] Prasetya GS, de Lange WP, Healy TR. The makassar strait Tsunamigenic Region, Indonesia. Nat Hazards. 2001;24:295–307. 10.1023/A:1012297413280.Search in Google Scholar

[9] Moss SJ, Chambers J, Cloke I, Satria D, Ali JR, Baker S. New observations on the sedimentary and tectonic evolution of the Tertiary Kutai Basin, East Kalimantan. In: Fraser AJ, Matthews SJ, Murphy RW, editors. Petroleum geology of Southeast Asia. No. 126. London: Geological Society, Special Publication; 1997. p. 395–416.10.1144/GSL.SP.1997.126.01.24Search in Google Scholar

[10] Hall R, van Hattum MW, Spakman W. Impact of India–Asia collision on SE Asia: the record in Borneo. Tectonophysics. 2008;451(1):366–89. 10.1016/j.tecto.2007.11.058.Search in Google Scholar

[11] Hutchison C Ophiolite metamorphism in northeast Borneo. Lithos. 1978;11:195–208. 10.16/0024-4937(78)900020-8.Search in Google Scholar

[12] Hamilton W Tectonics of the Indonesian region. Washington: US Government Printing Office, 1078; 1979. 345 p. 10.3133/pp1078.Search in Google Scholar

[13] Omang SAK, Barber AJ. Origin and tectonic significance of the metamorphic rocks associated with the Darvel Bay Ophiolite, Sabah, Malaysia. In: Hall R, Blundell DJ, editors. Tectonic evolution of SE Asia. London, UK: Geological Society of London Special Publication; 1996. p. 263–79. (PDF) Neogene deformation of East Kalimantan: A regional perspective. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/280153005_Neogene_Deformation_of_East Kalimantan_A_Regional_Perspective [accessed 14 Dec 2021].10.1144/GSL.SP.1996.106.01.17Search in Google Scholar

[14] Moss SJ, Chambers J. Depositional modeling and facies architecture of rift and inversion episodes in the Kutai Basin, Kalimantan, Indonesia. Proceedings Indonesian Petroleum Association 27th Annual Convention. Jakarta; 1999. 10.29118/ipa.1918.g.188.Search in Google Scholar

[15] Wain T, Berod B,. The tectonic framework and palaeo geographic evolution of the Upper Kutai Basin. Proceedings Indonesian Petroleum Association 18th Annual Convention. Jakarta; 1989. p. 55–78.Search in Google Scholar

[16] Cloke IR, Moss S, Craig J. The influence of basement reactivation on the extensional and inversional history of the Kutai Basin, East Kalimantan, SE Asia. J Geol Soc, London. 1997;154(1):157–61. 10.1144/gsjgs.154.1.0157.Search in Google Scholar

[17] Marbun A. Hydrocarbon source rocks in the Balikpapan Bay area, East Kalimantan, Indonesia. Master of Science thesis. Wollongong, Australia: University of Wollongong; 1992. https://ro.uow.edu.au/theses/2644.Search in Google Scholar

[18] Hopley D. Geological & Geomorphological Input into Tropical Coastal Management: with special reference to Balikpapan Bay, East Kalimantan, Technical Report TE-99/04-E. Coastal Resources Centre, University of Rhode Island, USA; 1999.Search in Google Scholar

[19] Usman E, Budiono K. Identification of hard rock based on shallow seismic interpretation and SPT test for the foundation of bridge at Balang Island, Balikpapan Bay, East Kalimantan. Bull Mar Geol. 2011;26(1):1–14.10.32693/bomg.26.1.2011.30Search in Google Scholar

[20] Suciaty F, Putri K, Tommy H. Study of the distribution of suspended sediment particles in balikpapan bay using dispersal modeling. J Rekayasa Hijau. 2019;3(3):193–203. 10.26760/jrh.v3i3.3430.Search in Google Scholar

[21] Prasetiyo A, Mustaid Y, Mislan. Study of sediment transport in the coastal waters of east Kalimantan using the hydrodynamic model. J Geosains Kutai Basin. 2019;2(1):1–9. E-ISSN 2645-5176 10.30872/geofisunmul.v2i1.348.Search in Google Scholar

[22] Hidayat S, Umar I. Geology of Balikpapan Quadrangle. Scale 1:250,000, Kalimantan. Bandung. Narragansett, RI: Geological Survey Center – Geological Agency; 1994. https://www.amuzigi.com/2016/05/geologi-regional-lembar-balikpapan- kalimantan.html.Search in Google Scholar

[23] Penrose JD, Siwabessy PJW, Gavrilov A, Parnum, I, Hamilton LJ, Bickers A. Acoustic techniques for seabed classification. Cooperative Research Centre for Coastal Zone Estuary and Waterway Management, Technical Report. Curtin University, Western Australia; 2005. p. 32.Search in Google Scholar

[24] Sangree JB, Widmier JM. Seismic stratigraphy and global changes of sea level, part 9: seismic interpretation of clastic depositional facies. In: Payton CA, editors. Seismic stratigraphy – Application to hydrocarbon exploration. Tulsa, Oklahoma: American Association of Petroleum Geologists; 1977. p. 165–84. Memoir 26.Search in Google Scholar

[25] Ringis J. Seismic stratigraphy in very high resolution shallow marine seismic data. Proceedings of the Joint ASCOPE/CCOP Workshop I June 1986 Jakarta. Bangkok,Thailand: CCOP (Coordinating Committee for Geoscience Programmes in East and SoutheastAsia) Technical Secretariat; 1986. p. 115–26.Search in Google Scholar

[26] Posamentier HW, Allen GP. Variability of the sequence stratigraphic model: effects of local basin factors. Sediment Geol. 1993;86:91–109. 10.1016/0037-0738(93)90135-R.Search in Google Scholar

[27] Vail PR, Mitchum Jr RM, Tod RG, Widmier S, Thomson III S, Sangree JB, et al. Seismic stratigraphy and global changes of sea level. In: Payton CA, editor. Seismic stratigraphy-application to hydrocarbon exploration. Memoir, 26. Tulsa, Oklahoma: American Association of Petroleum Geologists; 1977. p. 48–212.Search in Google Scholar

[28] Somoza L, Medialdea T, Terrinha P, Ramos, AandVaquez J-T. Submarine active faults and morpho-tectonics around the iberian margins: seismic and tsunamis hazards. Front Earth Sci. 2021;9:1–25.10.3389/feart.2021.653639Search in Google Scholar

Received: 2023-09-21

Revised: 2023-12-18

Accepted: 2024-08-16

Published Online: 2025-09-09

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Articles in the same Issue

https://doi.org/10.1515/geo-2022-0693

Keywords for this article

geological structures features; terrestrial geology; SBP analysis; Balikpapan Bay

Creative Commons

BY 4.0