Home Technology Effect of the 40-PPI copper foam layer height on the solar cooker performance
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Effect of the 40-PPI copper foam layer height on the solar cooker performance

  • Suhaib J. Shbailat EMAIL logo , Raghad Majeed Rasheed , Rahim J. Muhi and Akeel Abdullah Mohammed
Published/Copyright: September 30, 2023
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Open Engineering
From the journal Open Engineering Volume 13 Issue 1

Abstract

Two box-type solar cooker (BTSC) prototypes were tested to examine thermal performance under identical conditions. The first box solar cooker used an absorber plate fabricated from copper, and the second box solar cooker used 40 pores per inch (PPI) of copper foam sheets. Many experiments on solar cookers were carried out in September 2022 in Baghdad, Iraq, where the solar cookers were directed to the south and situated at latitude 33.3°N and longitude 44.4°E. In the experimental testing, copper metal foam 40 PPI is used as a heat absorber plate at various absorber plate heights (1, 3, 5, and 7 cm). The results showed that the solar cooker with a 40 PPI copper foam absorber experienced a stagnation temperature of roughly 17° higher compared to a BTSC with a standard absorber. A copper foam 40 PPI absorber plate can reduce cooking time in a BTSC by as much as 23% compared to a standard flat absorber plate. The percentage of increase in the solar cooker’s internal temperature with an increase in absorber plate height from 1 to 7 cm for 40 PPI copper foam absorber plate is approximately 16.1%. The acceptable range for the equation of cooking power indicates that the cooker can be relied upon for consistently cooking food and boiling water.

Keywords: box-type solar cooker; 40; PPI copper foam; absorber plate height; cooking power; cooking time

1 Introduction

The importance of reliable energy sources to a country’s economic, social, and political growth cannot be overstated [1]. Sustainable development suffers from energy shortages. Investment, technology, and institutions evolve for future generations [2]. Solar cookers reduce nonrenewable energy use as firewood use and smoke exposure. Heat-trap boxes, parabolic, and panel solar cookers are the most popular. The most common solar cooker is cheap and simple [3]. Designing an efficient solar cooker is tough due to many factors. Solar cooker absorber plate modification helps users [4]. Energy inefficiency makes the solar box cooker (SBC) prepare meals too slowly. Iraq has not adopted solar cookers like other countries. Redesigning the absorber plate promotes solar cookers [5]. The following are some of the methods reported by different researchers in their literature for enhancing the box-type solar cooker (BTSC). Harmim et al. [6] compared finned absorber plate box solar cookers. The finned absorber improves cooker air heat transmission. With a 50 cm by 0.08 cm cross-sectional area, the fins are 5 cm long and 4 cm apart. The comparison trials in July 2008 used Adrar’s familiar environment. The finned absorber plate cooker boiled water faster than the normal one. Stagnation and water heating were tested. The finned absorber plate “B” consistently increased the stagnation temperature of hot air in the cooker compared to the standard absorber plate “A” throughout testing. Fin reflections heat the absorber plate. “B” hit 135.50°C, whereas “A” reached 125.60°C. “B” stagnated 7° higher than “A.” Each cooking utensil was filled with 1.5 L of constant-temperature water. “B” boils water faster than “A” (99.50°C). “B” boiled water in 18 min, 11% faster than “A.” “B” heated water faster than “A.” The “B” cooker’s air temperature exceeded the “A” cooker because the absorber plate’s fins transferred heat. Lahkar et al. [7] proposed employing the cooker opto-thermal ratio (COR) as a universal new triphenylphosphine (TPP). A speedier, single-step test can quantify COR and compare cooker performance. COR is calculated by dividing optical efficiency and concentration ratio (C) by heat loss factor (UL). High C and low UL improve performance. Three caveats were analyzed from the Hottel–Whillier–Bliss Model equation. First, for concentrating collectors. Second, an overall stove efficiency TPP helps. Finally, the proposed test approach is simple and consistent with the study’s goal (the standard fluid) because it employs load temperature values exclusively. Cookers are tested. This study focused on box and parabolic concentrator cookers. The opto-thermal ratio of box cookers was 0.136 and of concentrating cookers was 0.155. COR aids stove selection. Temperature, wind, and radiation should not affect COR. Sethi et al. [8] presented a box-shaped solar cooker with a booster mirror at the proper angle and a parallelepiped cooking vessel that works in winter. The parallelepiped vessel’s longer south wall and trapezoidal lid chamber promote heat transfer to food. In January 2010, a horizontally positioned cylindrical cooker was tested in Ludhiana, India (30°N 77°E). Compared to horizontal cookers (F1 = 0.14 and F2 = 0.43), inclined cookers had the first figure of merit (F1) and the second figure of merit (F2) of 0.16 and 0.54, respectively. In comparison to the horizontal cooker, the inclined cooker’s parallelepiped cooking vessel was 37% more efficient at boiling water (spoil) and had 40% more cooking power. A mathematical model calculated the total solar radiation available on the absorber plate of an inclined and horizontal cooker. The larger sunbeams and more solar radiation capture make the former cook better. Booster mirror inclination angles (w for inclined cookers and k for horizontal cookers) were determined monthly for latitudes (10°N, 20°N, 30°N, 40°N, and 50°N) to optimize the reflected component of the solar energy flux impinging on the absorber plate. Geddam et al. [9] proposed box cookers with concentrator ovens, and solar cooker temperatures have increased. The most popular is the BTSC, which can reach 100°C. Most Indian dishes require boiling water. Therefore, these temperatures are fine. A fancy slow cooker may cook too slowly or not at all. Design affects solar cooker heat performance. Design parameters, optical efficiency, and heat capacity are needed for a qualitative thermal performance analysis and material selection for a BTSC. This article offers a tested way to derive these parameters from F2 data obtained experimentally for varied water loads, predicts heating characteristic curves, and validates the proposed methodology by comparing predicted values to experimental values. Saxena and Karakilcik [10] evaluated how low-cost thermal storage improves cooking efficiency. A solar collector’s optimal ratio of sand and granular carbon was investigated. The 4:6 sand-to-carbon ratio stored heat the longest at high temperatures. This is the SBC’s thermal heat storage. These tests were done in Moradabad, India, where the weather is similar to the lab. The overall heat loss coefficient was 3.01 W/m2°C, the F1 was 0.13 m2 °C/W, and the second was 0.44 m2 °C/W. The cooking power was 44.81%, and the thermal efficiency was 37.1%. The process could cook without sunshine. Nayak et al. [11] presented a box-shaped solar cooker in Talcher, Odisha, India. Thermal testing was carried out on a BTSC with a finned cooking vessel. The experiment employed a box-style solar cooker with equal-sized finned and unfinned pots. Fins elongate the surface, transferring oven heat to the cooking pot more efficiently. Solar cookers were regularly tested. The 1 L water loads were employed in the September–July 2016 research. Cooking efficiency parameters were pot type, solar intensity, and local time. An unfinned pot achieved 93 and 102°C in sunny weather but 70 and 76°C in gloomy weather. A finned pot’s efficiency is 53%, and that of an unfinned pot is 50% under foggy conditions, but 72 and 54%, respectively, in clear conditions. Sunlight and the cooking pot affected the temperature. Modern solar cookers are inexpensive and simple. Ukey and Katekar [12] proposed octagonal box solar cookers to maximize heat and energy capture. Solar rays quickly cook. The modified cooker must have eight sloping sides. Copper-base plates retain cooking heat. New cooker gives first figure of merit as 0.3027 and second figure of merit as 0.607. Cooking power is 19.767 W. Octagonal solar cookers have 38.36% efficiency. BTSCs have 23.52% less cooking power and 26.55% less efficiency than the revised octagonal cooker. The adapted solar cooker meets the Bureau of Indian Standards “A grade” criteria. Engoor et al. [13] assessed the BTSC’s thermal performance using two Fresnel Lens Magnifiers (FLMGs) to concentrate sun irradiation on the cooker surface. With FLMG, thermal performance was assessed in both settings. Efficiency was measured by stagnation, load, and cooking power. The FLMG raised the first and second figure of merit to 0.12 and 0.45 m2 °C/W, respectively. Data linear regression gave standardized cooking power for a 50°C temperature difference. Cooking power rose from 43.83 to 46.87 W at 50°C with the magnifier. Solar energy transmittance averaged 72.26%. The geometric concentration ratio rose 48.7% with an FLMG. The solar cooker’s energy efficiency increased from 29.6 to 32.04% with the FLMG. Vengadesan and Senthil [14] presented the box-style solar cooker for tropical households. This experiment examines solar cooker pots with aluminum fins. Two cylindrical aluminum cooking containers without fins and two with fins of 25, 35, or 45 mm cook water for 5 days. All four combinations hit 102°C. Testing outside lasts 2–3 h at 90°–100°. Heat transmission is 58.54 W/m2 °C, and thermal efficiency is 56.03%. The 45 mm finned pot boils water for 2 h and 17 min. In stagnation and sensible heating tests, finned cooking pots perform better because of their increased heat transfer surface [15].

1.1 Problem statement

It is clear from a survey of the existing literature that researchers have not yet examined how different absorber plate geometries and positions affect the efficiency of BTSCs. This paper’s primary deliverable is a set of experimental results from the solar cooker with a porous absorber plate. The porous absorber consists of metal foam of 40 pores per inch (PPI) cooper foam. The porous absorber increases the speed at which heat is transferred to the cooker’s air.

2 Materials description

The absorber plates of the two BTSCs created for use in the wild are different shapes but are identical. A schematic representation of the solar cooker as a box utilized for the experiments is shown in Figure 1. Solar cookers in the shape of boxes were constructed with the assistance of local professionals using materials that were easily accessible. The experimental solar cookers are comprised of two SBCs that are identical to one another. The date palm bark that lines the interior of the wooden box serves as insulation for the case’s contents. The top of the cooker is made of glass and features a hinge that allows it to be opened to an angle of 45°. It is fastened to the casing on one side. The glass cover enables more of the sun’s rays to penetrate the cookers while also preventing heat loss that would otherwise result from the cookers’ being exposed to the surrounding environment. The door that opens at an angle of 45° is constructed of two panels of glass that are separated by 2 cm. The thickness of each glass panel is 6 mm.

Figure 1 Schematic sketch of the box-type solar cookers.
Figure 1

Schematic sketch of the box-type solar cookers.

The first box solar cooker used an absorber plate fabricated from copper, and the absorber copper plate was fixed to the bottom side of the solar cooker. The dimensions of the absorber plate sheet were 50 cm in length, 60 cm in width, and 1 mm in thickness. The second box solar cooker used 40 PPI copper foam sheets and has a size of 50 × 60 cm2 and a thickness of 10 mm. The final form in which the application of the copper foam plates would be performed is shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2 Photograph of the copper foam sheets (40 pores per inch).
Figure 2

Photograph of the copper foam sheets (40 pores per inch).

In the experimental testing, 40 PPI copper metal foam is used as a heat absorber plate at various absorber plate heights (1, 3, 5, and 7 cm), and the results of these tests are compared to those of a standard flat absorber plate to determine which provides superior performance. As indicated in Figure 3, the absorber plate height of the copper foam sheet can be set by lifting it from the four sides using load screws fixed to the solar cooker’s wooden frame.

Figure 3 Schematic diagram of a solar cooker with different absorber plate heights: (a) 1 cm, (b) 3 cm, (c) 5 cm, and (d) 7 cm.
Figure 3

Schematic diagram of a solar cooker with different absorber plate heights: (a) 1 cm, (b) 3 cm, (c) 5 cm, and (d) 7 cm.

3 Experimental study

The thermal performance of two prototypes of BTSCs was compared in an experimental study conducted under identical conditions. Many experiments were carried out in September 2022 in Baghdad, Iraq, where the solar cookers were directed to the south and situated at latitude 33.3°N and longitude 44.4°E. To collect the potential solar energy during each trial, two identical cookers were set up side by side on a common stand. They manually rotated 15° in either direction every 15 min. In the study, two BTSCs were used, shown side by side on the experimental platform in Figure 4.

Figure 4 Photographic picture for experimental apparatus.
Figure 4

Photographic picture for experimental apparatus.

Numerous test procedures have been done, as outlined below [6]:

  • Stagnation test: Both cookers were placed in direct sunlight simultaneously without food.

  • Water heating test: each cooker had a cooking vessel containing the same quantity of water heated to the same temperature on its absorber plate.

  • The height of the absorber plate within the metal foam layer in the cooker was measured at several intervals, specifically at values of 1, 3, 5, and 7 cm.

  • Cooking power: The heat capacity and mass of the water in the cooking vessel will be produced by the change in water temperature every 10 min. This product will be divided by the 600 s included during 10 min [16], as shown in the following equation:

(1) P = T 2 − T 1 600 × m × C p ,

where P denotes cooking power (W), T 2 denotes final water temperature (°C), T 1 denotes initial water temperature (°C), m denotes mass of water (kg), and C p denotes heat capacity (4168 J/kg K).

  1. Standardizing cooking power: Through the use of the below equation, the value of cooking power (P) is multiplied by the standard and normalized solar irradiance, which is (700 W/m2), and then that result is divided by the average worldwide irradiance for that interval [17], as shown in the following equation:

    (2) P s = p 700 I ,

    where P denotes cooking power (W), P s denotes the standardized cooking power (W), and I denotes average interval insolation (W/m2).

  2. Temperature difference: It is necessary to deduct the average ambient temperature for each interval from the average water temperature for each corresponding interval, as shown in the following equation:

(3) T d = T w ) av – T a ) av ,

where T w)av denotes the average water temperature and T a)av denotes average ambient temperature.

Absorber plate temperature, hot air temperature as measured in the middle of the cooker’s interior volume, ambient temperature, and horizontal irradiance were all recorded at 1-min intervals for each cooker using a data logger system. A TES-1333-type pyranometer was used to measure solar irradiance (0–1,400, 2 W/m2 accuracy). Copper-constantan thermocouples were employed for the purpose of obtaining all temperature measurements (range: 0–300°C; accuracy: 0.5°C), as shown in Table 1 of the measured reading. Each cooking vessel has a small hole drilled into the middle of the lid so that the same thermocouple can be used to measure the water’s temperature during water heating tests.

Table 1

Sample of measured reading of two types of solar cooker

September 9, 2022 40 PPI copper foam Flat plate
Time Solar radiation (I) Ambient temperature (Ta) Average foam temperature (Tp) Internal air temperatures (Tu) Average plate temperature (Tp) Internal air temperature (Tu)
9:00 566 30 74 58 74 57
10:00 777 32 90 74 94 70
11:00 900 35 111 97 117 90
12:00 955 37 138 118 143 99
1:00 955 39 133 115 139 97
2:00 911 40 122 104 130 88
3:00 855 40.5 114 95 122 80
4:00 766 40.5 109 88 115 71

Thermocouples were utilized and put in various positions to obtain an accurate reading of the temperature distribution in the solar air cooker [18]. To prevent the thermocouples’ movement from skewing the readings they provided, epoxy was used to secure them in place. The thermocouple was used to measure the absorber plate, and the glass cover had a layer of aluminum foil placed on the tip to protect it from heat flux and airflow effects. As shown in Figure 5, the inserted-type thermocouples were mounted at the chimney plate at 11 different positions for each solar cooker to determine the average temperature of the plate. In addition, two thermocouples were inserted inside each cooker: one to measure the air cooker temperature and another to measure the water temperature in the pot in each cooker. In addition, one thermocouple is fixed to the glass surface of each cooker so that the temperature of the glass surface can be determined. Ultimately, a singular thermocouple is employed within the given surroundings to ascertain the ambient temperature [19].

Figure 5 Schematic diagram for the location of thermocouples in the solar cooker.
Figure 5

Schematic diagram for the location of thermocouples in the solar cooker.

4 Results and discussion

4.1 Stagnation tests

The stagnation temperatures of the internal hot air in the cooker with the copper foam absorber plate were consistently higher than those in the cooker with the standard flat absorber plate during the tests. As can be seen in Figure 6 regarding the test conducted on September 9, 2022, when the initial temperatures of the hot air inside the two cookers are the same, the two temperatures are very close to one another at the start of the test. When the temperature of the two absorber plates begins to matter, the gap between the curves widens. This is mainly because of the copper foam absorber plate’s significantly larger inertia. The small PPI in copper foam leads to an increase in the surface area of the absorber plate, therefore increasing the permeability of the airflow through the copper foam and heat exchange between the flowing air and copper foam. 118.3°C was reached in the cooker with the copper foam absorber plate, which is the optimum obtained result, and 99.6°C was reached in the cooker with the standard flat absorber plate at the mid-noon of the test (12:20).

Figure 6 Comparison between internal air temperatures of two types of solar cooker (stagnation test).
Figure 6

Comparison between internal air temperatures of two types of solar cooker (stagnation test).

The temperature and time history of the absorber plate for two different types of solar cookers, as seen in Figure 7, are presented. These measurements were obtained under similar test settings on September 9, 2022. Because of the multiple reflections caused inside the holes of copper foam, the absorber plate is heated up through radiative absorption. By increasing the air surface area of the convective heat transfer plates, the near air can gain heat from copper foam; therefore, the interior hot air temperature can be raised and the temperature of the copper foam absorber plate can be decreased. So, it is clear from Figure 7 that the temperature of the copper foam absorber plate is less than the temperature of the standard flat absorber plate.

Figure 7 Comparison between absorber plate temperatures of two types of solar cookers (stagnation test).
Figure 7

Comparison between absorber plate temperatures of two types of solar cookers (stagnation test).

4.2 Water heating tests

All tests were conducted using identical vessels introduced into both cookers and filled with water (1 L) at the same temperature. The boiling point of water (99.5°C) is reached more quickly in the cooker with the copper foam absorber plate than in the cooker with the standard flat absorber plate. During the same experiment on September 12, 2022, water in both solar cookers was subjected to the same temperature and time conditions, as shown in Figure 8. To reach a boil, the cooker with the copper foam absorber plate took 3 h and 6 min, while the other standard cooker in the same interval reached 96°C. The cooker with the copper foam absorber plate took 2 h and 35 min, which needed 21 fewer minutes to heat water than the cooker with the standard flat absorber, time savings corresponding to a difference of about 23%, which is the optimum obtained result.

Figure 8 Comparison between internal air temperatures of two types of solar cooker (water heating test).
Figure 8

Comparison between internal air temperatures of two types of solar cooker (water heating test).

The time–temperature profile of the absorber plate for two different solar cookers was recorded under controlled laboratory settings on September 12, 2022, and is depicted in Figure 9. The absorber plate is warmed by radiative absorption due to multiple reflections within the perforations of the copper foam. The temperature of the copper foam absorber plate can be lowered. In contrast, the temperature of the interior hot air is increased by increasing the air surface area of the convective heat transfer plates. As shown in Figure 9, the copper foam absorber plate maintains a lower temperature than the conventional flat absorber plate.

Figure 9 Comparison between absorber plate temperatures of two types of solar cookers (water heating test).
Figure 9

Comparison between absorber plate temperatures of two types of solar cookers (water heating test).

4.3 Absorber plate height

Figure 10 shows the average absorber plate temperature variation of a copper foam absorber plate throughout the period September 27–30, 2022, for different absorber plate heights (1, 3, 5, and 7 cm). The maximum average temperature of the absorber plate for copper foam was 139°C at 1 cm absorber plate height. It has been observed that the mean temperature of the copper foam absorber plate increases with the decrease in absorber plate height to reach its maximum value with a 1 cm absorber plate height. Because decreasing the absorber plate height causes the boundary layer under the metal foam to expand, the potential energy and buoyancy forces cannot raise the flow-through metal foam. As a result, there is no heat exchange between the air and the metal foam, leading to an increase in absorber plate temperature.

Figure 10 Comparison between absorber plate temperatures for different absorber plate heights.
Figure 10

Comparison between absorber plate temperatures for different absorber plate heights.

Figure 11 shows the internal air temperature variation for solar cookers with copper foam absorber plates with the time on September 27–30, 2022, for different absorber plate heights (1, 3, 5, and 7 cm). The maximum average internal air temperature was 118°C at 7 cm absorber plate height. There is also the fact that the optimal internal air temperature is reached at 7 cm absorber plate height. The interior air temperature decreases with increased absorber plate temperature because reducing the absorber plate height causes the boundary layer under the metal foam to expand and prevents the permeability of the flow of air through the copper foam and heat exchange between the flowing air and copper foam, which in turn leads to an increase in absorber plate temperature. The percentage of increase in the solar cooker’s internal temperature with an increase in absorber plate height from 1 to 7 cm for 40 PPI copper foam absorber plate is approximately 16.1%, which is the optimum obtained result.

Figure 11 Comparison between internal air temperatures for different absorber plate heights.
Figure 11

Comparison between internal air temperatures for different absorber plate heights.

4.4 The standardized cooking power

Figure 12 shows a relationship between the accumulated cooking power (Y-axis) and the temperature difference (X-axis). It shows that the acceptable range for the equation of the cooking power at each temperature difference is Ps = 14.997 T d + 207.29. These results show that the cooker can be relied upon for consistently cooking food and boiling water [20].

Figure 12 Relationship between temperature difference and standard cooking power.
Figure 12

Relationship between temperature difference and standard cooking power.

4.5 Validating results

In that respect, the results of the present experiments will be compared to other studies on the system’s performance only concerning the general behavior of some parameters. According to the current research, the general behavior of the internal air temperatures of solar cookers is similar to the experimental results obtained in the previous work [17]. Notice in the figure that, as time passes, heat flux increases and the internal air temperatures of the solar cooker rise, reaching their maximum possible value at 12:00 PM, when the heat flux is maximum, as discussed in previous sections (Figures 13 and 14).

Figure 13 Comparison between internal air temperatures of two types of solar cooker (Present study).
Figure 13

Comparison between internal air temperatures of two types of solar cooker (Present study).

Figure 14 Comparison between internal air temperatures of the solar cooker (previous work [17]).
Figure 14

Comparison between internal air temperatures of the solar cooker (previous work [17]).

5 Conclusions

Experimental results comparing two BTSCs tested in the same climate conditions in Baghdad, Iraq, have been summed up as follows:

  1. Compared to a BTSC with a standard absorber, a solar cooker with a 40 PPI copper foam absorber experienced a higher stagnation temperature of roughly 17°.

  2. Increasing the surface area of contact between the absorber plate and the internal air, a 40 PPI copper foam absorber plate can reduce cooking time in a BTSC by as much as 23% compared to a standard flat absorber plate.

  3. The percentage of increase in the solar cooker’s internal temperature with an increase in absorber plate height from 1 to 7 cm for a 40 PPI copper foam absorber plate is approximately 16.1%.

  4. The acceptable range for the cooking power equation indicates that the cooker can be relied upon for consistently cooking food and boiling water.

To get the most out of your box solar cooker, it’s best to use a solar cooker with a 40 PPI copper foam absorber.

  1. Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.

  2. Data availability statement: Most datasets generated and analyzed in this study are in this submitted manuscript. The other datasets are available on reasonable request from the corresponding author with the attached information.

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Received: 2023-03-21
Revised: 2023-05-14
Accepted: 2023-05-27
Published Online: 2023-09-30

© 2023 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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https://doi.org/10.1515/eng-2022-0471
Keywords for this article
box-type solar cooker; 40; PPI copper foam; absorber plate height; cooking power; cooking time
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

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  78. A case study of T-beams with hybrid section shear characteristics of reactive powder concrete
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