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Yeast as an efficient and eco-friendly bifunctional porogen for biomass-derived nitrogen-doped carbon catalysts in the oxygen reduction reaction

  • Junjie Zhang EMAIL logo , Gaopan Li , Yaoming Fu , Xu Peng , Xing Peng , Gangjin Huang , Maosong Xia , Jilong Wang , Shixin Li , Chuanlong Zhu , Yanjun Chen , Dongcheng Luo , Yunbin Tu , Xiuyi Li and Wuguo Wei EMAIL logo
Published/Copyright: September 23, 2025
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Open Chemistry
From the journal Open Chemistry Volume 23 Issue 1

Abstract

Specific surface area (SSA) and doped nitrogen (N) atom content are crucial physical properties for improving the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) activity of natural biomass-derived N-doped carbon catalysts. Herein, this work proposes an efficient and environment-friendly yeast porogen, which can not only effectively increase the SSA without a tedious/harmful process but also enhance the doped N atom content. Among them, the SSA (779 m2 g−1) of yuba fermented by the yeast-derived N-doped carbon catalyst is increased by 157 and 7%, respectively, compared with that of catalysts non-activated (302 m2 g−1) and activated by ZnCl2 (728 m2 g−1). The SSA (942 m2 g−1) of the fermented spinach leaf-derived N-doped carbon catalyst is about 65 and 14%, respectively, higher than that of catalysts not activated (570 m2 g−1) and activated by ZnCl2 (810 m2 g−1). Besides, the doped N atom content of fermented yuba (3.35%)- and spinach leaf (5.33%)-derived N-doped carbon catalysts also enhanced by about 19 and 27%, respectively, compared with that of catalysts activated by ZnCl2 (2.81 and 4.19%). As a result, the fermented yuba- and spinach leaf-derived N-doped carbon catalysts exhibit superior ORR activity to the catalysts non-activated and activated by ZnCl2. This yeast-mediated approach provides a sustainable alternative to energy-intensive activation techniques, aligning with green catalyst design principles.

Graphical abstract

Keywords: biomass; yeast; ORR catalyst; BET; pore structure

1 Introduction

The development of inexpensive and efficient candidate oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) catalysts to replace platinum (Pt) is always the research hotspot, which is a key issue in the commercialization of fuel cells [1,2,3,4,5]. Regarding that, natural biomass-derived N-doped carbon catalysts have gradually attracted academic attention due to their low cost, sustainability, excellent ORR activity, high resistance to fuel, and long-term durability [6,7]. So far, some progress has been made along this direction, such as sweet potato vine [8], honeysuckle [9], fermented rice [10], willow leaves [11], bamboo fungus [12], Typha orientalis [13], chrysanthemum [14], chitosan [15], etc. Recent studies indicate that specific surface area (SSA) and doped N atom content are crucial physical properties, which severely influence the ORR activity of natural biomass-derived N-doped carbon catalysts [16,17,18,19]. Hence, most natural biomass-derived N-doped carbon catalysts commonly utilize porogen and foreign N sources to enhance the SSA and doped N atom content, thereby improving the ORR activity.

Currently, there are mainly two types of porogens: physical and chemical porogens [20,21]. Among them, physical porogens, including water vapor (H2O + C = CO + H2) [22] and carbon dioxide (CO2 + C = 2CO) [23], could react with the carbon of natural biomass-derived N-doped carbon catalysts at high temperatures, then form a porous structure and increase the SSA. For instance, the SSA of carbon nanofibers is enhanced from 480 to 1,040 m2 g−1 after water vapor activation [24]. The superiority of physical porogen is that the produced by-products (CO and H2) are less harmful to the environment, but their weak ability of increasing the SSA restricted its wide application. In contrast, chemical porogens, including KOH [18,25], ZnCl2 [10], H3PO4 [21,26], and so on, are good at increasing the SSA. Regarding that, the SSA of the Gastrodia elata-derived catalyst [27] (carbon nanofibers [24]) is enhanced from 398 to 1,720 m2 g−1 (480 to 2,500 m2 g−1) after ZnCl2 (KOH) activation. However, the residues of chemicals, the treatment of toxic vapors (HCl and ZnCl2), and the recovery of metal are always difficult to resolve, which might result in the chemical porogen losing competitiveness in green and sustainable development. In terms of doped N atom content, chemicals rich in nitrogen, such as NH3 [18,25], melamine [17], urea [28], etc., are used as the foreign nitrogen source to enhance the doped N atom content, which undoubtedly increased the costs and polluted the environment. On this basis, this work shows that increasing the SSA and doped N content are two independent tasks, which resulted in a complex process, high cost, and secondary environmental pollution. Moreover, the effective methods to increase the SSA and the doped N atom content are at the cost of destroying the environment. Thus, there is an urgent need for a method, which could not only effectively increase the SSA and doped N atom content but also comply with green, environmental protection, and sustainable development.

Yeast is a single-celled fungus, which is a non-chemical and natural fermentation reagent [29]. In an oxygen (oxygen-free) environment, yeast can transform glucose from natural biomass to carbon dioxide (ethanol) and water, then form a porous structure and increase the SSA [30]. In natural world, most natural biomass contains glucose or starch, which provides opportunities for yeast. Besides, the abundant protein in yeast can be used as the foreign nitrogen source to enhance the doped N atom content. In this work, the SSA and doped N atom content of the fermented yuba and spinach leaves are significantly higher than those non-activated and activated by ZnCl2, resulting in further improvement of the ORR activity. In addition, yeast is a natural microorganism and seldom polluted the environment. Hence, yeast, as a novel porogen, will bring hope for the preparation of a green and environment-friendly natural biomass-derived N-doped carbon catalyst with high ORR activity.

2 Experimental

2.1 Materials

Yuba and spinach leaves were procured from a local supermarket, rinsed with distilled water, and subsequently dried in an oven. The above dried yuba and spinach leaves were ground into powder (15 g). Among them, 5 g dried samples were placed directly into the quartz tube at 850°C under a N2 atmosphere for 2 h with a temperature ramp of 10°C min−1 (marked as Y-850 and S-850). The selection of annealing temperature (850°C) was based on our group’s previous works. Moreover, 5 g dried samples were mixed with ZnCl2 (5 g) in 100 ml deionized water, then dried into a colloid at 60°C. The completely dried colloid was placed into the quartz tube under the above same conditions (marked as Y-850-Z and S-850-Z). The remaining 5 g dried samples were mixed with yeast (5 g) in 100 ml deionized water at 35°C for fermentation (marked as Y-850-Y and S-850-Y). Subsequently, Y-850-Y and S-850-Y were rinsed with ethanol to remove the supporter of yeast (sorbitan monostearate), then annealed in a quartz tube under the above same conditions. After cooling, Y-850/Y-850-Z/Y-850-Y and S-850/S-850-Z/S-850-Y were washed by 0.5 M H2SO4 aqueous to remove inorganic impurities. The yields of the final products in all cases are presented in Table 1. The results indicate that all samples were initially weighed at 5 g, with the final masses ranging from 2.5 to 2.9 g, corresponding to product yields of 50–58%.

Table 1

Mass and yield information of the final product

Final product Mass (g) and yield (%) Final product Mass (g) and yield (%)
Y-850 2.6 (52) S-850 2.5 (50)
Y-850-Z 2.8 (56) S-850-Z 2.7 (54)
Y-850-Y 2.9 (58) S-850-Y 2.8 (56)

2.2 Characterization

The micro-topography of the catalyst was investigated by field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM; Supra-55 Sapphire). Nitrogen adsorption and desorption measurements were recorded on a WBL-810 instrument at 77 K. The SSA was obtained by the Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) equations. X-ray diffraction (XRD) was performed on a Rigaku D/MAX-Ultima+ with a Co Kα radiation source. Raman spectra were measured on a Renishaw instrument with a 514 nm laser source. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) was conducted on a VG Microtech ESCA 2000 with a monochrome Al X-ray source.

2.2.1 Electrochemical measurements

All electrochemical experiments were conducted on a VMP3 electrochemical station equipped with a standard three-electrode cell. A platinum mesh (1 cm2) and a Hg/HgO electrode (0.88 V versus the reversible hydrogen electrode [RHE], Figure S1) served as the counter electrode and reference electrode, respectively. The working electrode was a glass carbon (GC) electrode covered with a catalyst. The preparation procedures of the working electrode are as follows: the GC electrode was polished with 0.3 and 0.05 µm alumina slurry, respectively, and then rinsed with deionized water and ethanol. About 5 mg of catalyst and 10 µl of Nafion (5%) were added into 2.5 ml isopropanol to form a slurry and then ultrasonicated for 30 min. About 30 µl of ink was pipetted onto the surface of the GC electrode and dried at room temperature. For comparison, the commercial 20% Pt/C (Johnson Matthey) catalyst was prepared by the same method. For ORR measurements, the scanning rates of cyclic voltammetry (CV) and linear sweep voltammetry (LSV) were 20 and 10 mV s−1, respectively. Before CV measurement, N2 or O2 was purged into the solution for at least 30 min. In the rotating disk electrode (RDE) (model 636 rotator) test, LSV curves were recorded at 1,600 rpm in O2-saturated 0.1 M KOH electrolyte. The measured potential ranged from 0.1 to 1.2 V versus RHE. Fresh 0.1 M KOH solution was used for each electrochemical test to ensure reproducible results. All the potentials reported herein were recorded versus RHE.

3 Results and discussion

Two groups of yuba- and spinach leaf-derived N-doped carbon catalysts were prepared, as shown in Scheme 1. Obviously, the volumetric expansion of yuba and spinach leaves fermented by yeast is significant compared to those before fermentation, and it is accompanied by abundant bubbles. In order to further observe the function of yeast, SEM images of the above samples are provided in Figure 1. For yuba-derived N-doped carbon catalysts, Y-850 shows a micron-scale block morphology with fewer surface pores (Figure 1a), while the surfaces of Y-850-Z (Figure 1b) and Y-850-Y (Figure 1c) exhibit a porous morphology, which is attributed to ZnCl2 activation and yeast fermentation. For spinach leaf-derived N-doped carbon catalysts, S-850 displays a micron-sized block with a complete outer membrane, which contains abundant cross-linked nano-short rods inside the membrane (Figure 1d).

Scheme 1 Illustration of the procedure for the fabrication of natural biomass derived N-doped carbon catalysts from yuba and spinach leaves.
Scheme 1

Illustration of the procedure for the fabrication of natural biomass derived N-doped carbon catalysts from yuba and spinach leaves.

Figure 1 (a)–(c) SEM images of Y-850, Y-850-Z, and Y-850-Y, respectively; (d)–(f) SEM images of S-850, S-850-Z, and S-850-Y, respectively.
Figure 1

(a)–(c) SEM images of Y-850, Y-850-Z, and Y-850-Y, respectively; (d)–(f) SEM images of S-850, S-850-Z, and S-850-Y, respectively.

As shown in Figure 1e and f, the membranes of S-850-Z and S-850-Y are severely damaged, resulting in the internal cross-linked nano-sized short rod being exposed. The above SEM images indicated that yeast had the ability to form a porous structure and expose more SSA. For further analysis of structural information, Raman spectra were measured.

In Figure 2a and b, the characteristic D (1,363 cm−1) and G (1,571 cm−1) bands are obviously observed in the Raman spectrum, where the D band is associated with an A1g vibration mode of carbon atoms with dangling bonds in plane terminations of defect graphite and the G band indicative of the vibration of sp2-hybridized graphitic carbon atoms. The intensity ratio of the D band and G band (ID/IG) reflects the degree of defects in the carbon material [31]. Among them, the ID/IG values of Y-850, Y-850-Z, and Y-850-Y are gradually increased from 2.73 to 3.97 and to 4.05, respectively (Figure 2a), and those of S-850, S-850-Z, and S-850-Y are also gradually enhanced from 3.21 to 3.69 and to 3.98, respectively (Figure 2b). The above results indicate that Y-850-Y and S-850-Y exhibit more defects, which may lead to the increase of the SSA. Subsequently, this work conducts the N2 adsorption–desorption experiment to explore the SSA.

Figure 2 (a) and (b) Raman spectra with deconvolution into two contributions; (c) and (d) N2 adsorption–desorption isotherms.
Figure 2

(a) and (b) Raman spectra with deconvolution into two contributions; (c) and (d) N2 adsorption–desorption isotherms.

In Figure 2c and d are shown the isotherms of above samples, wherein all show type-IV behavior with a distinct hysteresis loop in medium- and high-pressure regions (P/P0 = 0.5 to 1.0), suggesting that the pore type of above samples is consistent. Furthermore, the SSA of Y-850-Y (779 m2 g−1) increased by 157 and 7%, respectively, compared to Y-850 (302 m2 g−1) and Y-850-Z (728 m2 g−1). The SSA of S-850-Y (942 m2 g−1) is about 65 and 14% higher than those of S-850 (570 m2 g−1) and S-850-Z (810 m2 g−1). SEM images, Raman spectra, and N2 adsorption–desorption isotherms clearly confirmed that yeast is an effective porogen for yuba and spinach leaves, even better than ZnCl2.

As shown in Figure 3a and b, XRD patterns of the obtained samples all exhibit a broad peak at 2θ = 30.7° and 49.4°, which could be attributed to the (002) and (100) planes of typical amorphous carbon (JCPDS card no. 41-1487), respectively [32]. Closer inspection reveals that the diffraction peak position of the (002) plane of Y-850, Y-850-Z, and Y-850-Y gradually negatively shifts compared with the standard peak position, which may be ascribed to the increase of doped N atom content [33]. Similarly, S-850, S-850-Z, and S-850-Y also follow the above trend. To determine the XRD’s inference, XPS measurements were then carried out.

Figure 3 (a) and (b) XRD patterns over the 2θ range of 10–90°.
Figure 3

(a) and (b) XRD patterns over the 2θ range of 10–90°.

The XPS spectra of the as-synthesized samples are presented in Figure 4. As shown in Figure 4a, the dominant C 1s (284 eV), O 1s (532 eV), and N 1s (400 eV) peaks of yuba-derived N-doped carbon materials (Y-850, Y-850-Z, and Y-850-Y) are clearly observed, indicating that the N atom is successfully doped into the carbon skeleton [34]. Notably, the content of doped N atoms increases from Y-850 (1.62 at%) to Y-850-Z (2.81 at%) and then to Y-850-Y (3.35 at%). Among them, Y-850-Z formed a porous structure via ZnCl2 activation, which further exposed the N content inside the yuba and thus increased the N content from 1.62 to 2.81 at%. Y-850-Y was also subjected to yeast activation to form a porous structure, which increased the exposed N content from 1.62 to 3.35 at%. From the above analysis, yeast exhibited a slightly higher pore-forming efficiency than ZnCl2 and can expose more N content in the yuba.

Figure 4 (a) XPS full spectra of Y-850, Y-850-Z, and Y-850-Y; (b)–(d) high-resolution N 1s spectra of Y-850, Y-850-Z, and Y-850-Y, respectively; (e) XPS full spectra of S-850, S-850-Z, and S-850-Y; (f)–(h) high-resolution N 1s spectra of S-850, S-850-Z, and S-850-Y, respectively.
Figure 4

(a) XPS full spectra of Y-850, Y-850-Z, and Y-850-Y; (b)–(d) high-resolution N 1s spectra of Y-850, Y-850-Z, and Y-850-Y, respectively; (e) XPS full spectra of S-850, S-850-Z, and S-850-Y; (f)–(h) high-resolution N 1s spectra of S-850, S-850-Z, and S-850-Y, respectively.

The high-resolution N 1s spectral analysis of Y-850, Y-850-Z, and Y-850-Y are shown in Figure 4b–d. According to previous literature [35], the functional N atom was divided into pyridinic-N (398.2 eV), pyrrolic-N (399.4 eV), graphitic-N (401.1 eV), and oxidized-N (402.3 eV). Therefore, pyridinic-N, pyrrolic-N, and graphitic-N all contribute to enhanced ORR activity and are regarded as ORR active sites [36]. The content of the above functional nitrogen was determined by peak area integration, and the relevant results are listed in Table 2. After activation with ZnCl2 and yeast, the contents of pyridinic-N, pyrrolic-N, and graphitic-N all increased significantly, which is likely to remarkably enhance the ORR activity. It is worth noting that compared with ZnCl2, yeast exhibits a more significant enhancing effect on the content of the above functional N, which indicates that yeast is more effective in increasing the content of functional N. Similarly, S-850, S-850-Z, and S-850-Y samples derived from spinach leaves also exhibit the same trend as mentioned above. This trend was further supported by Figure 4e–h and Table 2, thus confirming that yeast can effectively enhance the content of functional N.

Table 2

Total N content and the functional N content of the as-synthesized samples

Samples Total N (at%) Pyridinic-N (at%) Pyrrolic-N (at%) Graphitic-N (at%) Oxidized-N (at%)
Y-850 1.62 0.73 0.24 0.42 0.23
Y-850-Z 2.81 0.96 0.53 0.85 0.47
Y-850-Y 3.35 0.87 0.70 1.15 0.63
S-850 2.71 1.14 0.49 0.67 0.41
S-850-Z 4.19 1.30 0.88 1.17 0.84
S-850-Y 5.33 0.80 1.28 2.02 1.23

4 Electrochemical characterizations

CV, as the motion potential polarization technique, can clearly observe the ORR process. To obtain the faradaic current density produced by oxygen, CV technique was carried out in N2- and O2-saturated 0.1 M KOH solution [37]. Figure 5 shows that the faradaic current density of Y-850 (−0.33 mA cm–2 in Figure 5a) and Y-850-Z (−0.54 mA cm−2 in Figure 5b) is significantly weaker than that of Y-850-Y (−0.78 mA cm−2 in Figure 5c) at 0.6 V. Similarly, faradaic current densities of S-850 (−0.34 mA cm−2 in Figure 5d) and S-850-Z (−0.46 mA cm−2 in Figure 5e) are weaker than that of S-850-Y (−0.85 mA cm−2 in Figure 5f) at 0.6 V. Meanwhile, the onset potential, a key ORR activity index, can also be observed in Figure 5. For yuba-derived N-doped carbon catalysts, the onset potential of Y-850 (0.88 V) and Y-850-Z (0.93 V) are lower than that of Y-850-Y (0.94 V). For spinach leaf-derived N-doped carbon catalysts, the onset potential of S-850 (0.90 V) is lower than those of S-850-Z (0.93 V) and S-850-Y (0.93 V).

Figure 5 The CV curves of (a) Y-850, (b) Y-850-Z, (c) Y-850-Y, (d) S-850, (e) S-850-Z, (f) S-850-Y in O2 (red solid line) and N2 (black solid line)-saturated 0.1 M KOH solution at a scanning rate of 20 mV s−1.
Figure 5

The CV curves of (a) Y-850, (b) Y-850-Z, (c) Y-850-Y, (d) S-850, (e) S-850-Z, (f) S-850-Y in O2 (red solid line) and N2 (black solid line)-saturated 0.1 M KOH solution at a scanning rate of 20 mV s−1.

CV curves of commercial 20% Pt/C are tested in 0.1 M KOH solution saturated with N2 and O2, so as to compare the faradaic current density and onset potential of the synthesized samples. In Figure 6a, the faradaic current density and onset potential of commercial 20% Pt/C are 0.77 mA cm−2 and 0.94 V vs RHE. Based on the CV curves, Y-850-Y and S-850-Y exhibit comparable ORR performance in terms of faradaic current density and onset potential to the commercial 20% Pt/C. In addition, the RDE test was conducted at 1,600 rpm to explore the limiting diffusion current density. As shown in Figure 6b and c, the LSV curve of commercial 20% Pt/C was recorded in an O2-saturated 0.1 M KOH solution. In Figure 6b, the limiting diffusion current density of Y-850-Y (−5.24 mA cm−2) is higher than those of Y-850 (−1.77 mA cm−2) and Y-850-Z (−4.29 mA cm−2) at 0.6 V. Figure 6c shows that the limiting diffusion current density of S-850-Y (−5.88 mA cm−2) is superior to those of S-850 (−2.50 mA cm−2) and S-850-Z (−4.83 mA cm−2) at 0.6 V. The limiting diffusion current density of commercial 20% Pt/C is 4.59 mA cm⁻², which is lower than those of Y-850-Y (−5.24 mA cm−2) and S-850-Y (−4.83 mA cm−2).

Figure 6 (a) CV curves of commercial 20% Pt/C in N2- and O2-saturated 0.1 M KOH solution, (b) and (c) LSV curves of the as-prepared catalysts in O2-saturated 0.1 M KOH solution at 1,600 rpm, and (d) chronopotentiometry tests of Y-850-Y, S-850-Y, and commercial 20% Pt/C.
Figure 6

(a) CV curves of commercial 20% Pt/C in N2- and O2-saturated 0.1 M KOH solution, (b) and (c) LSV curves of the as-prepared catalysts in O2-saturated 0.1 M KOH solution at 1,600 rpm, and (d) chronopotentiometry tests of Y-850-Y, S-850-Y, and commercial 20% Pt/C.

A crucial factor in the commercialization of fuel cells is the ORR stability of catalysts. The as-prepared catalysts (Y-850-Y and S-850-Y) and commercial 20% Pt/C are subjected to chronopotentiometric tests over 20,000 s (Figure 6d). After 20,000 s of testing, the current density of commercial 20% Pt/C retains only 59% of its initial value, whereas those of Y-850-Y and S-850-Y remain at 90 and 85%, respectively. These results demonstrate that the as-prepared catalysts exhibit superior ORR stability compared to commercial 20% Pt/C. Based on the above electrochemical characterizations, the ORR activities of yuba and spinach leaves fermented by yeast derived catalysts (Y-850-Y and S-850-Y) are apparently higher than those non-activated (Y-850 and S-850) and activated by ZnCl2 (Y-850-Z and S-850-Z), indicating that yeast is an efficient porogen for the preparation of the natural biomass-derived N-doped carbon catalyst. The information of above samples is summarized in Table 3.

Table 3

Information of the above samples

Sample SSA (m2 g−1) ID/IG Faradaic current density@0.6V (mA cm−2) Onset potential (V) Limiting diffusion current density@0.6V (mA cm−2)
Y-850 302 2.73 −0.33 0.88 −1.77
Y-850-Z 728 3.97 −0.54 0.93 −4.29
Y-850-Y 779 4.05 −0.78 0.94 −5.24
S-850 570 3.21 −0.34 0.90 −2.50
S-850-Z 810 3.69 −0.46 0.93 −4.83
S-850-Y 942 3.98 −0.85 0.93 −5.88

5 Conclusions

This work proposed a novel bifunctional yeast porogen, which not only could effectively increase both the SSA and doped N atom content but also conform to the development of green, sustainable, and environment-friendly catalysts. Among them, yuba and spinach leaves are chosen to explore the fermentation effect of yeast. For yuba-derived N-doped carbon catalysts, the SSA and doped N atom content of Y-850, Y-850-Z, and Y-850-Y gradually increased to 302, 728, and 779 m2 g−1 and 1.62, 2.81, and 3.35%, respectively. For spinach leaf-derived N-doped carbon catalysts, the SSA and doped N atom content of S-850, S-850-Z, and S-850-Y also gradually enhanced, namely, 570, 810, and 942 m2 g−1 and 2.71, 4.19, and 5.33%, respectively. Therefore, Y-850-Y and S-850-Y exhibited excellent ORR activity than Y-850/Y-850-Z and S-850/S-850-Y. In a word, yeast as the effective bifunctional porogen has opened a new avenue for optimizing natural biomass-derived N-doped carbon catalysts, thereby accelerating the commercialization of fuel cells.

# The contributions of the authors are the same.

Funding information

The author(s) declare that financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. Financial support was provided by the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (No. 24CAFUC04004 and 24CAFUC03028), National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 52205238 and 12304258), Natural Science Foundation of Sichuan Province (No. 2022NSFSC1894 and 2022NSFSC1885), the Joint Fund Project supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China and the Civil Aviation Administration of China (No. U2133209), and the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (No. J2022-005).

  1. Author contributions: Junjie Zhang: writing – review and editing, writing – original draft, methodology, investigation, conceptualization. Gaopan Li: writing – review and editing, writing – original draft, formal analysis. Yaoming Fu: writing – review and editing, methodology, conceptualization. Xu Peng: writing – review and editing, project administration. Xing Peng: writing – review and editing, resources. Gangjin Huang: writing – review and editing, methodology. Maosong Xia: software, visualization. Jilong Wang: software, data curation. Shixin Li: validation, methodology. Chuanlong Zhu: investigation, resources. Yanjun Chen: data curation, validation. Dongcheng Luo: formal analysis, software. Yunbin Tu: visualization, investigation. Xiuyi Li: project administration, resources. Wuguo Wei: writing – review and editing, supervision, funding acquisition.

  2. Conflict of interest: The authors declare no competing financial interest.

  3. Ethical approval: The conducted research is not related to either human or animal use, and all raw materials are food materials.

  4. Data availability statement: The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Received: 2025-07-18
Revised: 2025-07-18
Accepted: 2025-07-30
Published Online: 2025-09-23

© 2025 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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https://doi.org/10.1515/chem-2025-0192
Keywords for this article
biomass; yeast; ORR catalyst; BET; pore structure
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Research Articles
  2. Phytochemical investigation and evaluation of antioxidant and antidiabetic activities in aqueous extracts of Cedrus atlantica
  3. Influence of B4C addition on the tribological properties of bronze matrix brake pad materials
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