Startseite Naturwissenschaften Activity of Coriandrum sativum methanolic leaf extracts against Eimeria papillata: a combined in vitro and in silico approach
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Activity of Coriandrum sativum methanolic leaf extracts against Eimeria papillata: a combined in vitro and in silico approach

  • Heba Ismaeil ORCID logo , Nabila M. Mira ORCID logo , Saeed El-Ashram ORCID logo , Felwa A. Thagfan ORCID logo , Murad A. Mubaraki ORCID logo , Mohamed A. Dkhil ORCID logo , Andreas Meryk ORCID logo und Shaimaa M. Kasem ORCID logo EMAIL logo
Veröffentlicht/Copyright: 23. Dezember 2025
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Open Chemistry
Aus der Zeitschrift Open Chemistry Band 23 Heft 1

Abstract

Eimeriosis, caused by Eimeria spp., poses significant risks to veterinary health, and the frequent usage of coccidiostats has resulted in medication resistance. Therefore, this research studied the in vitro and in silico effects of Coriandrum sativum leaf extracts (CE), alongside an anticoccidial drug (amprolium) and several commercial disinfectants against Eimeria papillata oocysts. CE was analyzed using Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The anti-eimerial activity was assessed by incubating non-sporulated E. papillata oocysts with the CE and commercial disinfectants like ethanol, formalin, phenol and Dettol™. GC-MS identified various known anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and antimicrobial compounds in CE. The highest concentration (400 mg/mL) of CE was more effective than amprolium in inhibiting sporulation with a significant value after 24, 48, 72 and 96 h, respectively. Commercial disinfectants also showed varying efficacy of sporulation. Light and FESEM micrographs revealed wall deformation and sporocysts destruction correlating with CE concentrations. In silico molecular docking revealed that Some CE phytochemicals including glycerol 1-palmitate; Linolenic acid, 2-hydroxy-1-(hydroxymethyl) ethyl ester (Z,Z,Z)-; 4,4,5,8-Tetramethylchroman-2-ol; Phenol, 2,4-bis(1,1-dimethylethyl-(; and Octadecanoic acid, 2-hydroxy-1-(hydroxymethyl)ethyl ester exhibited moderate binding affinity to TPK1 with docking scores equal to −5.590, −4.699, −4.611, −4.230, and −4.162 kcal/mol, respectively for thiamine pyrophosphokinase 1 (Tpk1), though none exceeded amprolium’s binding affinity. In conclusion, CE may have significant in vitro anticoccidial efficacy against E. papillata due to its ability to reduce sporulation percentage and robust inhibitory effect on the TPK1 protein.

Keywords: coriander extract; FESEM; in silico docking; oocysts; sporulation; thiamine pyrophosphokinase 1 protein

1 Introduction

Coccidiosis is an infectious protozoan disease of the intestines of both wild and domestic animals caused by many parasites [1]. One of them is Eimeria of the phylum Apicomplexa, family Eimeriidae that causes a severe parasitic illness; eimeriosis [2]. Eimeria spp. can be spread through the oral intake of oocysts, which proliferate and release sporozoites in the host’s intestine [3], resulting in extreme diarrhea, weight loss, and in severe cases, high mortality rates. It can also result in another intestinal opportunistic bacterial infections deteriorating the animal’s health. Consequently, it generates massive economic losses around the whole world [4]. For Eimeria spp., the degree of infection with oocysts is reliant on the sporulation level and structure of oocyst wall [5]. The oocyst wall is a bi-layered consists of the combination of lipids and glycoproteins that provide efficient protection of the germinal substance of the oocyst making it highly resistant to environmental conditions as proteolysis, disinfectants, and detergents [6], 7], so its management has high challenges. Hence, hindering the sporulation progression is an essential strategy for this parasite [8]. Eimeria papillata is an ideal experimental model for investigating coccidiosis in animals [9], as it results in extensive mucosal inflammation and antioxidant status disruption of infected hosts and therefore negatively affect the hosts public health [10].

Eimeriosis is managed using feed medications with synthetic anticoccidial diet additives; however, their widespread usage is increasingly threatened by the emergence of resistant bacterial and Eimeria strains [11], 12]. Coccidiostat resistance has been documented against the accessible commercial drugs, as amprolium, diclazuril, halofuginone, and toltrazuril [13]. Moreover, coccidiostat residues have a deleterious impact on the health of animals and diet safety [14]. Recently, the use of traditional natural products has resulted from a growing interest in finding safe and effective options for reducing coccidiosis [15]. These natural products and their extracts not only provide protection for host organs but also act against parasites [14]. In addition, they possess anti-parasitic and anti-microbial properties [16], as well as anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties that results from their abundance with bioactive phytochemicals [17]. These natural constituents prioritize the safety of both the host and the final consumer by boosting immunity and reducing residual toxicity [18], 19]. One of these plants is Coriandrum sativum L. (coriander), a member of the Apiaceae family. It is a natural medicinal plant with numerous therapeutic properties including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial [20] as well as in vitro anticoccidial effect [21].

Thiamine pyrophosphokinase 1 (TPK1) is an enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of thiamine to thiamine pyrophosphate, an essential cofactor in carbohydrate metabolism [22]. In Eimeria spp. it obstructs the absorption of thiamine by second-generation schizonts of Eimeria and hinders the production of thiamine pyrophosphate, which is necessary for numerous vital metabolic processes, such as serving as a cofactor for various decarboxylase enzymes involved in cofactor synthesis [23].

Although there was only one study had reported the in vitro anticoccidial effect of CE extract on Eimeria spp. from Piglets [21], no studies had been conducted on E. papillata. As a result, the current work examined the in vitro anticoccidial capability of methanolic C. sativum leaf extracts (CE) on the sporulation and destructive capacity of E. papillata oocysts. Additionally, in silico molecular docking was performed to analyze the binding potential of phytocompounds identified via GC-MS analysis within the methanolic CE against the Mus musculus Tpk1 protein (PDB ID: 1IG3). The combination of phytochemical profiling using GC–MS with molecular docking to predict interactions between identified compounds and parasite proteins provides a novel integrative approach to bridge experimental outcomes with mechanistic predictions. This dual strategy enables not only the confirmation of bioactive components but also the prediction of their possible molecular mechanisms, extending the understanding of CE’s anticoccidial potential using an integrative in vitro–in silico approach.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Preparation of coriander extract (CE)

The extraction of C. sativum (coriander) was performed as illustrated by Alajmi et al. [24]. Coriander leaves were obtained from the farm of Kafrelsheikh University (31°05′45.4″N 30°57′14.8″E), Kafr-Elsheikh, Egypt. The obtained plant (Figure S1) was validated by a taxonomist at Botany Department, Helwan University, Egypt. The air-dried leaves were ground into a powder using an electric blender. 50 grams of the dried ground leaves were macerated in 500 ml of 70 % methanol (1 powdered extract: 10 methanol (70 %)) with vigorous agitation at 4 °C for 24 h. 70 percent methanol was used for extraction because aqueous methanol is an efficient solvent system capable of extracting both polar and non-polar phytoconstituents. This concentration has been shown to yield a higher diversity of bioactive compounds [25]. The methanolic mixture was then filtered through a filter paper, and the filtrate was evaporated at 40 °C using the EYELA Rotary vacuum evaporator NE-1 equipment. The final obtained crude gelatinous extract was stored at −20 °C until use and liquified in distilled H2O for subsequent phases. The extraction yield of the extract was calculated using equation (1).

(1) Extraction yield  % = Actualdry   Yield   in   grams Plant   Powder   used   in   grams × 100

2.2 Gas chromatography–mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis of CE

The phytochemical analysis was done with a Thermo Scientific 7000D Triple Quadrupole GC-MS according to Kanthal et al. [26]. The Agilent 7890A and 5975C inert XL EI/CI mass spectrometers were equipped with a single quadrupole mass analyzer. A capillary HP-5MS UI (Ultra Inert) column was employed, measuring 25 m in length, with an inner diameter of 0.25 mm, a film thickness of 0.25 µm, and a stationary phase was composed of 5 % phenyl and methylpolysiloxane (low polarity). Helium served as the carrier gas, with a flow rate of 1 mL/min, a split ratio of 50:50, and a temperature of 250 °C. The GC-MS was operated at 30 °C for 5 min, with a heating rate of 5 °C/min, followed by an increase to 250 °C for 40 min. The transfer line temperature was 250 °C. The ionization energy in the MS settings was 70 eV. The detection mode employed was full scan, with a mass range of 50–500 Da. The solvent delay was 1 min. The sample solvent was methanol. MS was used to analyze the chromatogram and peaks were identified by matching compounds mass spectra to the GC-MS data system’s Wiley/NBS database.

2.3 Parasite collection and preparation

Fresh strain of E. papillata sporulated oocysts were collected from the fecal pellets of previously infected mice with E. papillata and used for passage and collection of oocysts. Five male mice (Mus musculus, Swiss albino strain), aged 10 ± 2 weeks and weighted 20–25 g were obtained from VACSERA in Helwan City, Cairo, Egypt. Prior to the experiment, the animals were acclimatized for 7 days under standard laboratory conditions (temperature 23 ± 2 °C, relative humidity 50–60 %, and a 12-h light/dark cycle) with free access to standard diet and water ad libitum. After one-week adaptation, mice were orally gavaged with 1 × 103 sporulated oocysts using a tuberculin 19 gauge blunt needle syringe. Upon infection for five days, fecal pellets were gathered, oocysts were isolated and purified according to the method described by Schito et al. [27], preserved in 2.5 % potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) solution and then at 4 °C for preceding in vitro study. A part of collected non-sporulated oocysts was allowed to be sporulated in 2.5 % K2Cr2O7 solution at 25–29 °C for 4–5 days. Using a DM750 LEICA light microscopy, oocysts (un-sporulated and sporulated) were photographed and described. Before the in vitro investigation, a McMaster counting slide was used for quantifying oocysts according to Schito et al. [27].

2.4 In vitro anticoccidial study

The anticoccidial validity was carried out in 6-wells microplates. One well had 2.5 % K2Cr2O7 solution, served as a positive untreated control (medium that allows sporulation). Sequential wells were filled with descending serial dilutions of CE (400, 200, 100, 50, 25, 12.5, 6.25, 3.12 and 1.56 mg/mL of 2.5 % K2Cr2O7 solution). In addition, one well received ethanol (70 %), another was filled with formalin (5 %), followed by one had 109 µl of Dettol™ (4.8 % chloroxylenol), then with phenol (0.5 %), and amprolium (0.83 %) as a reference control. A number of 1 × 105 E. papillata un-sporulated oocysts in 1 ml was incubated in all partially covered wells (sealed with sterile breathable film to minimize evaporation by limiting airflow, while still allowing gas exchange) at 25–29 °C for 96 h with periodic shaking manually. A total volume in each well was 5 ml and triplicates were included for each concentration. Sporulated and un-sporulated oocysts were tracked and counted after 24, 48, 72 and 96 h. Samples were aspirated from each concentration, and counting was performed using a light microscope, ensuring that the counts were replicable and reliable. The parasite count was conducted using the McMaster counting chamber technique with a flotation solution (saturated salt solution) to render oocysts transparent, facilitating the counting and assessment of any microscopic damage in oocysts. Sporulation (%) was calculated as stated by Kasem et al. [28] using equation (2). The damaged oocysts including any deformations in its shape (any visible wall rupture, sporocysts loss and damage) and size was recorded. The oocysts damage percentage was calculated by dividing the quantity of damaged oocysts by the total number of oocysts present in the well, multiplied by 100. Oocysts were photographed using a DM750 LEICA light microscopy (Germany).

(2) Sporulation percent = Sporulated   oocysts   conut   Total   oocysts   count × 100

Additionally, Field Emission Scanning Electron micrographs (FESEM) were taken for oocysts. Oocysts were concentrated by centrifugation at 2000–3000 rpm for 10 min and subsequently fixed with 2.5 % buffered glutaraldehyde for 24–48 h. The samples were further dehydrated in increasing percentages of ethanol (50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 95, 100, and 100 %) for 5–10 min each. The dehydrated samples were ultimately dried using a critical point dryer. The morphology of oocysts was examined, and images were captured using FESEM, Quattro S FEG SEM – Thermo Fisher, NL, operating at 15–20 KeV.

2.5 In silico molecular docking study

2.5.1 Three-dimensional structure of protein

The 3D protein structure of M. musculus thiamine pyrophosphokinase 1 protein; Tpk1 (RCSB PDB: 1IG3) was reclaimed from protein data bank (https://www.rcsb.org/).

2.5.2 Binding affinity interaction

The docking experiment was carried out using Glide’s Extra Precision (XP) software from Schrödinger 16.4. The analysis included the 23 ligands obtained from the GC-MS analysis of CE and the amprolium as a reference drug which were reclaimed from PubChem Bioassay (https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/). The docking protocol involved preprocessing the Tpk1 protein (RCSB PDB: 1IG3) by software Protein Preparation wizard default settings with removal of water beyond hets 3 Å. The Maestro 12.8 and LigPrep 2.4 software were used for ligands preparation. The grid size was defined as 20 Å by default for each protein. The active binding sites were defined by using SiteMap detection tool default settings (top-ranked potential receptor was chosen according to its score to be used for receptor grid generation). Energy was reduced for all ligands using MacroModel of Schrödinger software (Schrödinger Release 2023-4: Protein Preparation Wizard; Epik, Maestro, SiteMap, MacroModel, Glide, LigPrep, Schrödinger, LLC, New York, NY, 2023. The validation of docking scores was confirmed through the re-docking of a known ligand (3-(4-Amino-2-methyl-pyrimidin-5-ylmethyl)-5-(2-hydroxy ethyl)-4-methyl-thiazol-3-ium).

2.6 Statistical analysis

Analysis was achieved through One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) using Tukey test of SigmaPlot® version 15.0 (Systat Software, Inc., Chicago, IL, USA) to decide statistical differences between means. Differences across groups were decided significant at a P-value < 0.05.

3 Results

3.1 Phytochemical investigation

CE after drying had a viscous appearance and dark greenish color with an extraction yield of ∼28 % using 70 % methanol. The phytochemical screening of CE components was researched by GC-MS (Figure 1) revealing the presence of 23 phytochemical constituents with varying peak areas and retention times. These phytochemical components have different biological properties (Table 1). Higher peaks were recorded for 3,4-2H-Isocoumarin-3-one,4,4,5,7,8-pentamethyl-; 9,12,15-Octadecatrienoic acid, methyl ester, (Z,Z,Z)-; phytol; visnagin; 3,7,11,15-Tetramethyl-2-hexadecen-1-ol; 1(2H)-Naphthalenone,3,4-dihydro-2(phenylmethylene)-; 9,12-Octadecadienoic acid (Z,Z)-,methyl ester and n-Hexadecanoic acid (Figure 1).

Figure 1: GC-MS chromatographic profile of CE.
Figure 1:

GC-MS chromatographic profile of CE.

Table 1:

GC-MS assessment of CE.

No Retention time (min) Proposed compound MW Chemical structure Chemical formula
1 14.831 1-Hexadecanol 242 C16H34O
2 17.135 Phenol, 2,4-bis(1,1-dimethylethyl)- 206 C14H22O
3 18.450 Cetene 224 C16H32
4 19.681 4,4,5,8-Tetramethylchroman-2-ol 206 C13H18O2
5 20.723 1,2,3,5,6,7-Hexahydro-inden-4-one 136 C9H12O
6 21.659 1-Nonadecene 266 C19H38
7 22.364 3,7,11,15-Tetramethyl-2-hexadecen-1-ol 296 C20H40O
8 23.627 Hexadecanoic acid, methyl ester 270 C17H34O2
9 24.153 n-Hexadecanoic acid 256 C16H32O2
10 25.111 3,4-2H-Isocoumarin-3-one, 4,4,5,7,8-pentamethyl- 232 C14H16O3
11 25.489 Visnagin 230 C13H10O4
12 25.931 9,12-Octadecadienoic acid (Z,Z)-, methyl ester 294 C19H34O2
13 26.015 9,12,15-Octadecatrienoic acid, methyl ester, (Z,Z,Z)- 292 C19H32O2
14 26.194 Phytol 296 C20H40O
15 26.552 9,12,15-Octadecatrienoic acid, (Z,Z,Z)- 278 C18H30O2
16 30.729 Behenic alcohol 326 C22H46O
17 30.950 Glycerol 1-palmitate 330 C19H38O4
18 31.466 1(2H)-Naphthalenone, 3,4-dihydro-2-(phenylmethylene)- 234 C17H14O
19 33.412 9,12-Octadecadienoic acid (Z,Z)-, 2-hydroxy-1-(hydroxymethyl)ethyl ester 354 C21H38O4
20 9,12-Octadecadienoic acid (Z,Z)-, 2,3-dihydroxypropyl ester 354 C21H38O4
21 33.539 Linolenic acid, 2-hydroxy-1-(hydroxymethyl)ethyl ester (Z,Z,Z)- 352 C21H36O4
22 33.886 Octadecanoic acid, 2-hydroxy-1-(hydroxymethyl)ethyl ester 358 C21H42O4
23 34.286 Erucic acid 338 C22H42O2

3.2 Morphometric size of E. papillata oocysts

E. papillata oocysts (non-sporulated and sporulated) were of ovoid shape and surrounded by a thick bi-layered oocyst wall. Non-sporulated oocysts had an average size of 17.79 ± 0.67 µm in length, 14.25 ± 0.50 µm in width with oocyst shape (length/width) index of 1.25 ± 0.07. These non-sporulated oocysts had an inside sub-spherical zygotes that was 13.58 ± 0.86 µm in length, 12.45 ± 0.59 µm in width with zygote shape (length/width) index of 1.09 ± 0.05 (Figure 2a). Sporulated oocysts were tetrasporocystic and disporozoic. Micropyle, oocyst residuum, and polar granules were absent. Sporulated oocysts were 18.78 ± 0.21 µm in length, 15.67 ± 0.32 µm in width with oocyst shape (length/width) index of 1.20 ± 0.13. Sporocysts are ellipsoidal with a single-layered wall. Sporocysts were 6.90 ± 0.53 µm in length, 5.03 ± 0.41 µm in width with oocyst shape (length/width) index of 1.39 ± 0.19. The sporozoites were sausage-shaped with non-dissemble nuclei (Figure 2b).

Figure 2: Photomicrographs of Eimeria papillata oocysts. (a) Non-sporulated. (b) Sporulated. OL, outer layer; IL, inner layer; Z, zygote; SPC, sporocyst; SPZ, sporozoite; SPCW, sporocyst wall. Scale bar = 10 µm.
Figure 2:

Photomicrographs of Eimeria papillata oocysts. (a) Non-sporulated. (b) Sporulated. OL, outer layer; IL, inner layer; Z, zygote; SPC, sporocyst; SPZ, sporozoite; SPCW, sporocyst wall. Scale bar = 10 µm.

3.3 In vitro anti-eimerial effects

Incubated E. papillata oocysts with different concentrations of CE (400, 200, 100, 50, 25, 12.5, 6.25, 3.12 and 1.56 mg/mL) showed as the concentration of CE reduced, the sporulation percent raised (Table 2). The all used concentrations of CE (400, 200, 100, 50, 25, 12.5, 6.25, 3.12 and 1.56 mg/mL) had the ability to significantly reduce sporulation percentage (P < 0.05) in comparison the positive K2Cr2O7 control. The highest used concentration (400 mg/mL) had the lowest sporulation percentage (1.66 ± 0.57, 1.66 ± 0.57, 14.66 ± 1.52 and 16.22 ± 1.00 %) after 24, 48, 72 and 96 h, respectively. Whereas, the highest sporulation percents that reached to 6.00 ± 1.00, 16.00 ± 1.00, 43.33 ± 1.52 and 63.00 ± 2.00 % caused by the lowest concentration (1.56 mg/mL) after 24, 48, 72 and 96 h, respectively (Table 2). And the other used concentrations (200, 100, 50, 25, 12.5, 6.25, 3.12 and 1.56 mg/mL) displayed levels of sporulation in a dose-dependent manner. Correspondingly, the highest concentration (400 mg/mL) indicated the lowest sporulation % in relation to the other values (Table 2). In addition, amprolium corresponded to a sporulation (%) of 14.67 ± 3.06 %, 21.00 ± 1.00 %, 42.66 ± 2.08 %, and 51.00 ± 1.73 % after 24, 48, 72 and 96 h, respectively (Table 2). Whilst 70 % ethanol had 9.33 ± 0.57 %, 8.00 ± 1.00 %, 9.66 ± 1.52 %, 8.33 ± 0.57 % sporulation (%) as well as 5 % formalin showed 8.33 ± 0.57 %, 9.66 ± 0.57 %, 9.330.57 %, 9.33 ± 1.15 % of sporulation at 24, 48, 72, and 96 h, respectively. Moreover, phenol showed different sporulation percentages (15.00 ± 1.00 %, 18.00 ± 1.00 %, 17.66 ± 1.52 %, and 19.00 ± 1.00 %) and Dettol™ exhibited 15.33 ± 1.15 %, 19.33 ± 0.57 %, 18.00 ± 1.00 %, and 20.33 ± 0.57 %) at 24, 48, 72, and 96 h, respectively (Table 2).

Table 2:

In vitro sporulation percent of treated E. papillata oocysts with CE, anticoccidial drug (amprolium) and different commercial disinfectants.

Tested materials Time (hrs)
24 48 72 96
2.5 % K2Cr2O7 control 17.66 ±2.08 28.00 ± 1.00 58.33 ± 4.72 79.66 ± 4.50
CE, 400 mg/mL 1.66 ± 0.57a 1.66 ± 0.57a 14.66 ± 1.52a 16.00 ± 1.00a
CE, 200 mg/mL 2.33 ± 0.57a 4.00 ± 1.00a 12.66 ± 2.30a 25.66 ± 0.57a
CE, 100 mg/mL 3.33 ± 1.52a 4.33 ± 0.57a 14.00 ± 1.73a 34.66 ± 2.08a
CE, 50 mg/mL 3.00 ± 1.00a 8.00 ± 1.00a 20.33 ± 1.52a 39.00 ± 2.00a
CE, 25 mg/mL 4.33 ± 1.52a 12.33 ± 0.57a 28.33 ± 2.30a 48.33 ± 1.52a
CE, 12.5 mg/mL 5.00 ± 1.00 13.66 ± 0.57a 30.00 ± 1.00a 52.66 ± 3.51a
CE, 6.25 mg/mL 5.00 ± 1.00a 15.00 ± 2.00a 38.00 ± 1.00a 58.33 ± 1.52a
CE, 3.12 mg/mL 5.33 ± 0.57a 15.33 ± 1.52a 42.33 ± 2.08a 58.33 ± 3.78a
CE, 1.56 mg/mL 6.00 ± 1.00a 16.00 ± 1.00a 43.33 ± 1.52a 63.00 ± 2.00a
Amprolium, 0.83 % 14.67 ± 3.06 21.00 ± 1.00a 42.66 ± 2.08a 51.00 ± 1.73a
Ethanol, 70 % 9.33 ± 0.57a 8.00 ± 1.00a 9.66 ± 1.52a 8.33 ± 0.57a
Formalin, 5 % 8.33 ± 0.57a 9.66 ± 0.57a 9.33 ± 0.57a 9.33 ± 1.15a
Phenol, 0.5 % 15.00 ± 1.00 18.00 ± 1.00a 17.66 ± 1.52a 19.00 ± 1.00a
Dettol™, 4.8 % chloroxylenol 15.33 ± 1.15 19.33 ± 0.57a 18.00 ± 1.00a 20.33 ± 0.57a

  1. CE, coriander extract. Results are means ± standard deviation (n = 3). aSignificant alterations (P < 0.05) relative to the K2Cr2O7 control group.

3.4 Oocysts damage and morphometric changes

After 96 h incubation of E. papillata oocysts with different concentrations of CE (400, 200, 100, 50, 25, 12.5, 6.25, 3.12 and 1.56 mg/mL), oocysts damage percentage was 42.00 ± 2.64 %, 36.66 ± 3.05 %, 33.33 ± 0.57 %, 28.66 ± 1.52 %, 23.66 ± 3.21 %, 21.00 ± 1.73 %, 14.66 ± 1.52 %, 13.66 ± 1.52 %, 13.00 ± 1.00 %, respectively (Figure 3). The highest damage percentage (42.00 ± 2.64 %) was for the highest concentration (400 mg/mL of CE). This damage was in the form of wall deformation or destruction of its inside sporocysts as shown in taken light photographs (Figure 4) and FESEM micrographs of oocysts from each concentration indicating that oocysts were prone to rupture and open with wrinkles and removal of its outer wall layer (Figure 5) in comparison to control oocysts that appeared ovoid with a smooth surface (Figure 5a). Treated oocysts with CE had a significant (P < 0.05) decrease in its size ranges from 11 to 13 µm in length and 8 to 11 µm in width using the different concentrations in comparison to control unsporulated oocysts with a size of 17.79 ± 0.67 µm in length and 14.25 ± 0.50 µm in width and control sporulated oocysts with a length of 18.78 ± 0.21 µm and width of 15.67 ± 0.32 µm (Table 3). The use of amprolium induced oocysts damage with a percentage of 23.66 ± 2.08 % after 96 h (Figure 3). Moreover, the use of commercial disinfectants affects the shape of E. papillata oocysts resulting in its damage with a percentage of 35.33 ± 2.08, 33.00 ± 3.60, 18.33 ± 1.52, and 19.33 ± 2.51 % using 70 % ethanol, 5 % formalin, phenol, Dettol™, respectively after 96 h (Figure 3). Treated oocysts with these disinfectants appeared with remarkable abnormalities in its inside sporocysts and outer wall using light microscopy (Figure 4) and this damage in wall appeared obvious in FESEM (Figure 5). The use of these disinfectants affects the oocysts size as shown in Table 3 with a length ranges from 11-13 µm and width ranges from 9-10 µm, when compared to oocysts from control incubations.

Figure 3: In vitro damaged E. papillata oocysts (%) treated with CE; 400–1.56 mg/mL, amprolium, and different commercial disinfectants after 96 h. Results are means ± SD *Significant alterations at P < 0.05 relative to the K2Cr2O7 control medium.
Figure 3:

In vitro damaged E. papillata oocysts (%) treated with CE; 400–1.56 mg/mL, amprolium, and different commercial disinfectants after 96 h. Results are means ± SD *Significant alterations at P < 0.05 relative to the K2Cr2O7 control medium.

Figure 4: Treated E. papillata oocysts with different concentrations of CE after 96 h. (a) Non-sporulated control, (b) sporulated control, (c, d) 400 mg/mL, (e, f) 200 mg/mL, (g, h) 100 mg/mL, (i, j) 50 mg/mL, (k) 25 mg/mL, (l) 12.5 mg/mL (m) 6.25 mg/mL, (n) 3.12 mg/mL, (o) 1.56 mg/mL %, (p) amprolium, (q, r) ethanol, (s, t) formalin, (u, v) phenol, (w, x) dettol™. Scale bar = 10 µm.
Figure 4:

Treated E. papillata oocysts with different concentrations of CE after 96 h. (a) Non-sporulated control, (b) sporulated control, (c, d) 400 mg/mL, (e, f) 200 mg/mL, (g, h) 100 mg/mL, (i, j) 50 mg/mL, (k) 25 mg/mL, (l) 12.5 mg/mL (m) 6.25 mg/mL, (n) 3.12 mg/mL, (o) 1.56 mg/mL %, (p) amprolium, (q, r) ethanol, (s, t) formalin, (u, v) phenol, (w, x) dettol™. Scale bar = 10 µm.

Figure 5: Field emission scanning electron photomicrographs of E. papillata oocysts after 96 h from (a) K2Cr2O7 control, and treated oocysts with CE from different concentrations of (b) 400, (c) 200, (d) 100, (e) 50, (f) 25, (g) 12.5, (h) 6.25, (i) 3.12, (j) 1.56 mg/mL, (k) amprolium (l) ethanol, (m) formalin, (n) phenol, (o) dettol™. Scale bar = 10 µm.
Figure 5:

Field emission scanning electron photomicrographs of E. papillata oocysts after 96 h from (a) K2Cr2O7 control, and treated oocysts with CE from different concentrations of (b) 400, (c) 200, (d) 100, (e) 50, (f) 25, (g) 12.5, (h) 6.25, (i) 3.12, (j) 1.56 mg/mL, (k) amprolium (l) ethanol, (m) formalin, (n) phenol, (o) dettol™. Scale bar = 10 µm.

Table 3:

Morphometric changes of treated E. papillata oocysts with different concentrations of CE, amprolium, and different commercial disinfectants after 96 h.

Tested materials Parameters
Length (µm) Width (µm)
K2Cr2O7 control non-sporulated oocysts 17.79 ± 0.67 14.25 ± 0.50
K2Cr2O7 control sporulated oocysts 18.78 ± 0.21 15.67 ± 0.32
CE, 400 mg/mL 11.60 ± 0.55a,b 8.45 ± 1.01a,b
CE, 200 mg/mL 11.27 ± 0.34a,b 9.83 ± 0.49a,b
CE, 100 mg/mL 11.61 ± 0.38a,b 8.20 ± 0.15a,b
CE, 50 mg/mL 13.07 ± 0.56a,b 8.39 ± 1.12a,b
CE, 25 mg/mL 12.26 ± 1.06a,b 9.79 ± 0.73a,b
CE, 12.5 mg/mL 13.26 ± 0.60a,b 11.35 ± 0.51a,b
CE, 6.25 mg/mL 12.89 ± 0.08a,b 10.82 ± 0.25a,b
CE, 3.12 mg/mL 12.41 ± 0.70a,b 10.09 ± 0.70a,b
CE, 1.56 mg/mL 13.08 ± 0.62a,b 10.44 ± 0.59a,b
Amprolium, 0.83 % 12.01 ± 0.55a,b 10.60 ± 0.47a,b
Ethanol, 70 % 13.36 ± 0.69a,b 9.52 ± 0.49a,b
Formalin, 5 % 11.48 ± 0.48a,b 9.24 ± 0.87a,b
Phenol, 0.5 % 11.63 ± 0.23a,b 9.95 ± 0.62a,b
Dettol™, 4.8 % chloroxylenol 12.50 ± 1.07a,b 9.80 ± 0.49a,b

  1. CE, coriander extract. Results are means ± SD (n = 3). aSignificant alterations (P < 0.05) relative to the K2Cr2O7 control non-sporulated oocysts. bSignificant alterations (P < 0.05) relative to the K2Cr2O7 control sporulated oocysts.

3.5 In silico molecular docking study

The molecular docking research was tested for the 23 screened GC-MS compounds of CE. The top 5 ligands were selected are shown in Table 4. These top 5 compounds were also screened in order to ensure their interactions with thiamine pyrophosphokinase 1 (Tpk1) protein (Figure 6). A lower binding score indicates a higher binding affinity. The molecular docking results indicated that amprolium that used as a reference drug showed the strongest binding affinity to the active site of Tpk1 protein with docking score equal to −6.668 kcal/mol. The top 5 compounds were glycerol 1-palmitate; Linolenic acid, 2-hydroxy-1-(hydroxymethyl) ethyl ester (Z,Z,Z)-; 4,4,5,8-Tetramethylchroman-2-ol; Phenol, 2,4-bis(1,1-dimethylethyl-(; and Octadecanoic acid, 2-hydroxy-1-(hydroxymethyl)ethyl ester that showed protein active site with docking scores equal to −5.590, −4.699, −4.611, −4.230, and −4.162 kcal/mol, respectively (Table 4). Glycerol 1-palmitate confirmed the best binding with the least binding score of −5.590 kcal/mol. The docked complexes and interaction plots are shown in Figures 7 and 8.

Table 4:

The docking scores and bonds formed between top ligands with chain A of Tpk1 protein.

Compound name PubChem compound CID Binding energy (ΔG), Kcal/mol Residues involved in binding Bonds distance, Å Type of bond Number of bonds
Reference (amprolium) 2,178 −6.668 Asp66(2), Asp120

Gln154 		2.93, 4.56, 4.41

2.14		 Salt bridge

H-bond		 3

1
Glycerol 1-palmitate 14,900 −5.590 Asp66, Asp120, Phe121 1.7, 2.17, 2.29 H-bond 3
Linolenic acid, 2-hydroxy-1-(hydroxymethyl)ethyl ester (Z,Z,Z)- 5,367,459 −4.699 Asp66, Gln154 1.69, 2.08 H-bond 2
4,4,5,8-Tetramethylchroman-2-ol 599,725 −4.611 Asp120 2.12 H-bond 1
Phenol, 2,4-bis(1,1-dimethylethyl)- 7,311 −4.230 Asn45 1.99 H-bond 1
Octadecanoic acid, 2-hydroxy-1-(hydroxymethyl)ethyl ester 79,075 −4.162 Asn45, Asp120, Gln154 2.14, 2.77,

1.99		 H-bond 3
Figure 6: The 3D structure of Mus musculus thiamine pyrophosphokinase 1 protein Tpk1 (RCSB PDB: 1IG3).
Figure 6:

The 3D structure of Mus musculus thiamine pyrophosphokinase 1 protein Tpk1 (RCSB PDB: 1IG3).

Figure 7: The 2D (a, c, e) and 3D (b, d, f) configuration interaction between Tpk1 and (a, b) reference drug (amprolium), (c, d) glycerol 1-palmitate, (e, f) linolenic acid, 2-hydroxy-1-(hydroxymethyl)ethyl ester (Z,Z,Z)-.
Figure 7:

The 2D (a, c, e) and 3D (b, d, f) configuration interaction between Tpk1 and (a, b) reference drug (amprolium), (c, d) glycerol 1-palmitate, (e, f) linolenic acid, 2-hydroxy-1-(hydroxymethyl)ethyl ester (Z,Z,Z)-.

Figure 8: The 2D (a, c, e) and 3D (b, d, f) configuration interaction between Tpk1 and (a, b) 4,4,5,8-tetramethylchroman-2-ol, (c, d) phenol, 2,4-bis(1,1-dimethylethyl), (e, f) octadecanoic acid, 2-hydroxy-1-(hydroxymethyl)ethyl ester.
Figure 8:

The 2D (a, c, e) and 3D (b, d, f) configuration interaction between Tpk1 and (a, b) 4,4,5,8-tetramethylchroman-2-ol, (c, d) phenol, 2,4-bis(1,1-dimethylethyl), (e, f) octadecanoic acid, 2-hydroxy-1-(hydroxymethyl)ethyl ester.

The interactions of hydrogen (H) bonding in the optimal docking configuration are also described in Table 4 and Figures 7 and 8. The highest number of H bonds established among the compounds and Tpk1 active site was accounted for glycerol 1-palmitate, which forms 3H-bonds with Asp66,Asp120, and Phe121 with 1.7, 2.17, and 2.29 Å, respectively bond distances, followed by octadecanoic acid, 2-hydroxy-1-(hydroxymethyl)ethyl ester, which forms 3H-bonds with Asn45, Asp120, and Gln154 with bond distances of 2.14, 2.77, and 1.99 Å, respectively (Table 4, Figures 7 and 8). While, the amprolium reference drug forms only H bond with Gln154 and 3 salt bridge bonds with Asp66(2), and Asp120 have bond lengths of 2.93, 4.56, and 4.41 Å, respectively (Table 4, Figures 7 and 8).

4 Discussion

Coccidiosis, triggered by Eimeria parasites, affects a wide range of animal species and results in considerable economic damage due to decreased weight gain and inefficient feed utilization [12]. It can be treated using synthetic anticoccidials, while prolonged persistent usage leads to medication resistance [29]. To minimize these negative influences on animal behavior, new natural products with minimal coccidiosis side effects must be developed. Therefore, this study was performed to investigate the in vitro anticoccidial potential of methanolic CE against E. papillata oocysts. As well, in silico molecular docking of GC-MS recognized phytocompounds of CE was performed. The integrative use of in vitro and in silico approaches in this study underscores the multi-target potential of CE. Unlike amprolium, which acts on a specific target, CE contains a diverse range of phytoconstituents capable of interacting with multiple biological pathways, suggesting a possible synergistic mechanism that could enhance anti-eimerial efficacy.

C. sativum, a member of the Apiaceae family, is well-known for its culinary and traditional medicinal applications. It contains a variety of phytochemicals that provide its medicinal therapeutic benefits [30]. In the current study, CE after drying had a viscous appearance and dark greenish color with an extraction yield of ∼28 % using 70 % methanol. Its phytochemical screening was conducted using GC-MS inquiry indicated that higher peaks were recorded for 3,4-2H-Isocoumarin-3-one,4,4,5,7,8-pentamethyl-; 9,12,15-Octadecatrienoic acid, methyl ester, (Z,Z,Z)-; phytol; visnagin; 3,7,11,15-Tetramethyl-2-hexadecen-1-ol; 1(2H)-Naphthalenone,3,4-dihydro-2(phenylmethylene)-; 9,12-Octadecadienoic acid (Z,Z)-,methyl ester and n-Hexadecanoic acid. The compound 3,4-2H-Isocoumarin-3-one,4,4,5,7,8-pentamethyl- has antimicrobial, algicidal, immunomodulatory, antimalarial [31], [32], [33], anti-genotoxic and anti-carcinogenic [34], 35] activities. Isocoumarins, including coriandrones A-E, coriandrin, and dihydrocoriandrin, have been identified in C. sativum [36]. The compound 9,12,15-Octadecatrienoic acid, methyl ester, (Z,Z,Z)- was also identified, which had an antimicrobial activity [37]. Phytol is an herbal phytochemical phytoconstituents which is widely spread in nature in all plants in the form of chlorophyll [38]. It has many biological activities as antinociceptive [39], 40] antioxidant [41], anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial [42] properties. Visnagin is a furanocoumarins derivative with anti-inflammatory properties [43]. Elufioye et al. [44] reported that 3,7,11,15-Tetramethyl-2-hexadecen-1-ol had a good cholinesterase inhibitory ability. 1(2H)-Naphthalenone,3,4-dihydro-2(phenylmethylene)- is an antibacterial and antifungal agent [45]. Also, 9,12-Octadecadienoic acid (Z,Z)-,methyl ester was identified in this study. It has great potential antioxidant, anti-cancer, and anti-inflammatory properties [46], 47]. Moreover, n-Hexadecanoic acid is a fatty acid dominates anti-inflammatory, and antiviral [48], [49], [50] actions.

Sporulation is a typical measure for assessing anticoccidial properties [51]. The current results revealed that CE had an inhibitory anticoccidial effect on E. papillata oocysts in a dose-dependent manner. This effect was observed when compared to the K2Cr2O7 control medium and the amprolium drug. This study obviously indicated that 400 mg/mL was the most effective among all the concentrations examined as it had the in vitro lowest sporulation percentage at all time points. CE also gave an in vitro best efficacy than amprolium at all time points. Similarly, Bǎieş et al. [21] proved the anticoccidial ability of alcoholic CE against Eimeria suis and Eimeria debliecki oocysts sporulation in vitro due to its richness with polyphenols. Additionally, Maodaa et al. [52] demonstrated that Artemisia monosperma leaf extract inhibited and protected coccidian E. papillata oocyst sporulation. Phytochemical constituents may disrupt sporulation through interfering with the physiological mechanism required for it, specifically restricting oxygen access and hence suppressing the enzyme responsible for sporulation [53]. Polyphenols, tocopherols, flavonoids, sesquiterpene lactones, and sulfoxide exhibited high in vitro and in vivo anticoccidial activities, and could hence be utilized as alternatives for commercial detergents [54], [55], [56].

In addition, the uppermost damage percentage was for the highest concentration (400 mg/mL of CE). This damage was in the form of wall deformation or destruction of its inside sporocysts, as shown in taken light photographs and FESEM micrographs of oocysts from each concentration. These photographs indicated that oocysts were prone to rupture and open, with wrinkles and removal of the outer wall layer, in comparison to control oocysts that appeared ovoid with a smooth surface. Treated oocysts with CE had a significant (P < 0.05) decrease in its size using the different concentrations in comparison to control oocysts. This agrees with Kasem et al. [27] who reported that Rosmarinus officinalis extract had the potential to damage Eimeria tenella oocysts shape. This could be the result of the essential plant components penetrating the oocyst cell wall, leading to damage and loss of cytoplasm, as indicated by the presence of abnormal sporocysts in oocysts that were incubated with the plant extracts [57], 58].

Whilst the use of commercial disinfectants in the present study as 70 % ethanol had 9.33 ± 0.57 %, 8.00 ± 1.00 %, 9.66 ± 1.52 %, and 8.33 ± 0.57 % sporulation (%) at 24, 48, 72, and 96 h, respectively. Moreover, treated oocysts with these different disinfectants appeared with remarkable abnormalities in its inside sporocysts and outer wall and this damage in wall appeared obvious in light and FESEM images. Thagfan et al. [59] reported that 70 % ethanol suppressed sporulation by damaging the oocyst wall, noting that the most effective used concentration of antimicrobial alcohol is 60–90 % [60]. Ethanol rapidly denatures proteins, breaks membranes, and interferes with metabolism causing cell lysis [61], 62]. Furthermore, in this study, the use of 5 % formalin, phenol and Dettol™ showed different sporulation percentages. However, the use of these commercial disinfectants affects the shape of E. papillata oocysts resulting in its damage with remarkable abnormalities in its inside sporocysts and outer wall using light microscopy and this damage in wall appeared obvious in FESEM. On the other hand, the use of these disinfectants affects the oocysts size. This is the same stated by Mai et al. [7] and Gadelhaq et al. [63] who proved that the oocyst wall resists proteolysis as it is impervious to water-soluble materials. A previous study by Kasem et al. [64] documented that 10 % formalin has a considerable influence on E. tenella oocyst sporulation. Other studies by Thagfan et al. [59], Gadelhaq et al. [63], and Chroustová and Pinka [65], showed that (2 % and 10 %) formalin could alter the sporulation process. This illustrated by Fraenkel-Conrat et al. [66] who explained that formalin can interact with the protein altering the sporulation process.

Recently, computational screening has become a very valuable technology in the drug development process due to its speed and costless. One of the most effective ways to find a prospective drug and target is to comprehend the ligand-protein interaction [67]. A computational modeling method called “molecular docking” is used in drug discovery to forecast possible interactions between two molecules and determine their binding energy. This method is used to develop drugs based on the target molecules’ binding affinity and selectivity [67]. It forecasts the binding interaction of small molecules and a macromolecule as well as between two macromolecules [68]. Amprolium is an analogue of thiamine (vitamin B1), but lacks the hydroxyethyl activity that thiamine has, and hence is not converted to a pyrophosphate counterpart [69]. James [70] explained that amprolium has the ability to inhibit thiamine uptake by Eimeria schizonts and hinders the creation of thiamine pyrophosphate, which is necessary for numerous critical metabolic activities. Moreover, thiamine receptors play a role in carbohydrate production that enhances the sporulation of Eimeria oocysts. The synthetic drug amprolium works as an antagonist by blocking thiamine receptors, which in turn inhibits the sporulation process [71]. Therefore, one aim of our study is to predict the valuable inhibitory compounds from CE in comparison to the anticoccidial drug (amprolium) against M. musculus Tpk1 protein. The molecular docking research of this study was tested for the 23 screened GC-MS compounds of CE. Thus, our results showed that the 5 top compounds in CE were glycerol 1-palmitate; Linolenic acid, 2-hydroxy-1-(hydroxymethyl) ethyl ester (Z,Z,Z)-; 4,4,5,8-Tetramethylchroman-2-ol; Phenol, 2,4-bis(1,1-dimethylethyl-(; and Octadecanoic acid, 2-hydroxy-1-(hydroxymethyl)ethyl ester that showed protein active site and exhibited moderate binding affinity to TPK1 with docking score equal to −5.590, −4.699, −4.611, −4.230, and −4.162 kcal/mol, respectively. Similar results reported by Rahmani et al. [72] who indicated that some phytocompounds of myrrh extract had binding affinity with catalase and superoxide dismutase showing its antioxidant. Prinzo [73] informed that flavonoids function as antagonists to thiamine. The inhibition of thiamine receptors, along with the chemical analysis of CE by GC-MS confirming a high concentration of flavonoids, suggests CE’s anticoccidial potential, as flavonoids inhibit thiamine activity [73].

5 Conclusions

In conclusion, CE showed an in vitro potential sporulation inhibitory effect with significant activity at concentrations up to 400 mg/mL. The high effective concentrations likely reflect the complex mixture of bioactive compounds in crude extracts, which may act synergistically and exhibit notable pharmacological activities. Moreover, in silico molecular docking results indicated that the screened phytochemical compounds of CE may have potential as a natural anticoccidial comparable to amprolium through its moderate inhibitory potential on TPK1, implicating a potential mechanism of action against Eimeria spp. Taken into consideration that 1IG3 corresponds to mouse (M. musculus) TPK1, which is likely homologous but not identical to Eimeria TPK1. Further research is needed to isolate and characterize the active compounds of CE and evaluate their pharmacokinetics, bioavailability, and safety responsible for these effects, as well as to evaluate their in vivo anticoccidial mechanisms of action.

Corresponding author: Shaimaa M. Kasem, Zoology Department, Faculty of Science, Kafrelsheikh University, Kafr Elsheikh 33516, Egypt, E-mail:

  1. Funding information: This study was supported by Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University Researchers Supporting Project number (PNURSP2025R96), Princess Nourah Bint Abdulrahman University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia and the Ongoing Research Funding program (ORF-2025-655), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

  2. Author contributions: Conceptualization, supervision: N.M.M., S.E., M.A.D., and S.M.K.; methodology, resources, software, data curation: H.I. and S.M.K.; formal analysis: S.M.K., and A.M.; investigation: A.M.; writing – original draft preparation: S.M.K., N.M.M., and M.A.D.; project administration, funding acquisition: F.A.T., and M.A.M.; visualization, writing – review and editing: N.M.M., M.A.D., and S.M.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

  3. Conflicts of interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

  4. Ethical approval: The study was planned and carried out in the Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Kafrelsheikh University in accordance with the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee of Kafrelsheikh University (KFS-IACUC) with an approval number of KFS-IACUC/182/2024.

  5. Data availability statement: The datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Supplementary Material

This article contains supplementary material (https://doi.org/10.1515/chem-2025-0220).

Received: 2025-07-11
Accepted: 2025-11-26
Published Online: 2025-12-23

© 2025 the author(s), published by De Gruyter, Berlin/Boston

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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https://doi.org/10.1515/chem-2025-0220
Schlagwörter für diesen Artikel
coriander extract; FESEM; in silico docking; oocysts; sporulation; thiamine pyrophosphokinase 1 protein
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

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  40. Phytochemical constituents, in vitro antibacterial activity, and computational studies of Sudanese Musa acuminate Colla fruit peel hydro-ethanol extract
  41. Chemical composition of essential oils reviewed from the height of Cajuput (Melaleuca leucadendron) plantations in Buru Island and Seram Island, Maluku, Indonesia
  42. Phytochemical analysis and antioxidant activity of Azadirachta indica A. Juss from the Republic of Chad: in vitro and in silico studies
  43. Stability studies of titanium–carboxylate complexes: A multi-method computational approach
  44. Efficient adsorption performance of an alginate-based dental material for uranium(vi) removal
  45. Synthesis and characterization of the Co(ii), Ni(ii), and Cu(ii) complexes with a 1,2,4-triazine derivative ligand
  46. Evaluation of the impact of music on antioxidant mechanisms and survival in salt-stressed goldfish
  47. Optimization and validation of UPLC method for dapagliflozin and candesartan cilexetil in an on-demand formulation: Analytical quality by design approach
  48. Biomass-based cellulose hydroxyapatite nanocomposites for the efficient sequestration of dyes: Kinetics, response surface methodology optimization, and reusability
  49. Multifunctional nitrogen and boron co-doped carbon dots: A fluorescent probe for Hg2+ and biothiol detection with bioimaging and antifungal applications
  50. Separation of sulphonamides on a C12-diol mixed-mode HPLC column and investigation of their retention mechanism
  51. Characterization and antioxidant activity of pectin from lemon peels
  52. Fast PFAS determination in honey by direct probe electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry: A health risk assessment insight
  53. Correlation study between GC–MS analysis of cigarette aroma compounds and sensory evaluation
  54. Synthesis, biological evaluation, and molecular docking studies of substituted chromone-2-carboxamide derivatives as anti-breast cancer agents
  55. The influence of feed space velocity and pressure on the cold flow properties of diesel fuel
  56. Acid etching behavior and mechanism in acid solution of iron components in basalt fibers
  57. Protective effect of green synthesized nanoceria on retinal oxidative stress and inflammation in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rat
  58. Evaluation of the antianxiety activity of green zinc nanoparticles mediated by Boswellia thurifera in albino mice by following the plus maze and light and dark exploration tests
  59. Yeast as an efficient and eco-friendly bifunctional porogen for biomass-derived nitrogen-doped carbon catalysts in the oxygen reduction reaction
  60. Novel descriptors for the prediction of molecular properties
  61. Synthesis and characterization of surfactants derived from phenolphthalein: In vivo and in silico studies of their antihyperlipidemic effect
  62. Turmeric oil-fortified nutraceutical-SNEDDS: An approach to boost therapeutic effectiveness of dapagliflozin during treatment of diabetic patients
  63. Analysis and study on volatile flavor compounds of three Yunnan cultivated cigars based on headspace-gas chromatography-ion mobility spectrometry
  64. Near-infrared IR780 dye-loaded poloxamer 407 micelles: Preparation and in vitro assessment of anticancer activity
  65. Study on the influence of the viscosity reducer solution on percolation capacity of thin oil in ultra-low permeability reservoir
  66. Detection method of Aristolochic acid I based on magnetic carrier Fe3O4 and gold nanoclusters
  67. Juglone’s apoptotic impact against eimeriosis-induced infection: a bioinformatics, in-silico, and in vivo approach
  68. Potential anticancer agents from genus Aerva based on tubulin targets: an in-silico integration of quantitative structure activity relationship (QSAR), molecular docking, simulation, drug-likeness, and density functional theory (DFT) analysis
  69. Hepatoprotective and PXR-modulating effects of Erodium guttatum extract in propiconazole-induced toxicity
  70. Studies on chemical composition of medicinal plants collected in natural locations in Ecuador
  71. A study of different pre-treatment methods for cigarettes and their aroma differences
  72. Cytotoxicity and molecular mechanisms of quercetin, gallic acid, and pinocembrin in Caco-2 cells: insights from cell viability assays, network pharmacology, and molecular docking
  73. Choline-based deep eutectic solvents for green extraction of oil from sour cherry seeds
  74. Green-synthesis of chromium (III) nanoparticles using garden fern and evaluation of its antibacterial and anticholinesterase activities
  75. Innovative functional mayonnaise formulations with watermelon seeds oil: evaluation of quality parameters and storage stability
  76. Molecular insights and biological evaluation of compounds isolated from Ferula oopoda against diabetes, advanced glycation end products and inflammation in diabetics
  77. Removal of cytotoxic tamoxifen from aqueous solutions using a geopolymer-based nepheline–cordierite adsorbent
  78. Unravelling the therapeutic effect of naturally occurring Bauhinia flavonoids against breast cancer: an integrated computational approach
  79. Characterization of organic arsenic residues in livestock and poultry meat and offal and consumption risks
  80. Synthesis and characterization of zinc sulfide nanoparticles and their genotoxic and cytotoxic effects on acute myeloid leukemia cells
  81. Activity of Coriandrum sativum methanolic leaf extracts against Eimeria papillata: a combined in vitro and in silico approach
  82. Special Issue on Advancing Sustainable Chemistry for a Greener Future
  83. One-pot fabrication of highly porous morphology of ferric oxide-ferric oxychloride/poly-O-chloroaniline nanocomposite seeded on poly-1H pyrrole: Photocathode for green hydrogen generation from natural and artificial seawater
  84. High-efficiency photocathode for green hydrogen generation from sanitation water using bismuthyl chloride/poly-o-chlorobenzeneamine nanocomposite
  85. Innovative synthesis of cobalt-based catalysts using ionic liquids and deep eutectic solvents: A minireview on electrocatalytic water splitting
  86. Special Issue on Phytochemicals, Biological and Toxicological Analysis of Plants
  87. Comparative analysis of fruit quality parameters and volatile compounds in commercially grown citrus cultivars
  88. Total phenolic, flavonoid, flavonol, and tannin contents as well as antioxidant and antiparasitic activities of aqueous methanol extract of Alhagi graecorum plant used in traditional medicine: Collected in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
  89. Study on the pharmacological effects and active compounds of Apocynum venetum L.
  90. Chemical profile of Senna italica and Senna velutina seed and their pharmacological properties
  91. Essential oils from Brazilian plants: A literature analysis of anti-inflammatory and antimalarial properties and in silico validation
  92. Toxicological effects of green tea catechin extract on rat liver: Delineating safe and harmful doses
  93. Unlocking the potential of Trigonella foenum-graecum L. plant leaf extracts against diabetes-associated hypertension: A proof of concept by in silico studies
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Heruntergeladen am 10.1.2026 von https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/chem-2025-0220/html
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