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Evaluation of braze welded joints using the ultrasonic method

  • Dariusz Ulbrich EMAIL logo , Jakub Jezierski , Marian Josko and Piotr Banas
Published/Copyright: April 28, 2025
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Open Engineering
From the journal Open Engineering Volume 15 Issue 1

Abstract

Brazed welded joints are increasingly used in the construction of motor vehicle bodies due to the fact that in the process of their manufacture, there is no damage to the zinc coating that protects the body sheet from corrosion. The main objective of the study was to evaluate the adhesion of the braze welded joint to the steel substrate based on measurements of the reflection coefficient |r| of the longitudinal ultrasonic wave. The tests were carried out using a 15 MHz longitudinal wave probe on three series of braze-welded joint samples. Each series was produced at a different setting of the inductance parameter, which allowed to modify the adhesion of the joint. On the basis of ultrasonic testing, it was found that the best adhesion that equals the lowest average value of the reflection coefficient |r| was 0.38. It was obtained by the samples made at the inductance parameter setting of 50%. In addition, all these samples had a small heat-affected zone, small plastic deformation as well as a small number of spalls were recorded. The proposed test technique can form the basis for fast and nondestructive inspection of braze welded joints used in vehicle bodies.

Keywords: ultrasound; adhesion; braze welding joint; ultrasonic wave; car body

1 Introduction

Braze welding is a relatively new method of joining materials, especially in the automotive industry, in which the joint is prepared for welding, and the process itself is usually performed by laser welding, arc welding, or metal inert gas/metal active gas (MIG/MAG) technique [1]. Braze welding, in addition to bonding [2,3], spot welding [4,5], welding [6,7], and riveting [8], is widely used in the manufacturing process, but also in the repair stage of automotive bodies. An example view of a braze welded joint of steel sheets used in the repair process of a car body is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1 The example of a braze welded joint (in red oval) used in the repair of a car body sheet.
Figure 1

The example of a braze welded joint (in red oval) used in the repair of a car body sheet.

A braze welded joint is formed by the molten filler metal wetting the surface of the material to be joined and heated by the heat of the arc, followed by the mutual diffusion of the components of these materials. This is a variation of the MIG/MAG welding process, but the main difference is the temperature at which the welding wire melts. It is much lower than the melting point of the material to be joined. Standard welding wire for MIG and MAG methods melts at a temperature of more than 1,600°C. In contrast, the wire used in the braze welding process has a temperature of less than 1,000°C. The undoubted advantage is that much less heat is introduced into the material, so there are not as many structural changes to the material within the heat-affected zone. In addition, laser brazing joints are airtight at lower process temperatures than in welding, more ductile, and allow the formation of robust joints [9].

In addition to the MIG/MAG method, the braze welded joint can be made with a laser beam [10,11]. Ongoing research related to laser braze joint fabrication involves both the process itself and its improvement [12], as well as numerical studies to design a braze joint of various materials [13]. Ma et al. [14] found that depending on the parameters for producing a brazed joint (current values), the different zones of the joint exhibit different shear strengths. Furthermore, if dissimilar materials are joined, microcracks may occur at the interface or grain boundaries [15]. These cracks then propagate and progress weakening the strength of the joint.

There are few examples in the literature of the use of nondestructive testing in the evaluation of the quality of braze welded joints. One of the nondestructive testing methods for dissimilar joints that allows the detection of cracks is the penetration method [16]. Bobzin et al. [17] proposed testing of braze welded joints using modal analysis and vibration testing at different frequencies. The results of these tests showed the possibility of classifying joints into high- and low-quality groups. Similar results were obtained by Chaudhuri et al. [18], but in this study, evaluation of heat transfer and recording of temperature changes with an infrared camera was used. This allowed the classification of the tested connections. Hua et al. [19] proposed an automatic method for detecting defects in laser-welded joints at the joint of a car roof with the side wall of the body. The method is based on model segmentation and evaluation of the area of separated profiles, measured with a laser sensor. The ultrasonic method has been used to evaluate braze welded joints [20]. This research describes the use of C-Scan, which allows visualization of the joint including the defects.

An analysis of the literature reveals a gap in the area of application of nondestructive methods to assess the quality of braze welded joints. Taking this into account, the main objective of the study was set, which was to evaluate the adhesion of the braze welded joint to the steel substrate on the basis of changes in the reflection coefficient |r| of the ultrasonic longitudinal wave. Achieving the above goal required the preparation of joint samples with varying adhesion of the braze welded joint to the steel sheet. The variation of this parameter was realized by changing the inductance during the process (0, 50, and 100% inductance). The tests performed are nondestructive (non-invasive), so they did not cause changes in the structure of the material and the joint itself. The main novelty in the study of braze welded joints is the use of ultrasonic longitudinal waves. As the analysis of the state of the art has shown, there are few cases of nondestructive testing of braze welded joints, and the use of ultrasound has not been fully explored.

2 Research methodology

The specimens were prepared from sheet DC01 steel; the chemical composition of which is shown in Table 1. It is a cold-rolled sheet made of low-carbon steel for cold forming. The preparation of the samples began with the cutting of two sheets measuring 450 mm in length and 150 mm in width from a sheet of steel 1 mm thick. The surface of the sheet was then machine ground to a small degree with P80-grade sandpaper to remove contaminants and prepare the surface for the braze welding process. Subsequently, the surface was cleaned to get rid of grease and dust left after grinding. The sheets were overlapped with an overlap of about 15 mm, and the braze welded joint was made by hand using a Sherman MTM 251 (Teckweld, Bytom, Poland) welding machine (welding technique: MIG, tungsten inert gas direct current, manual metal arc; welding current: 50–250 A; welding current regulation: smooth). The sample was divided into three parts, where for each part, the joint was made at a different inductance setting (Figure 2).

Table 1

DC01 steel chemical composition [21]

C Mn Si P S Cu Cr Ni Fe
0.12 0.6 — 0.045 0.045 — — — Bal.
Figure 2 View of the braze welded joint of two steel sheets made at different inductance values: I – 0%, II – 50%, and III – 100%.
Figure 2

View of the braze welded joint of two steel sheets made at different inductance values: I – 0%, II – 50%, and III – 100%.

Detailed parameters for the manufacture of braze welded connections are shown in Table 2. Based on them, a certain relationship can be observed. The average value of the voltage decreased slightly with an increase in the inductance setting. At the same time as the previously mentioned voltage decreased, there was a slight increase in welding current. This caused the power used during the process to be kept more or less constant.

Table 2

Braze welding process parameters

Inductance 0% Inductance 50% Inductance 100%
Voltage (V) 17–19 17–18 15–17
Current (A) 23–25 24–26 25–27
Wire type CuSi3Mn1
Wire diameter (mm) 0.8 0.8 0.8
Shielding gas flow (l/min) 10 10 10

The next step was to prepare nine samples of equal dimensions, which included three samples each for a given setting of the inductance parameter. Smaller samples of equal width (25 mm) were cut from one large sample, as shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3 View of the braze welded samples: (a) all samples and (b) samples marked in red oval measuring points.
Figure 3

View of the braze welded samples: (a) all samples and (b) samples marked in red oval measuring points.

Nondestructive testing was conducted using a USM 35XS (Krautkramer GE, Boston, MA, USA) digital ultrasonic flaw detector (frequency: 0.2–20 MHz, gain: 0–110 dB, sound velocity: 1,000–15,000 m/s), equipped with a 15 MHz pen probe (GE, Boston, MA, USA). On each specimen, four evenly spaced points (Figure 3b) were plotted, lying in a single line (the place where the braze welded joint was applied). Taking into account the statistical analysis performed before main test (20 measurements per one point and the repeatability of the measurements), two ultrasonic measurements were set for each measurement point. The tests were carried out at the following ultrasonic flaw detector settings:

  • amplification of the ultrasound wave pulse – 75 dB,

  • scope of observation – 10 mm,

  • ultrasonic wave speed – 5,920 m/s.

The reflection coefficient |r| was taken as a measure of the quality of the braze welded joint. This parameter can be related to the adhesion of the joint, and its value varies depending on the quality of the braze welded joint.

The determination of the reflection coefficient |r| required ultrasonic measurements in two stages:

  • Stage I – first, measurements were made for the sample material, i.e., DC01 cold-rolled steel sheet with a thickness of 1 mm. The amplitude of the first pulse from the bottom of the sheet was recorded. No measurement in the joint area.

  • Stage II – then, the amplitude of the ultrasonic wave pulse was measured at the same ultrasonic apparatus settings as in Stage I but in the braze welded joint application place (measurement from the sheet side).

Based on the changes in the amplitude of the ultrasonic wave pulses from the two stages, ΔW, the decrease in the height of the boundary pulses expressed in dB was determined. ΔW is calculated from the relationship presented below:

(1) ∆ W = 20 × log H 1 h 1 ,

where H 1 is the height of the first (highest) pulse during the measurement in the first stage of testing – measurement on a sheet of 1 mm thickness without applied braze welded joint;

h 1 is the height of the first pulse (the highest) during the measurement in the second stage of testing – at the places where the braze welded joint was applied.

A diagram of the implementation of the first- and second-stage studies is shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4 Ultrasonic testing implementation diagram: (a) stage I, measurements on the steel; (b) stage II, measurement of braze welded joint, 1 – steel sheet, 2 – braze welded joint, 3 – ultrasonic flaw detector, 4 – ultrasonic probe, 5 – ultrasonic wave.
Figure 4

Ultrasonic testing implementation diagram: (a) stage I, measurements on the steel; (b) stage II, measurement of braze welded joint, 1 – steel sheet, 2 – braze welded joint, 3 – ultrasonic flaw detector, 4 – ultrasonic probe, 5 – ultrasonic wave.

Based on the ultrasonic measurements from the above steps, the reflection coefficient was determined

(2) | r | = 10 − ∆ W 20 .

In addition, during ultrasonic measurements, a parameter characterizing the thickness of the sheet metal (joint) under test, defined as Ba, was recorded. In the tests carried out in Stage I, the Ba parameter has a value corresponding to the thickness of the sheet from which the sample is made. When there is local over-melting of the native material from which the sample is made, the signal does not reflect from the border of the steel sheet/braze welded joint, but passes through the joint and reflects only from its outer edge and then returns to the receiver of the ultrasonic probe. In that situation, the Ba parameter corresponds to the thickness of more than one of the joined sheets. In this case, can be encounter a point that is perpendicular to the ultrasonic beam; if this is not the case, then a pulse from the bottom of the joint will not be observed.

3 Result of research

In the first stage of the study, measurements of the amplitude of the ultrasonic wave pulse were made for a single sheet. Based on 20 measurements, it was observed that the average value of the Ba parameter was 0.97, which corresponds to the thickness of one sheet from which the sample is made. In addition, it was found that the average amplitude of the longitudinal wave was H 1 = 38.67% of the ultrasonic flaw detector screen height. Measurements were then realized for samples made at three inductance settings, and representative results for the three selected samples are summarized in Tables 3–5.

Table 3

Results of ultrasonic measurements of a sample performed at 0% inductance

Inductance 0%
No Ba (mm) h 1% ∆W (dB) |r|
1 1.01 23 4.51 0.59
2 1.05 22 4.90 0.57
3 1.04 17 7.14 0.44
4 1.06 23 4.51 0.59
5 1.03 26 3.45 0.67
6 1.03 23 4.51 0.59
7 1.06 20 5.73 0.52
8 1.04 25 3.79 0.65
Table 4

Results of ultrasonic measurements of a sample performed at 50% inductance

Inductance 50%
No Ba (mm) h 1% ∆W (dB) |r|
1 1.02 15 8.22 0.39
2 1.01 16 7.66 0.41
3 1.00 15 8.22 0.39
4 1.01 14 8.82 0.36
5 1.01 13 9.47 0.34
6 1.01 14 8.82 0.36
7 0.96 14 8.82 0.36
8 1.01 15 8.22 0.39
Table 5

Results of ultrasonic measurements of a sample performed at 100% inductance

Inductance 100%
No Ba (mm) h 1% ∆W (dB) |r|
1 1.03 21 5.30 0.54
2 0.98 20 5.73 0.52
3 1.01 21 5.30 0.54
4 1.02 19 6.17 0.49
5 1.02 18 6.64 0.47
6 1.04 20 5.73 0.52
7 1.03 19 6.17 0.49
8 0.99 18 6.64 0.47

Regardless of the inductance setting, the thickness of the sample material is about 1 mm, indicating that the ultrasonic wave reflected from the boundary of the sheet metal-braze welded joint. This may suggest that there was only an adhesive bond (no melting of the steel sheet material) at the measurement points. The lowest values of the amplitude of the ultrasonic wave from the joint area were obtained for the samples made at 50% inductance (14.5% of the ultrasonic flaw detector screen height). In contrast, for the other two groups of samples made at 0 and 100% inductance, the average results of the ultrasonic wave amplitude are 22.4 and 19.5% of the screen height, respectively. These results related to the average amplitude value with measurements from a single sheet allowed estimating the difference in the pulse gain of the boundary pulses of the ultrasonic wave and, further, the reflection coefficient. The values of this parameter range from 0.36 to 0.67, depending on the sample.

4 Analysis of research result

The lowest average reflection coefficient value of 0.38 occurs at an inductance setting of 50%. In this case, the connection has the best properties; that is, the braze welded joint has the greatest adhesion to the steel sheet. The average coefficient value is highest for the inductance setting of 0% and is 0.58. In this case, the reflection coefficient value most closely approaches 1, which indicates the worst connection of all three cases [22]. For an inductance setting of 100%, the calculated parameter is 0.51, which is intermediate between the previous two cases. During the interpretation of the results obtained for the reflection coefficient, it is helpful that the values of this parameter are in the range from 0 to 1 [23,24]. However, it should be noted that a value of 1 indicates a complete lack of connection of the braze welded joint to the substrate (or measurements for the sheet itself) [25]. In contrast, a value of 0 characterizes the best adhesion. Therefore, it should be concluded that the best quality of joint occurs in the case of samples made for an inductance of 50%. The average value of the |r| coefficient for these samples is 25% lower than for samples made for 100% inductance. The average values of the reflection coefficient calculated from all samples are presented in Figure 5.

Figure 5 Average results of the reflection coefficient for braze welded samples manufactured at different inductances.
Figure 5

Average results of the reflection coefficient for braze welded samples manufactured at different inductances.

Furthermore, it was noted that changes in inductance affected the shape of braze welded joints (Figure 6). In the case of an inductance setting of 0% of the total range, the braze welded joint is convex, and during the fabrication process itself, there were difficulties in arranging a correct and aesthetically pleasing braze welding joint. In addition, the occurrence of small spatters is observed in a relatively large number distributed on the surfaces of the sheet up to a certain distance from the solder joint. The smallest heat-affected zone was observed, which can be seen in the form of thermal discoloration of the sheet metal. Thanks to the smallest heat-affected zone, the smallest deformation of joined sheets can be observed. This is undoubtedly advantageous, especially when joining thin materials like body sheets. In the case of the second group of samples, where an inductance setting of 50% of its total range was used, several significant differences can be observed. The first is that the braze welded joint is far less convex than in the first case as well as can be observed a significantly lower number of spatters. The heat-affected zone is already larger than in the previous case, which also carries a greater plastic deformation of the joined parts. In the last or third case, where the inductance setting was 100% of its possible range, the braze welded joint was found to be the least convex. Local slight overmelting of the steel can also be found, which is not favorable for this process, but acceptable to a small degree across the joint.

Figure 6 Cross-section of braze welded steel sheet samples: (a) inductance 0%, (b) inductance 50%, (c) inductance 100%.
Figure 6

Cross-section of braze welded steel sheet samples: (a) inductance 0%, (b) inductance 50%, (c) inductance 100%.

5 Conclusions

On the basis of the study of braze welded joints manufactured with different parameters, the following conclusions can be made:

  • Based on ultrasonic testing with a pen probe, it was found that the best adhesion, i.e., the lowest average value of the reflection coefficient |r| equal to 0.38, was obtained by samples made at an inductance parameter setting of 50%.

  • The quality of the braze welded joints made for 50% inductance, in addition to the |r| coefficient values, was confirmed by visual examination. The specimens had a small heat-affected zone, and plastic deformation as well as a low number of spatters was recorded.

  • Despite the intermediate values of the |r| coefficient for the samples produced at 100% inductance, an additional disadvantage was observed in the form of local sheet overmelt, which for some vehicle manufacturers may disqualify such a braze welded joint from service.

In the next stage of the research, it is planned to relate the value of the wave reflection coefficient to the mechanical strength of the braze welded joint, determined from tensile tests of the specimens. This will be the next step in developing a non-invasive technique for estimating the strength of a joint based on nondestructive testing.

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  1. Funding information: The presented research results were funded by grants for education allocated by the Ministry of Science and Higher Education in Poland.

  2. Author contributions: All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and consented to its submission to the journal, reviewed all the results, and approved the final version of the manuscript. DU: conceptualization, methodology, writing, writing – reviewing and editing, results interpretation. JJ: conceptualization, sample preparation, carrying out research, writing, results interpretation. MJ: methodology, critical revision, funding acquisition. PB: visualization, carrying out research, writing – reviewing and editing.

  3. Conflict of interest: Authors state no conflict of interest.

  4. Data availability statement: The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Received: 2025-01-27
Revised: 2025-02-27
Accepted: 2025-03-14
Published Online: 2025-04-28

© 2025 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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https://doi.org/10.1515/eng-2025-0114
Keywords for this article
ultrasound; adhesion; braze welding joint; ultrasonic wave; car body
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BY 4.0

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