Identification and investigation of corrosion behavior of electroless composite coating on steel substrate

Ahlam Hamid Jasim; Nabaa S. Radhi; Noor Emad Kareem; Zainab S. Al-Khafaji; Mayadah Falah

doi:10.1515/eng-2022-0472

Article Open Access

Identification and investigation of corrosion behavior of electroless composite coating on steel substrate

Ahlam Hamid Jasim , Nabaa S. Radhi , Noor Emad Kareem , Zainab S. Al-Khafaji and Mayadah Falah

Published/Copyright: October 4, 2023

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From the journal Open Engineering Volume 13 Issue 1

Abstract

Because it is essential to avoid toxicity and corrosion in order to enhance the steel components and their aesthetic magnitude used in our everyday life, there has been an increased interest in the electroless field, particularly with regard to the application of nickel-phosphor on steel substrates. In this work, electroless process by nickel low phosphor solution and added titania particles (10–30 µm) to amount of coating solution (0, 5, and 10 g/L) with different coating times (30 and 60 min). Then, many tests were conducted, involving coating thickness, surfaces roughness, hardness, energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy, and linear polarization tests in salt solution that were carried out for substrate and coating layers. Hardness indicates that the mechanical characteristics of the applied coatings with incorporated (TiO₂) reinforcement were far more superior to its own matrix as well as noncomposite nickel coating. The polarization curves conducted by potentiodynamic technique for different coating layers with 3.5% NaCl a medium and find all data by computerize, which shows that the addition of TiO₂ extract improved the corrosion rate (67.58%) than uncoating specimen.

Keywords: corrosion; composite coating; electroless; steel substrate

1 Introduction

The deterioration of metallic due to corrosion results in significant financial losses. There are a significant corrosion impacts on the metal structures of buildings and bridges, as well as the chemical plants and metallurgical equipment, sea ships, river and pipelines underground, and a great deal of other structures [1,2]. Some nations have incurred the expense of conducting corrosion investigations. For instance, corrosion causes losses in America that amount to $100 billion every year, which is equivalent to around about 5% of the country’s total gross domestic product. Costs associated with directly attributable losses due to corrosion include those incurred in the process of substituting specific components, units, plants, or complete lines, in addition to a wide variety of preventative and protective measures (including the use of coatings for corrosion protection). Once rusted, equipment results in faulty items that must be thrown out, and indirect losses are incurred. Corrosion causes a loss of around 30% of cast iron and all steel [3]. A portion of this metal may be processed as scrap, although there is a loss of around 10% of it [4,5].

The deposition of a layer to the metallic surface seems to be the procedure that is shown to be the most successful in preventing the metal from corroding. The coating serves as a protecting barrier between the metallic surface and the surrounding environment. Furthermore, it has the ability to serve as a sacrificial anode [6–10]. The surface might be shielded from environmental assault by the use of a metallic, inorganic, or organic coating, to increase the life of the surface or the life of the complete or component equipment [11]. The existence of metallic coatings, which could either act as sacrificial coatings or act as barrier coatings, boosted the resistance to the corrosion of metals. Electroless plating, chemical and physical vapor depositions, hot-dip galvanizing, high-velocity spray coatings, and electroplating are some of the methods that may be used to create these types of coatings. The primary use for these metal coatings is to protect alloy low steels from the damaging effects of corrosion [12–15].

The coatings provide a deposit that is resistant to corrosion, while the pure material produces the load-bearing capacity. The metal coatings, such as cadmium, copper, nickel, and chromium, are often produced by wet chemical procedures; nevertheless, this method is fraught with difficulties regarding environmental impact [16,17,18]. Many wet approaches have evolved alongside the deposition procedures and will likely play an important part in the further development of that coating [13,14,15,19]. Gold, silver, and copper are also occasionally used for specialized fastening applications, in addition to their uses in electrical devices [20]. Composite deposition seems to be a coating protection method that involves depositing homogeneously inactive particles of a variety of material into the metal matrix; this two-phase coating enhances resistance to corrosion and mechanical characteristics. Composite deposition is also known as “composite plating.” The improvement of these qualities is dependent on the presence of metal particles in addition to the metal matrix. The electrodeposition of composite coatings comprises pure metals or alloy matrix that contains hard particles such as SiO₂, WC, SiC, TiO₂, and Al₂O₃ as second phases [21,22].

Electroless and electro- and composite coatings provide a method that is both cost-effective and efficient for engineering the surface in order to acquire desired properties, including resistance to hardness, wear, abrasion, and corrosion [23–26]. These coatings may be produced by codepositing a variety of second-phase particles into an electroless or electrodeposited alloy matrix or metal. Codepositing is possible with almost any kind of particulate that could be kept in suspension without interacting with the plating bath. Hard particles (such as oxides of Zr, Th, Ti, Si, Ce, and Al; carbides of Cr, W, Ti, and B; nitrides of Si and B; and borides of Ti and Zr; synthetic and natural diamond) and soft particles (such as graphite, CaF₂, MoS₂, polytetrafluoroethylene, and WS2) improved materials such as inorganic fullerene and carbon nanotube. In today’s world, technical interests are being driven by the capacity to manufacture novel composite materials that have desirable features via the use of micro- and nanoparticles. This enhancement is mostly based on the proportion and size of particles that make up the codeposition, as well as the dispersion of these particles throughout the metallic matrix [21,27]. Depending on the assessments of the works that have been published, composite coatings that have been created by electrochemical co-deposition may be divided into three distinct categories [28].

Ni–B–TiO₂ composite coatings have been developed by Antar et al. [29], and they were made by including TiO₂ sol in the bath solution during the preparation process. Several different tests, such as scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction, microhardness testing, progressive load scratch testing, reciprocating sliding testing, and multi-pass scratch testing, have been conducted in order to achieve the goal of conducting a study that was comprehensive. According to the findings, the microstructure of the Ni–B matrix was significantly altered as a consequence of the presence of crystalline or amorphous TiO₂ structures. Because of its compact structure, the Ni–B deposit exhibited greater scratch reaction and better wear resistance as a result of using this material. Ashassi-Sorkhabi and Rafizadeh [30] explored the effects of thermal treatment and coating duration on the corrosion behaviors of electroless Ni–P covered on mild steel specimen and exposed to 3.50% solution of NaCl. Their findings showed that heat treatment and coating time had a substantial effect on the corrosion behaviors. They have demonstrated that an increase in time that the electroless Ni–P coating is applied to specimens of mild steel results in a reduction in the corrosion rate for those samples.

The Ck-45 was produced by Ashtiani et al. [31]. A nickel–phosphorus alloy was already electroless-coated onto steel using a bath that comprises sodium hypophosphite in addition to a range of complexing agents. The coating was produced via electroless coating (including lactic acid, sodium citrate, and sodium acetate). Researchers have investigated the effects that a wide range of complexing agents have on the composition of phosphorus, as well as the hardness of deposits, their morphology, and structures. Latha et al. [32] have conducted research on the electroless nickel plating process using an optimum bath by varying the deposition period from 21,800 swhile maintaining a temperature of 80°C and a pH of 4. In order to investigate the reflectance surface of deposits, elemental composition, structure, and morphology, an X-ray diffractometer, spectroscopic investigations, energy-dispersive X-ray analyses, an atomic force microscope (AFM), and a SEM were used.

Utilizing Box-Behnken Design (BBD) experiments, Sarkar et al. [33] concentrate on the parametric optimizing of electroless Ni-Co-P coating utilizing surface roughness as a response. To forecast the fluctuation in surface roughness, two bath parameters—the concentration of sodium hypophosphite and cobalt sulphate—were adjusted in conjunction with the bath temperature. In order to ascertain the interactions of the significant components that predominate the coating's surface roughness, the analysis of variance (ANOVA) approach was used. Under ideal circumstances, the coating's as-deposited surface roughness is determined to be 0.913 μm. The goal of this research was to reduce the surface roughness to a minimal level. The procedure of electroless duplex Ni–P coating deposition was carried out by Wasserbauer et al. [34] and involved a low-phosphorus Ni–P (5.70 wt% of P) coating, which served as a bond coating, and a high-Ni–P coating (11.5 wt% of P) phosphorus, which has been placed on top. On top of the AZ-91 Mg alloy, duplex Ni–P coatings with thicknesses of 25, 50, 75, and 100 μm were deposited. The electrochemically coated AZ-91 Mg alloy corrosion behaviors were explored using the electrochemical potentiodynamic polarization and impedance spectroscopy method in 0.10 M NaCl, 3.50 wt% NaCl, 10% solution of NaOH and HCl, and 5% of the neutral salt spray. In contrast to the AZ-91 Mg alloy that was not coated, the resistance of corrosion for the coated specimens has been detected to be significantly enhanced, as shown by the findings that were achieved. In the research that Radhi et al. [8,35] produced, the idea of a composite coating achieved by co-deposition coating is presented. It was determined that whether or not the incorporation of ZrO₂ particles into the electroless deposited solution resulted in an enhancement in the characteristics of the Ni–P alloy coatings. The specimens of stainless steel (SS) were electroless coated with Ni–P and ZrO₂ with microparticles ranging in size from 30 to 70 μm in three various amounts of 0–10–20 g/L. The specimens were analyzed using SEM and AFM, and the micohardness and wear characteristics were determined.

This investigation aims to protect low carbon steel by the electroless process with different coating times (30 and 60 min) to Ni–Pb and Ni–Pb by adding titania with (0, 0.5, and 1) wt% tacking in nickel high phosphor solution as a suspension to consideration that incorporation of titania (TiO₂) in nickel phosphor matrix to produce composite sacrificial coatings decreases cost and enhancing corrosion resistance in seawater.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Production of substrate and coating deposition

Low carbon steel samples with sizes of 1 cm in diameter and 0.1 cm in thickness are coated with Ni–P using the electroless process. For coating deposition using the electroless technique, the precise substrate preparation was crucial. Acetone is used to degrease the samples after the samples were properly cleansed with 10% NaOH. The substrates were subjected to a pickling procedure in a 30% HCl solution to remove any corrosion products, surface oxides, or rust coatings. The substrate was properly washed in deionized water at each stage. The specimens were then activated by briefly dipping them into warm palladium chloride (maintained at 55°C). Even if the specimens are catalytically active, this step is, nevertheless, applied to them so that the deposition process may begin once they were submerged in the electroless bath, resulting in a rapid deposition rate, strong substrate adherence, and thick coatings.

The electroless bath was thus created in the meantime, and Table 1 lists its operational characteristics and composition. Titania was added to the coated solution at 0, 0.5, and 1 g/L, and the deposition was performed in a 150 mL bath that was kept at a temperature of 90°C for 30 and 60 min. NaOH was used to bring the pH of the solution to 5. The magnetic breakdown of the plating bath is used while it is stirred at 300 rpm. In order to achieve homogeneity in all of the deposited specimens, the chemicals were combined in the proper order and with care to preserve the composition consistency of the bath. Figure 1 depicts the electroless plating cell. The same was done using a highly precise weighing balance (AFCOSET ER 182-A) with a 0.01 mg readability. After deposition, the specimens were heated at 350°C for 1 h in a vacuum oven. The heat was turned off after 1 h, and the coated pins were left in the furnace to cool gently. 0.01 mg readability. The specimens were heated at 350°C for 1 h in a vacuum oven after deposition. The heat was turned off after 1 h, and the coated pins were left in the furnace to gently cool.

Table 1

Bath composition and operational situations of the baths used [31]

Bath composition and operational situations
Nickel sulfate (g/L)	30
Sodium hypophosphite (g/L)	25
Sodium citrate (g/L)	20
Thiourea (mg/L)	2
Temperature (°C)	90 ± 1
pH	5
Coating time (min)	30 and 60
Titania (g/L)	0, 5, and 10

Figure 1

Apparatus of the electroless coating process [35].

2.2 Tests

This study followed the steps of the planned tests to assess the performance of the coating layers.

2.2.1 Measurements of coating thickness

The coating thickness of gage kind is used to carry out the process (TT 260). The precision of the gadget is ±0.1 µm. In this manner, tests were conducted in three different locations to give an mean specimen thickness. The experiment was performed on Ni–Pb and Ni–Pb–TiO₂ layers, with titania added to the coating solution at a rate of either 5 or 10 g/L, and the coating time was either 30 or 60 min once the steel sample was coated.

2.2.2 Surface roughness test

The surface roughness of the low-carbon steel (L.C.S) sample coated by Ni–Pb and Ni–Pb–TiO₂ layer with titania (5 and 10 g/L) for 30 and 60 min as a coating duration by utilizing of the (TR-100 surface roughness tester) that is placed at the faculty of Material Engineering at the University of Babylon. The measurements were taken on the coated low-carbon steel specimen. The device is moved over the surface of the specimens in order to obtain a measurement of the surface’s roughness. The instrument has a sensor that measures the surface roughness of the specimens, and the reading is obtained directly from the device screen. The precision of the instrument is ±0.01 μm.

2.2.3 Hardness test

In the College of Material Engineering at the University of Babylon, a Vickers hardness (TH-717 Digital Vickers Hardness Tester) was used to determine the hardness of Ni–Pb and Ni–Pb–TiO₂ layers introduced titania by 0, 5, and 10 g/L and with coating time of 30 and 60 min. to coat steel sample and steel substrate without coating samples. The applied load was 200 N, and the holding time was 10 s.

2.2.4 SEM

The surface deposit-layer morphology on the steel samples, including Ni–Pb and Ni–Pb–TiO₂ layers with added titania at concentrations of 0, 5, and 10 g/L and with coating times of 30 and 60 min, respectively, was determined by an SEM model manufactured by the FEI company (Inspect S50), and the experiment was carried out at the College of Pharmacy and the University of Babylon.

2.2.5 Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy

An energy-dispersive X-ray model, manufactured by the FEI firm and referred to as the Inspect S50, was used as an analytical approach to estimate the element percentage for every layer of coated sample. Ni–Pb and Ni–Pb–TiO₂ layer added titania by the amount of 0, 5, and 10 g/L and with coating times of 30 and 60 min. The test was carried out at the faculty of pharmacy/University of Babylon.

2.2.6 Corrosion test

2.2.6.1 Open circuit potential (O.C.P.)

The O.C.P., sometimes called the equilibrium potential or open circuit voltage, is the potential at which no current is supplied to the cell. It is also recognized as the potential at which the cell is in equilibrium. It is a simple yet valuable method that calculates the variation in potential between the working and the reference electrodes. The O.C.P (voltage vs. time) was recorded and measured every 300 s for all of the specimens, including those with Ni–Pb and Ni–Pb–TiO₂ layers, adding titania at concentrations of 0, 5, and 10 g/L, and coated steel and the low-carbon steel samples in a salt solution containing 3.5% salt, as a solution for corrosion sodium chloride was used.

2.2.7 Linear polarization test

Test procedures for linear polarization were designed in accordance with ASTMG5-94 [36]. This test was carried out by using the potentiodynamic polarization test type (Mlab Sci-Electwchemica) in salt solution for uncoated, Ni–Pb, and Ni–Pb–TiO₂ layer added titania by amounts of 0, 5, and 10 g/L and with coating times of 30 and 60 min at a temperature of 30°C. Investigations using potentiodynamic polarization were conducted in a three-electrode cell that also included an electrolyte salt solution. The derivation of the corrosion rate measurements is as follows [14]:

(1) The rate of corrosion ( mpy ) = 0.1288 i corr . ( E .W . ) / A ⋅ ρ ,

where E. W. is the equivalent weights (g/eq.), A is the area (cm²), ρ is the density (g/cm³), 0.1288 is the conversion parameter for duration and metric, and i _corr is the current density (μA/cm²).

By using the following formula to the coated samples, we were able to determine the percentage of enhancement [14]:

(2) Enhancement percentage = ( CR 0 – CR / CR 0 ) × 100 ,

where CR₀ is the corrosion rate of master sample (without coating), and CR is the corrosion rate of coated sample (with Ni–Pb–TiO₂ and Ni–Pb layers).

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Thickness findings

For coating samples, the thickness is 24.81 and 38.80 μm for Ni–Pb with coating times of 30 and 60 min and Ni–Pb–TiO₂ with coating times of 30 and 60 min. for 0.5 and 1.0 wt% of titania. Specimens have a titanium weight percentage of either 0.5 or 1.0. The findings indicated that an increase in coating duration and an increase in the proportion of titanium dioxide that was applied led to an increase in the deposit rates of the Ni–Pb coating layers. This may be explained by the significant layer thickness that precipitates from the electroless solution onto the specimen after Ni–Pb–1.0TiO₂ has been in contact with it for 60 min. Based on these findings, it may be deduced that the deposit rates of the most recent coating layers are quite high. The existence of TiO₂ is responsible for the high diffusivity of the species, which may be linked to this finding. On the other hand, as demonstrated in Figure 2, the rate of thickness increased along with the number of TiO₂ particles that were present. Table 2 illustrates the impact of coating period and added percentage of titania (TiO₂) to electroless coating solution of nickel, and also demonstrates that the coating thickness increases with an increase in coating time and TiO₂ % obstructed in nickel composite layer on the surface of steel sample. The coating thickness increases with an increase in coating period and TiO₂ % impeded in nickel composite layer on the surface of steel sample.

Figure 2

Results of average coating thickness.

Table 2

Coating thickness test finding

Type coating	Mean (μm)
Ni–Pb 30 min	24.81
Ni–Pb 60 min	38.80
Ni–Pb–0.5TiO₂, 30 min	31.15
Ni–Pb–0.5TiO₂, 60 min	46.33
Ni–Pb–1.0TiO₂, 30 min	37.45
Ni–Pb–1.0TiO₂, 60 min	51.68

3.2 Surface roughness

The findings of the surface roughness test performed on the composite coating surface are shown in Table 3. It is stated here that the surface was rougher when the amount of titania in the coating solution was 1.0 wt% TiO₂. Then, the surface roughness increased with increasing the amount of titania in the coating solution until it achieved the roughest surface possible once the amount was 0.5 wt% TiO₂. Depending on the findings of the coating thickness test, the coating thickness and the surface roughness rise along with an increase in the percentage of titanium dioxide that is inhibited in the nickel composite layer on the surface of the steel sample (Figure 3).

Table 3

Surface roughness test finding

Type coating	Mean (μm)
Ni–Pb 30 min	0.589
Ni–Pb 60 min	0.677
Ni–Pb–0.5TiO₂, 30 min	1.415
Ni–Pb–0.5TiO₂, 60 min	1.534
Ni–Pb–1.0TiO₂, 30 min	1.599
Ni–Pb–1.0TiO₂, 60 min	1.647

Figure 3

Results of average surface roughness.

3.3 Hardness test

The hardness test assessed the impact of Ni–Pb (30 and 60 min) and Ni–Pb–TiO₂ (30 and 60 min) for 0.5 and 1.0 wt% of titania electrodeposited coating on the hardness magnitudes 198 HV of low-carbon SS. These tests were carried out for a period of 30 and 60 min, respectively. It was also carried out to determine the impact of introducing ceramic particles titania (TiO₂) with 10–30 m particle size with varied quantities to nickel solution with additional percent of 0.0, 0.5, and 1.0 wt% on the hardness magnitude of Ni–Pb coating and steel with low-carbon magnitudes. The findings of the hardness test for the steel samples and the Ni–Pb–TiO₂ layers are shown in Figure 4 and Table 4, respectively. The variation in the volume percentage of titania present in each layer is the root cause of the observed disparity in the hardness magnitude between Ni–Pb–TiO₂ and other layers. The Hall–Petch correlation that claims that the hardness of the material is directly influenced by the size of the particles, which may be used to provide a mathematical explanation for this phenomenon:

(3) H V = H o + K / d ,

where H _V is the hardness of the material with small particle size, H _o is the hardness of the material with various sized particles (polycrystalline particle size). K is the constant, which refers to the H _V hardness slope once plotted and based on the material sort. d is the diameter of the particle.

Figure 4

Results of microhardness.

Table 4

Hardness test results

Type coating	Hardness HV	Improvement %
Uncoated specimen	198	—
Ni–Pb 30 min	227	14.64
Ni–Pb 60 min	239	20.70
Ni–Pb–5TiO₂, 30 min	276	39.39
Ni-Pb–5TiO₂, 60 min	291	46.96
Ni–Pb–10TiO₂, 30 min	313	58.08
Ni–Pb–10TiO₂, 60 min	347	75.25

Once comparing ultra-fine microstructures with coarser-grained ones made from the same kind of hardened material, the Hall–Petch correlation becomes a hypothesis that attempts to explain whether ultra-fine microstructures have greater hardness magnitudes than the coarser-grained ones. After being coated with nickel low phosphor 227 H _V and 239 H _V, the hardness of the samples that had not been coated was increased. In addition, increasing the amount of additional percent from TiO₂ (0.5 and 1 wt%) may enhance the hardness from 276 H _V to 292 H _V to 313 H _V and 347 H _V. These findings correspond with those of Dawood et al. [14]. This enhancement is attributable to the enhancement in depth morphology and distribution, as well as the rise in TiO₂ thickness, both of which are clearly visible in the data as shown in Figure 4 and Table 4.

3.4 SEM finding

Figure 5(a–d) shows the SEM microstructure of Ni–Pb–TiO₂-electrodeposited specimens at 30 and 60 min for 0, 0.5, and 1.0 wt% of titania. The numbers make it abundantly evident that the quantity of TiO₂ was also steadily rising over the past several years. On the base material, the TiO₂ particles are deposited so as to generate clusters that have the appearance of a dense, aggregated composition.

Figure 5

SEM images for coating layers: (a) Ni–Pb 30 min, (b) Ni–Pb 60 min, (c) Ni–Pb–0.5%TiO₂ 60 min, and (d) Ni–Pb–1TiO₂ 60 min.

3.5 Corrosion test

The corrosion test was carried out with a potentiodynamic polarization test in a salt solution containing 3.5%NaCl (seawater solution) for uncoated, Ni–Pb 30 and 60 min, and Ni–Pb–TiO₂ 30 and 60 min for 0.5 and 1.0 wt% of titania specimen at a temperature of 30°C and a surface area of 78.539 cm². Table 5 displays the corrosion variables that were derived from these curves. These variables include the corrosion rate, the corrosion current, and the corrosion potential.

Table 5

Rate of corrosion (CR) and enhancement percent of uncoated and coated specimens in salt solution

Sample code	i _corr. (μA/cm²)	E _corr. (mV)	Rate of corrosion (mpy)	Enhancement %
Uncoated specimen	20.27	−346	46.316	—
Ni–Pb 30 min	17.76	−262	40.581	12.38
Ni–Pb 60 min	15.4	−437	35.189	24.02
Ni–Pb–5TiO₂, 30 min	12.98	−454	29.659	35.96
Ni–Pb–5TiO₂, 60 min	10.74	−242	24.540	47.01
Ni–Pb–10TiO₂, 30 min	7.73	−463	17.663	61.86
Ni–Pb–10TiO₂, 60 min	6.57	−178	15.012	67.58

As contrasted with untreated low-carbon steel samples, coated ones exhibit a considerable change in a positive direction and have a more noble potential. This is because coatings function as a barrier against the attack of aggressive an ions, which helps to effectively enhance resistance to corrosion [14].

The addition of TiO₂ particles resulted in a reduction in the porosity. This theory is backed by the observation that the presence of particles results in a considerable reduction in the porosity as well as the corrosion current density. This is because these small particles have the potential to clog the pores, causing this effect. With the incorporation of TiO₂ particles into the nickel solution, the current density of the corrosion was lowered to its minimum value (Table 5).

4 Conclusion

The findings of the tests and the study led the researchers to the following conclusions:

All selected coatings confirmed that the Ni–Pb–TiO₂ and Ni–Pb coating composites are wholly covered by nanoparticles with approximately 10–30 µm particle size.
All samples coated with electroless process (Ni–Pb) and added titania to coated solution bath with 0, 5, and 10 g/L and at 30 and 60 min as coating time.
Ni–Pb–TiO₂ composite layer provided a stable structure with a good surface mechanical and crystallization bonding level due to the good interaction between TiO₂ and the Ni–Pb matrix.
The Vickers hardness values of the Ni–Pb–TiO₂-coated specimens at various TiO₂ amounts (0, 5, and 10 g/L) with different coating times (30 and 60 min) were 14, 20, 39, 46, 58, and 75%, respectively.
The coated low carbon steel sample by Ni–Pb–TiO₂ showed an improvement of 67% in corrosion rate, which increased with increasing the added titania.

p123005@siswa.ukm.edu.my, Zeinab.radi@alayen.edu.iq

Acknowledgments

The Ministry of Higher Education, University of Babylon, and Al-Mustaqbal University are gratefully acknowledged (Grant number: MUC-E-0122). This research was carried out in the laboratory at the University of Babylon.

Conflict of interest: Authors state no conflict of interest.

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Received: 2023-03-30

Revised: 2023-05-24

Accepted: 2023-06-01

Published Online: 2023-10-04

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Articles in the same Issue

https://doi.org/10.1515/eng-2022-0472

Keywords for this article

corrosion; composite coating; electroless; steel substrate

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