Startseite Study on the stabilization mechanism of aeolian sandy soil formation by adding a natural soft rock
Artikel Open Access

Study on the stabilization mechanism of aeolian sandy soil formation by adding a natural soft rock

  • Tingting Cao EMAIL logo , Haiou Zhang , Yang Zhang , Tianqing Chen , Chenxi Yang , Yingguo Wang und Hang Zhou
Veröffentlicht/Copyright: 27. September 2023
Artikel downloaden (PDF)
Veröffentlichen auch Sie bei De Gruyter Brill
Manuskript einreichen Informationen für Autor*innen
Open Geosciences
Aus der Zeitschrift Open Geosciences Band 15 Heft 1

Abstract

The study of the distribution of cementitious materials in soil aggregates is important for understanding the formation of aggregates in soil due to the addition of soft rock rich in clay. Soft rock and sand in the ratios of 1:1(C1), 1:2(C2), 1:5(C3), and 1:0(CK) were collected in a test field, and the wet sieve method was used to separate large water-stable soil aggregates. The microstructures of the aggregates and the amounts of iron–aluminum compounds and clay minerals were measured. The result shows that the addition of soft rock improves the ability to create effective soil formations in sand. The order of the amounts of >0.5 mm sized water-stable aggregates based on the different treatments is C1 > C3 > C2 > CK. In the later stages of improvement, iron–aluminum oxides, clay minerals, and calcareous cements in modified soil were important for the formation of water-stable aggregates. The enhancing effect of minerals gradually increases, among which amorphous alumina and complexed iron oxide promote the formation of large water-stable aggregates in improved sandy soil. It is concluded that the engineering technique of compounding soft rock and sand is a new technology that can promote sand-forming soil and permanently change the properties of aeolian sand soil.

Keywords: soft rock; sandy soil; aggregates; clay minerals; stabilization mechanism

1 Introduction

With rapid economic growth, the development and utilization of land is ever increasing. Agricultural production in fragile and sensitive areas such as sandy land has become important for increasing arable land resources in many parts of the world [1], but very low soil permeability and nutrient retention capacity are the primary reasons that restrict the development of agricultural production in coarse soils such as sandy land [2]. At present, most land improvement projects for sandy land involve flattening dunes to form large-scale leveled farmland, and agricultural production is then carried out with agriculture facilities; however, this method does not improve the texture of the soil. In large-scale agricultural facilities, groundwater resources are depleted rapidly, the organic matter in soil increases mineralization, and the nitrogen content of the soil is reduced. There are many measures for improving sandy soil, such as adding organic matter and adding soil amendments (such as biochar, super absorbent polymer, and bentonite) [3,4,5]. Such methods can change the functional structure of microorganisms in sandy soil due to which the soil structure improves along with the water and nutrient retention capacity; however, the higher cost is disadvantageous for engineering use [6].

At present, it is difficult to fabricate a good soil structure due to the lack of cementitious materials. There are a number of materials used in the literature used as cementing materials such as lime, silica fume, and magnesium oxide. Lime is an inorganic cementing material primarily composed of calcium oxide. It exhibits strong alkaline properties and can react with glassy active silicon oxide or activated alumina at room temperature, resulting in the production of hydraulic products. This makes lime an important raw material in the building material industry. Silica fume serves to fill the pores between cement particles and also forms a gel with hydration products. Additionally, it reacts with magnesium oxide to form a gel. The addition of an appropriate amount of silica fume to cement-based mortar and refractory castable significantly enhances their compressive, flexural, and impact resistance [7,8,9]. The aforementioned materials are mainly used in the construction industry for strengthening the stability of roadbeds and buildings.

Han and others used the widely available soft rock in the sandy lands of Mu Us in northern China to improve sand. They utilized the characteristics of rich cementitious materials such as clay minerals that include a sticky texture and are easily disintegrated and aeolian sandy soil that has good air permeability and water and fertilizer retention [10,11,12]. In the Mu Us Sandy Land area, there are two prominent hazards known as soft rock and aeolian sand. Soft rock, a natural colloidal material, is selected for sand remediation due to its local availability. This choice not only reduces the transportation cost of remediation materials but also addresses the issues of wind and water erosion caused by these two hazards. Consequently, this approach offers significant economic and ecological benefits. More than 95% of the sand belongs to primary minerals with a particle size ranging from 0.05 to 1 mm. The clay content is relatively low at 0.8%. However, the secondary clay minerals in soft rock are significantly higher, ranging from 16.8 to 46.4%, with a clay content as high as 10.61%. In the cementing material of soft rock, the autogenous clays primarily consist of calcite and calcareous montmorillonite, with a minor presence of illite. The chemical composition of these clays mainly comprises Al2O3, SiO2, CaO, FeO, MgO, and other elements. Soft rock can therefore provide the necessary core material – colloids – to compensate for the deficiency in grain size. Additionally, the Mu Us Sandy land has an abundant supply of soft rock, which is easily accessible for exploitation. Transporting loess from remote areas is costly and leads to the destruction of land resources. The addition of soft rock in the composite soil initially helps in building a basic soil structure suitable for crop growth. The presence of colloids in soft rock promotes particle aggregation and increases the hydrophilicity of sandy soil, which is beneficial for crop growth. As crops grow and thrive, their root secretions contribute to the accumulation of organic carbon, the formation of humus, the proliferation of microorganisms, and the overall improvement of the sandy soil community. Consequently, this thickens the ploughing layer of the soil and promotes the organic processes within sandy soil. Therefore, adding soft rock is a sustainable long-term approach for reclaiming sand.

The process of preparing a soft rock and sand complex is straightforward, and large-scale sand remediation can be engineered. Using current technology, 100,000 ha of sand have been renovated, which has important practical significance. Although the focus has been on solving the problem of regional sand remediation, such technological approaches are likely to also be applicable to similar semi-arid areas with sandy soils across the world.

Soil aggregates are the basic units of soil structure. As an indicator of soil quality changes, soil aggregates affect the circulation of soil water, fertilizers, gases, and heat. The formation, evolution, and stabilization of natural soil aggregates are very complex processes and are the result of the combined actions of soil electrolyte concentrations, fluid exchange types, clay minerals, carbonates, organic matter, iron, aluminum oxides, etc. [13,14]. The contents, types, and forms of various types of cement in soil aggregates formed under different environmental conditions show significant differences [15]. The research scholars have studied the relationship between aggregate diameter and soil stability (Table 1).

Table 1

Methods applied on particle size analysis and soil stabilization

Research theme Advantage Disadvantage Reference
Soil organic matter between fractions and aggregate size classes The relationship between particle size distribution and soil carbon retention stability was discussed The mechanism of carbon stability of particle size distribution has not been studied [16]
Fine soil particles can improve the stability of organic carbon The relationship between fine matter and organic carbon elevation was revealed By collecting a large amount of data to model the relationship between carbon stability and fine matter, the mechanism of fine matter and carbon stability has not been clarified [17]
Iron oxides are as major available component in the topsoil layer The importance of iron oxides for microaggregation and stabilization of organic matter in soil was revealed Studies have been conducted only for high clay soil arable land. Agglomerates of clay minerals used for sand reclamation have not been addressed [18]
Clay content can affect the particle size composition of soil microaggregates The relationship between clay particles and soil aggregate particles was revealed The mechanism by which clay particles affect aggregates has not been studied [19]

However, no studies have been conducted to analyze the changes in soil agglomeration structure after the addition of soft rock to sandy land. The objective of this study is to explore the scientific and effective utilization of natural soft rock for the remediation of sandy land at a microscopic level. Sandy land areas often suffer from severe wind erosion, water and fertilizer leakage, low productivity, and a poor ecological environment, leading to inefficient utilization of sandy land resources. This study takes an innovative approach by focusing on improving the soil structure and addresses the issue of sandy land soil structure by incorporating soft rock, a natural colloidal material. Soft rock can serve as the main component for the formation of sandy soil colloids, compensating for the deficiency in grain grade and improving the soil structure. This, in turn, enhances the water and fertilizer retention capacity of sandy soil, providing a solid foundation for crop growth.

As of 2019, China’s desertified land area had reached 1.6878 million km2. The prevention and control of desertification has always been a crucial aspect of China’s efforts in ecological and environmental protection. China stands among the countries with the largest desertification area, the highest population affected by desertification, and the most severe damage caused by sandstorms. Recently, the State Forestry and Grass Administration, along with seven other departments, issued the “National Desertification Control Plan (2021–2030).” This plan clearly outlines the goals and tasks for national desertification control in the upcoming stage. By 2025, the aim is to accomplish the task of managing 100 million mu of desertified land, and by 2030, the target is to complete the management of 186 million mu of desertified land. Currently, the global desert area covers approximately 31.4 million km2, which is equivalent to around 21% of the total land area on Earth. Desertification, a process in which fertile land becomes desert, is rapidly increasing at a rate of 50,000–70,000 km2 per year worldwide. This phenomenon has a significant impact on over 1 billion individuals and affects more than 40% of the Earth’s land surface, primarily in arid and semi-arid regions. Soft rock, acting as a natural cementing material, is abundantly found in the Mu Us Sandy Land. It has the potential to be used for sand remediation. This technology effectively improves the particle size composition of sandy soil, creating a suitable soil structure for the growth of green crops. It establishes favorable conditions for the rooting and germination of crops, thereby facilitating their growth and development. Moreover, it promotes the positive succession of desertification soil and contributes to improving the regional ecological environment. This study focuses on aggregates, a crucial factor influencing soil structure. It examines the different types and concentrations of cementing substances in aggregates to indirectly analyze the formation process of aggregates [20]. Additionally, it investigates the relationship between the stability of soil aggregates and the various cementing substances present in the aggregates. This research holds significant importance in uncovering the soil formation process of anthropogenic soil in sandy areas.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Study site

Long-term positioning tests were set up to simulate the soil condition of the composite layer of the sandy area of Mu Us. The test plots were set up in the years 2010 and 2016. The test plots were paved with a mixture of soft rock and sand at a depth of 0–30 cm and filled with aeolian sand soil at 30–70 cm. Four treatments of soft rock and sand were selected, with volume ratios of 0:1 (CK), 1:1 (C1), 1:2 (C2), and 1:5 (C3), based on the site conditions of the region. To maintain the uniformity of factors such as soft rock and micro-topography, the test plot was laid out in the shape of the number “one” from south to north. The depth of the soil plow layer in the region is 30–40 cm. Therefore, the depth of the composite soft rock and sand was also designed to be 0–30 cm. The experimental field had a two-crop rotation of maize–wheat per year and used artificial sowing. The types of chemical fertilizers tested in the experimental field were urea (containing 46.4% N), diammonium phosphate (containing 16% N and 44% P2O5), and potassium sulfate (containing 52% K2O). The amount of fertilizer applied was 55 kg hm−2 of N2, 180 kg hm−2 of P2O5, and 90 kg hm−2 of K2O [21,22].

2.2 Soil sample collection and analysis

2.2.1 Soil sample collection

The study area and the obtaining location of soil and soft rock are shown in Figure 1. After corn was harvested in October 2019, 0–10 cm surface soil samples were collected from each plot. Five soil samples were collected uniformly from each plot to form a composite sample. The undisturbed soil sample was gently shaped into spheres of diameter less than 10 mm according to its natural structure and layering. Plant roots, litter, etc., were removed, and the soil samples were spread out in a cool, ventilated place to dry. The soil samples were sieved into seven particle sizes: >10, 10–5, 5–2, 2–1, 1–0.5, 0.5–0.25, and <0.25 mm, and the percentage of each grade of aggregate was calculated [23].

Figure 1 The map of the study area and the obtaining location of soil and soft rock.
Figure 1

The map of the study area and the obtaining location of soil and soft rock.

2.2.2 Analysis of water-stable soil aggregates

Based on the proportions of the particle sizes of the aggregate obtained by dry sieving, the total weight of the soil tested was 100 g. The soil samples were analyzed by wet sieves on an agglomerate analyzer. The apertures of the sieve groups were 5, 2, 1, 0.5, and 0.25 mm. The sieve was first placed in a bucket, and water was added to the upper edge of the sieve group. The weighed soil sample was then placed in the set of sieves and agitated for 10 min, after which all levels of agglomerates remaining on the sieve were washed in an aluminum box with water, then dried at 60°C for 24 h and weighed (to an accuracy of 0.01 g) [24].

2.2.3 Determination of iron and aluminum

After sieving, the water-stable agglomerates in each size range were ground and passed through a 0.25 mm sieve to determine the proportions of iron and aluminum oxides (Fet, Alt), free iron and aluminum oxides (Fed, Ald), amorphous iron, aluminum oxide (Feo, Alo), and complexed iron aluminum oxide (Fep, Alp). The amount of Fet and Alt were determined by the X-ray fluorescence (XRF) method. Fed and Ald extracts were extracted by the sodium dithionite–sodium citrate–sodium bicarbonate method (DCB), Feo and Alo extracts were extracted with an oxalamide buffer solution, Fep and Alp extracts were extracted with a sodium pyrophosphate solution [25,26]. All extracts were diluted five times, and the amounts of Fe and Al in the diluted solutions were determined by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS).

2.2.4 XRD analysis

After sieving, the water-stable agglomerates in each particle size range were ground and passed through a 200-mesh screen. The mineral composition was determined by an X-ray diffractometer, Rigaku 2019, at a test condition of 0–60°.

2.2.5 Scanning electron microscope (SEM) analysis

The soil water-stable aggregates in the 0.25–0.5 and 0.5–1.0 mm particle size ranges obtained from the wet sieve were sprinkled on conductive carbon glue randomly, sprayed with gold, and subjected to electron microscopy at a working distance of 30 mm, and 50× magnification.

2.2.6 Statistical analysis

All statistical analyses were performed using the SPSS 18.0 software package, and significant differences between treatments were obtained using Duncan’s multiple range test at the 5% level. A Pearson correlation test was used to analyze the relationship between the content of cement in soil and the number of aggregates.

3 Results and analysis

3.1 Analysis of the microstructural characteristics of water-stable aggregates

An SEM was used to observe the wet sieving components (0.25–0.5, 0.5–1.0 mm) of aeolian sandy soil and soil modified after the addition of soft rock, as shown in Figures 1 and 2. For the 0.25–0.5 mm particle size range of aeolian sandy soil (CK), shown in Figure 1d and h, the results of the large-field electron microscope indicate that all soil particles were smooth sand grains and that there was no mutual cementation between sand grains; thus no effective aggregates were formed. However, for the 0.25–0.5 mm particle size components in modified soil, although a large number of smooth surface sand particles were observed under the electron microscope, many different barrier structures were also observed, as shown in Figure 2. From the large field of view of the electron microscope, it was seen that the addition of soft rock to aeolian sandy soil resulted in the formation of well-structured soil aggregates.

Figure 2 0.25–0.5 mm wet sieve component scanning electron microscope wide-field imaging image of improved soil and aeolian sandy soil, bar = 250 μm, (a, e) C1 treatment; (b, f) C2 treatment; (c, g) C3 treatment; (d, h) CK treatment (yellow is marked as effective aggregates, not marked as sand).
Figure 2

0.25–0.5 mm wet sieve component scanning electron microscope wide-field imaging image of improved soil and aeolian sandy soil, bar = 250 μm, (a, e) C1 treatment; (b, f) C2 treatment; (c, g) C3 treatment; (d, h) CK treatment (yellow is marked as effective aggregates, not marked as sand).

The wet-sieved components of the modified soil in the particle size range of 0.5–1.0 mm are shown in Figure 3a. It was found that soil particles of this particle size range agglomerate well and form a soil barrier structure, and no single particles were found. From the soil barrier junctions observed, it was found that the microscopic morphological characteristics of the soil barrier junctions were mainly divided into two types, one of which was a barrier structure with loose surface cementation and high porosity (Figure 3b), and the other was a barrier structure with tight surface cementation and fewer pores (Figure 3c).

Figure 3 Electron microscope image of the micro-morphological characteristics of 0.5–1 mm aggregates of composite soil: (a) bar = 500 μm, (b) and (c) bar = 250 μm.
Figure 3

Electron microscope image of the micro-morphological characteristics of 0.5–1 mm aggregates of composite soil: (a) bar = 500 μm, (b) and (c) bar = 250 μm.

3.2 Water-stable aggregates

Water-stable soil aggregates play a decisive role in maintaining soil stability [8]. It can be seen from Figure 4 that for aeolian sandy soil and composite soil formed by the addition of soft rock, water-stable aggregates were dominated by particle sizes of <0.25 mm, with particle size variations ranging from 46.35 to 81.76%.

Figure 4 The weight percentage distribution of soft rock and sand composite soil and water-stable aggregates of aeolian sand soil.
Figure 4

The weight percentage distribution of soft rock and sand composite soil and water-stable aggregates of aeolian sand soil.

Compared with aeolian sandy soil, it is more difficult to form the characteristics of effective large water-stable soil aggregates (in which the content of components >0.5 mm is 5.47%). After the addition of soft rock, the content of water-stable large aggregates at the surface of the composite soil was significantly increased. After 4 years of planting, the effect of the increase in the fraction of large agglomerates with a lift of >0.5 mm ranged from 6.92 to 16.95%. After 10 years of planting, the increase in the fraction of large agglomerates with a lift of >0.5 mm ranged from 14.06 to 21.34%.

The content of large water-stable aggregates for different treatments differed significantly (P < 0.05). The order of large water-stable soil aggregates (with components >0.5 mm) among the four treatments was C1 > C3 > C2 > CK. Compared with 4 years of planting, after 10 years of agricultural cultivation, the weight ratios of water-stable macroaggregates of modified soil and aeolian sand soil surface layer >0.5 mm for the three treatments increased by 6.00, 8.75, 10.86, and 1.61%.

3.3 XRD analysis

From an XRD analysis, water-stable soil aggregates in the particle size range of 5–0.25 mm for the C1, C2, and C3 treatments were determined, and a full spectrum fitting analysis is presented in Figure 5 with calculations based on relative abundance presented in Table 2 [27]. The content of clay in water-stable aggregates with a particle size range of 5–0.5 mm was higher than that with a particle size range of 0.25–0.5 mm. Among the different treatments, the content of clay minerals in water-stable aggregates for the C1 and C2 treatments was higher than the C3 treatment for 10 years of treatment when compared with 4 years of compounding for a clay mineral content of water-stable aggregates with a particle size range of 5–0.5 mm.

Figure 5 XRD analysis of soil water-stable aggregates of arsenic sandstone and sand compound (a) C1 treatment, the planting period is 4 years; (b) C2 treatment, the planting period is 4 years; (c) C3 treatment, the planting period is 4 years; (d) C1 treatment, planting life is 10 years; (e) C2 treatment, planting life is 10 years; (f) C3 treatment, planting life is 10 years.
Figure 5

XRD analysis of soil water-stable aggregates of arsenic sandstone and sand compound (a) C1 treatment, the planting period is 4 years; (b) C2 treatment, the planting period is 4 years; (c) C3 treatment, the planting period is 4 years; (d) C1 treatment, planting life is 10 years; (e) C2 treatment, planting life is 10 years; (f) C3 treatment, planting life is 10 years.

Table 2

XRD full spectrum fitting results of soft rock and sand composite soil water-stable aggregates

Treatment Size (mm) Clay
4a 10a
1:1 5–2 36.9 27.1
2–1 28.2 26.3
1–0.5 46.4 35.4
0.5–0.25 15.9 17.9
1:2 5–2 33.9 16.9
2–1 37.2 14.7
1–0.5 40.5 12.8
0.5–0.25 17.4 8.7
1:5 5–2 18.0 12.3
2–1 28.2 14.6
1–0.5 27.3 10.1
0.5–0.25 7.0 15.7

3.4 Analysis of Fe and Al distributions in water-stable soil aggregates of Pisha sandstone and sand

After the addition of soft rock, the amounts of total iron aluminum (Fet, Alt), free iron aluminum (Fed, Ald), complex iron aluminum (Fep, Alp), and active iron aluminum (Feo, Alo) are shown in Figures 6 and 7. The results show that the Fed content of different forms of iron–aluminum oxides in aeolian sandy soil and soft rock-improved composite soil was much higher than other iron–aluminum oxides, while the Fep content (g/kg) was the lowest, and the overall proportions were Fed > Ald > Alo > Feo > Alp > Fep.

Figure 6 The content of various forms of iron in soil water-stable aggregates of various grain sizes under different proportions of soft rock and sand planted for 4 years and planted for 10 years. (a) Total iron content, (b) free iron content, (c) activated iron content, and (d) complexed iron content.
Figure 6

The content of various forms of iron in soil water-stable aggregates of various grain sizes under different proportions of soft rock and sand planted for 4 years and planted for 10 years. (a) Total iron content, (b) free iron content, (c) activated iron content, and (d) complexed iron content.

Figure 7 The content of various aluminum forms in soil water-stable aggregates of various grain sizes under different proportions of soft rock and sand planted for 4 years and planted for 10 years. (a) Total aluminum content, (b) free aluminum content, (c) activated aluminum content, and (d) complexed aluminum content.
Figure 7

The content of various aluminum forms in soil water-stable aggregates of various grain sizes under different proportions of soft rock and sand planted for 4 years and planted for 10 years. (a) Total aluminum content, (b) free aluminum content, (c) activated aluminum content, and (d) complexed aluminum content.

The histogram and error bars represent mean ± standard error (n = 4); the same color and different letters indicate the significant difference between different treatments under the same particle size range (P < 0.05).

The histogram and error bars represent mean ± standard error (n = 4); the same color and different letters indicate the significant difference between different treatments under the same particle size range (P < 0.05).

3.4.1 Fet and Alt

The proportions of Fet and Alt in the water-stable aggregates of composite soil in each size range were 45.88–105.76 and 82.75–131.86 g/kg, respectively. The Fet content in the water-stable aggregates in each particle size range was unevenly distributed, and the difference was significant (P < 0.5). Among them, the Fet and Alt contents in the 0.5–0.25 mm particle size range were the lowest, and the content was 45.88–84.85 and 82.75–131.82 g/kg, respectively. For the same number of planting years, the Fet and Alt contents in water-stable soil aggregates were significantly different for different treatments (P < 0.5), and the order of the sizes among the treatments was C1 > C2 > C3. After 10 years of planting, the Fet and Alt contents in the water-stable aggregates of composite soil for the C1, C2, and C3 treatments were higher than those after 4 years, and the difference was significant (P < 0.5) (Table 3).

Table 3

Multi-factor analysis of variance of soil water stability aggregates of soft rock and sand composite

Fet Fed Fep Feo Alt Ald Alp Alo
Compound ratio (A) ** ** ns ** ** ns ** **
Planting years (B) ** ** ** ** ** ** ns **
Particle size (C) ** ** * ** ** ** ** **
A × B ** ** ns ** ** ** ** **
A × C ** ** ** ** ** ** ** **
B × C ** ** ** ** ** ** ** **

Note: “*,**” indicate significant differences at P < 0.05 and 0.01, respectively. “ns” represents no statistical significance at the P < 0.05 level (n = 3).

3.4.2 Fed and Ald

The Fed content in the water-stable aggregates of each particle size in the composite soil was between 3.52 and 10.75 g/kg, which was consistent with the distribution of Fet. The Fed content in water-stable aggregates was unevenly distributed in each particle size range, and the difference was very significant (P < 0.01). Among them, the content of Fed in the particle size range of 0.5–0.25 and 5–2 mm was relatively the lowest, while the Fed content in water-stable aggregates in the particle size range of 2–0.5 mm was relatively high. There are significant differences in Fed content among the water-stable aggregates of each size for the different treatments. After 4 years of planting, the differences in the contents of water-stable aggregates between the C1 and C2 treatments are not significant but are higher than the C3 treatment. After 10 years of planting, the order of the Fed content among the water-stable aggregates for the grains was C2 > C1 > C3, and the difference was significant. Compared with 4 years of planting, the Fet content of water-stable aggregates for each particle size range for the C1, C2, and C3 treatments showed an increasing trend after 10 years of planting, and the difference in the Fet content among the treatments showed very significant differences (P < 0.01).

The Ald content in water-stable aggregates of composite soil in each particle size range was between 0.305 and 0.844 g/kg, and the Ald content in water-stable aggregates in each particle size range was unevenly distributed, and the difference was very significant (P < 0.01). The Ald content of soil with a particle size range of 2–1 mm was relatively high, and the content of Ald in soil with a particle size range of 0.5–0.25 mm was relatively low. The difference in the Ald content of each particle size aggregate for different treatments was significant (P < 0.5). After 4 years of planting, the differences in the Ald content in water-stable aggregates for each particle size range between the C1 and C2 treatments were not significant but were higher than the C3 treatment. When planted for 10 years, the differences in the Ald content of water-stable aggregates for each particle size range between C2 and C3 were not significant but were higher than that of the C1 treatment. Compared with 4 years of planting, the Ald content in the water-stable soil aggregates of all treatments after 10 years of planting showed an upward trend. Among them, the differences between the C1 and C2 treatments were very significant (P < 0.01), and the differences between these treatments and the C3 treatment were significant (P < 0.5).

3.4.3 Fep and Alp

The Fep content in the water-stable aggregates of each particle size in the modified soil was 0.014–0.046 g/kg, and the differences in the distributions of Fep in the water-stable aggregates for various particle size ranges were very significant (P < 0.01). Among them, the Fep content in water-stable aggregates in the particle size range of 2–0.5 mm was relatively high. Between different treatments within the same year, the amount of complexed iron oxide in soil aggregates of various particle sizes was not significantly different (P < 0.5). Compared with 10 years of planting, the amount of complexed iron oxide in soil aggregates of various particle sizes for the C1 and C2 treatments was not significantly different (P < 0.5), but the Fep content in soil aggregates of various sizes for the C3 treatment increased, with the difference being very significant (P < 0.01).

The amount of Alp in water-stable aggregates of each particle size of the modified soil was between 0.061 and 0.218 g/kg, and the distribution of Alp in the water-stable aggregates of each particle size range was very different (P < 0.01). The Alp content in water-stable agglomerates in the particle size range of 1–0.5 mm was relatively high, and the Alp content in water-stable agglomerates in the particle size range of 5–2 mm was relatively low. After 4 years of planting, the Alp content in the soil aggregates of each particle size differed significantly between the treatments (P < 0.5), and the order of the Alp content was C1 > C2 > C3; after 10 years of planting, the order of the Alp content between the treatments was C2 > C3 > C1. Between the different numbers of planting years, the differences in the Alp content in water-stable soil aggregates of various particle sizes for the C1 and C2 treatments were not significant, while the Alp content in water-stable aggregates for the C3 treatment after 10 years of planting increased, and the difference was very significant (P < 0.01).

3.4.4 Feo and Alo

The Feo content in water-stable aggregates of each particle size of the composite soil was between 0.090 and 0.294 g/kg, and the Feo content distribution in the water-stable aggregates of each particle size range was significantly different (P < 0.05). Among them, the Feo content in water-stable aggregates in the particle size range of 2–0.5 mm was relatively high, and the content in the particle size range of 0.5–0.25 mm was the lowest. After 4 years of planting, the Feo content in water-stable soil aggregates was significantly different between the C1, C2, and C3 treatments (P < 0.05), but the difference between the C1 and C2 treatments was not significant; however, after 10 years of planting, the Feo contents in the water-stable soil aggregates between the C1, C2, and C3 treatments were significantly different (P < 0.01). Compared with 4 years of planting, the Feo content in soil aggregates of each particle size for the C1 and C2 treatments at 10 years of planting showed a downward trend, and the difference was very significant (P < 0.01), but the Feo content for the C3 treatment was not significant (P < 0.01).

The Alo content in water-stable aggregates of each particle size of the composite soil was between 0.139 and 0.494 g/kg, and the Alo was unevenly distributed in the water-stable aggregates for various particle size ranges, with the differences being significant (P < 0.5). Among them, the Alo content is relatively higher in soil aggregates in the particle size range of 2–1 mm, and the Alo content in water-stable soil aggregates in the particle size range of 0.5–0.25 mm was the lowest. Among the different treatments within the same year, the contents of amorphous iron oxide in the water-stable soil aggregates of each particle size between the C1, C2, and C3 were significantly different (P < 0.5). Comparing planting for 4 years with planting for 10 years, the Alo content of water-stable aggregates for the C1 and C3 treatments showed an upward trend, and the difference was extremely significant (P < 0.01).

3.5 Correlation analysis between the percentage of water-stable aggregates and iron–aluminum cement

Table 4 shows that in the initial stage of improvement, there was no significant relationship between the amount of water-stable macroaggregates in each particle size range of the modified soil and inorganic soil-cementing materials (Fed, Feo, Fep, Alt, Ald, Alo, Alp, clay), and in the particle size range of 2–1 mm, there was a significant correlation between the water-stable soil aggregates and the Fet content. Based on the results of a correlation analysis, with an increase in the number of planting years, such as after 10 years of planting, the Fed content was significantly negatively correlated with the number of 5–2 and 1–0.5 mm water-stable aggregates, and the Fep content was significantly negatively correlated with 5–2 mm aggregates. The Fep content showed a significant positive correlation with 2–1 mm aggregates, compared with Fed. Although the Fep content was smaller, it was more conducive to the formation of large water-stable soil aggregates. Comparing the 5–2 and 2–1 mm aggregates, it was observed that Alo was more conducive to promoting the formation of large water-stable soil aggregates than Ald and Alp. After 10 years of compounding, the number of 2–1 mm soil water-stable aggregates and the content of clay minerals showed a significant correlation, indicating that clay minerals were beneficial to the formation of large 2–1 mm soil water-stable aggregates and had a significant promoting effect. Also, compared with 4 years of compounding, the correlation between the contents of Fed, Feo, Fep, Ald, and Alo in each particle size range and the percentage of water-stable aggregates after 10 years of compounding increased. This may be a result of cementation and redistribution of particles.

Table 4

Correlation analysis between the percentage of soil water-stable aggregates of each particle size and iron–aluminum cement

Fet Fed Feo Fep Alt Ald Alo Alp Clay
4 year 5–2 0.076 −0.40 −0.013 0.25 0.22 −0.04 −0.37 −0.37 −0.13
2–1 1.00** 0.52 −0.34 0.69 0.25 0.56 −0.94 0.98 0.64
1–0.5 −0.36 −0.98 0.49 0.37 0.0064 −0.78 −0.70 −0.88 0.56
0.5–0.25 −0.99* −0.32 −0.67 −0.26 −0.91 −0.72 −0.94 −0.96 −0.90
10 year 5–2 0.19 −0.99* 0.54 −0.99* 0.98 −0.24 0.99* 0.97 0.49
2–1 0.89 0.50 0.55 0.99* 0.56 0.98 1.00* −0.87 1.00*
1–0.5 −0.86 −1.00* 0.68 −0.22 −0.92 −0.64 0.72 −0.18 −0.25
0.5–0.25 −0.63 −0.79 0.88 0.098 −0.91 −0.67 0.27 −0.97 0.20

Note: “*,**” indicate statistical significance at the P < 0.05 and 0.01 levels, respectively.

4 Discussion

4.1 Analysis of the effect of the addition of cementing substances on the structural improvement of water-stable soil aggregates

The water stability of soil aggregates is closely related to soil structure. The greater the content of water-stable aggregates, the better the stability of soil structure. Aggregates >0.25 mm are called “soil aggregate” structures. Their content is an important indicator of the quality of soil and also an indicator of soil erosion resistance. The higher the content of aggregates, the greater the stability of the soil structure [28].

For the scanning electron microscopy conducted for this study, the 0.25–0.5 mm component obtained by the wet sieving method of the improved soil and the aeolian sandy soil showed substantial differences. Among them, the 0.25–0.5 mm component obtained by the aeolian sandy soil consisted almost entirely of sand grains. If the sand particles are considered aggregates, then this would be an incorrect result. The so-called “soil aggregates” of 0.25–0.5 mm obtained by the modified soil wet sieving method contain not only a large number of smooth sand grains but also a distribution of many different structures. The electron microscopy results show that the addition of soft rock to aeolian sandy soil promoted the formation of various water-stable soil aggregates with different morphologies in the “improved soil” and changed the characteristics of aeolian sandy soil that would otherwise not form aggregates. An analysis of the microscopic morphology of the aggregates of the modified soil >0.5 mm shows that the morphological characteristics of the aggregates in the modified soil were very different, which also explains the complex relationship between the formation and evolution of the aggregates in composite soil. The results of electron microscopy show that when analyzing aggregates of sand and soil with sand as the parent material, the entire range of particle size distributions of sand particles should be considered to avoid mixing sand particles with aggregates. Hence, in this study, soil aggregates >0.5 mm were used as the main component for analysis, which may be more suitable for judging the stability of aggregates in sandy soil.

Previous studies have shown that the composition and stability of water-stable soil aggregates are simultaneously affected by factors such as the internal material composition of the soil and external mechanical action [29], and that it is difficult to form aggregates in the sand. In this study, the introduction of a certain type of sedimentary rock rich in cementitious materials, called “soft rock,” preconditioned sandy land for soil formation [30]. The addition of soft rock can significantly increase the effective water-stable macroaggregate content of >0.5 mm in the surface soil of the modified soil. With an increase in the number of planting years, the content of water-stable macroaggregates >0.5 mm showed a further increasing trend. The results show that the soil structure of the aeolian sandstone improved by soft rock remains fragile but tends to stabilize [31].

4.2 Effect of cementitious materials on the formation and development of water-stable aggregates in improved soil

Soil is a multiphase open system; its components and structure are extremely complex; and various cementing substances rarely act alone. In soil aggregates formed in different environments, substantial differences are seen in the content, type, and form of various cements. By analyzing the content of each cement in the aggregate, the formative process of the aggregate can be indirectly determined [32,33].

The different forms of iron and aluminum oxides can be divided into three types: free state (Fed, Ald), amorphous state (Feo, Alo), and complex state (Fep, Alp). Different forms of iron and aluminum oxides have different effects on aggregates [34,35].

Free iron oxide (Fed) is an important mineral cementing substance in soil. Due to different, composite organic–inorganic effects of Fed and organic matter on soil structure [36,37], free iron oxide and aluminum can wrap soil particles (quartz, feldspar) as a “coating” and form aggregates during the conversion processes of iron and aluminum oxides in soil [33]. In this study, the Fed and Ald contents in large water-stable aggregates of modified soil were unevenly distributed within each particle size range, and the Fed and Ald contents in water-stable aggregates > 0.5 mm were at a relatively high level. The Fed and Ald contents in water-stable aggregates in this range were significantly affected by the compounding ratio and planting. In the early stages of the improved soil and after 4 years of improvement, free iron and aluminum did not show a correlation with the amount of water-stable soil macroaggregates. However, after 10 years of improvement, the Fed content in water-stable macroaggregates for various particle size ranges in the improved soil significantly increased, and the number of soil aggregates increased significantly. Free iron was significantly negatively correlated with the number of soil aggregates in the ranges of 5–2 and 1–0.5 mm, indicating that the effects of agricultural cultivation, wind, and water erosion caused free iron and aluminum oxide to gradually change to crystalline iron aluminum oxide which further enhanced the formation of water-stable aggregates.

Compared with free iron–aluminum oxides, amorphous and complex iron–aluminum oxides can promote the formation and stability of large aggregates [36]. Amorphous iron–aluminum oxides are mostly goethite, which has a relatively large surface area and surface activity. Since they have the most surface hydroxyl groups, the release of hydroxyl groups is the highest, and as metal ion ligands, they interact with other ligands. When released into soil solutions, they act as flocculants; therefore, amorphous iron and aluminum are easier to combine with clay minerals. Although their content is relatively low, the cementing ability is stronger and greater than that of hematite (crystalline iron oxide) [34,35]. In this study, the Feo and Alo contents in large water-stable aggregates of modified soil for various particle size ranges were significantly different, which is consistent with the characteristics of the Fed and Ald contents, and was significantly affected by the addition of soft rock and planting age. Among them, when the compound ratio of soft rock and aeolian sandy soil was 1:1, the Feo and Alo contents were the highest. With an increase in the number of planting years, the Feo and Alo contents in the water-stable soil aggregates in each particle size range showed a decreasing trend. A correlation analysis found that there was no significant correlation between the number of water-stable aggregates of each particle size and the Feo and Alo contents during the initial stages of improvement. However, after 10 years of improvement, after the addition of soft rock to top soil, the amount of Alo, and 5–2 and 2–1 mm large aggregates had a very significant linear correlation, but no significant correlation was observed between the amount of Fed and the number of large aggregates >0.25 mm, which indicated that amorphous iron oxide was stable in soil water during the early stages of improvement and did not play a significant role in the formation of large aggregates. Based on the results of electron microscopy during this period, the formation of large water-stable aggregates in improved soil continued to be dominated by the collapse of soft rock. Therefore, our research shows that amorphous aluminum oxide (Alo) appears to be a more prominent water-stable coagulant [36].

Complexed iron–aluminum oxides (Fep, Alp) are formed by the close cementation of iron–aluminum oxides and organic matter. Since organic matter is strongly adsorbed on the surface of iron–aluminum oxide and embedded in its internal structure, organic matter is protected by “spatial isolation.” By contrast, the interference of organic matter causes oxidation of the complexed iron–aluminum oxide and the crystallization of the material is further hindered [36]. Therefore, Fep and Alp are usually used as stabilizers and cementing agents of soil barrier structures, and the clay–polyvalent metal–organic complex thus formed can further improve the stability of the aggregates [37,38]. In this study, the Fep and Alp contents in the 2–0.5 mm water-stable aggregates in the modified soil were at a relatively high level, and after 10 years of improvement, the Fep content and the percentage of 2–1 mm large aggregates reached a significantly positive correlation level. The percentage of 5–2 mm water-stable large aggregates reached a significant negative level, indicating that the Fep content promoted the formation and development of 2–0.5 mm large water-stable soil aggregates [36]. It also illustrates the complex formation characteristics of aggregates in different particle size ranges in composite soil [39].

Rich clay minerals in soft rock have a positive effect on the formation of water-stable aggregates in improved soil [40]. The amount of clay minerals in the water-stable soil aggregates of each particle size due to the C1 and C2 treatments with a larger amount of soft rock was higher than that due to the C3 treatment, indicating that the addition of soft rock had a positive effect on the clay content. Clay minerals can improve the stability of large aggregates, increase soil strength, and can form clay bridges between bare particles when the soil is dry [41]. The formation of water-stable aggregates in modified soil due to the effect of clay minerals occurs with a mechanism similar to that described by Huang and Hartemink [2]. In this mechanism, soil micro-aggregates are incorporated into macro-aggregates through temporary and transient media such as roots and polysaccharide exudates. At the colloidal level, a compact structure of clay minerals–iron aluminum oxide–humic acid is formed between soil particles, and the basic structure of large aggregates is then formed [37].

Soil aggregates are essential components of soil structure and play a crucial role in maintaining soil ecological functions, such as carbon sequestration and nutrient retention. The formation and stability of aggregates rely on complex interactions among minerals, organic matter, and organisms in the soil. In this study, we investigated the application of soft rock for sand regulation, aiming to enhance the aggregate structure of sandy soil by leveraging the clay minerals present in soft rock. Additionally, we analyzed the colloidal substance contents in aggregates of varying particle sizes. The results demonstrated that the incorporation of soft rock improved the water and fertilizer retention capacity of sandy soil, as well as enhanced the stability of its structure. If a large number of soft rocks are distributed in the desertified area, the sand promotion technology can be widely used for sand regulation. The evaluation of sand stability in this study is still insufficient. In future studies, It is necessary to study the influence of soft rock addition on the shear strength of sandy soil [42,43,44].

5 Conclusions

The addition of soft rock rich in clay minerals can change the characteristics of sandy land that would otherwise not form soil barriers. Due to the interference of the sand component of sandy land, effective aggregates with 0.25–0.5 mm particle size components in aeolian sandy soil and improved soil were not formed, hence soil quality was evaluated by the percentage of water-stable aggregates >0.5 mm.

  1. The amount of water-stable aggregates of soft rock and sand in composite soil for different treatments differed significantly (P < 0.05), and the order of improving water-stable soil aggregates (with >0.5 mm components) with different treatments was C1 > C3 > C2 > CK.

  2. A correlation analysis and electron microscopy analysis showed that in the early stages of improvement (4 years), the formation and development of large water-stable aggregates in improved soil was mainly driven by the disintegration of soft rock.

  3. The role of aluminum oxide, clay minerals, and calcium cements in promoting the formation of water-stable aggregates became gradually more prominent. Among them, Fed played an anti-promotional effect on the formation of large water-stable aggregates in improved aeolian sand soil. Alo and Alp promoted the formation of large water-stable aggregates in improved soil, indicating that the addition of soft rock and long-term agricultural farming promotes the formation of large water-stable aggregates of various forms in sandy soil.

  4. The results of this research confirmed that compounding soft rock and sand is a new technique that can promote sand-forming soil and permanently change the properties of aeolian sand soil. This technology can continuously improve sandy land in the future and combines the use of water, fertilizer, gas, and heat. Soil improvement, nutrient enhancement, ecological optimization, etc., provide the theoretical references and scientific basis for future research and development.

Acknowledgments

This study is financially supported by the Natural Science Basic Research Program of Shaanxi (2022NY-082) and Shaanxi Province Key R&D Program (2023-ZDLSF-28) (2023-ZDLNY-48).

  1. Funding information: This study was financially supported by the Natural Science Basic Research Program of Shaanxi (2022NY-082) and Shaanxi Province Key R&D Program (2023-ZDLSF-28) (2023-ZDLNY-48).

  2. Author contributions: Experimental design and writing preparation, Cao Tingting; experimental operation and analysis, Zhang Haiou; formal analysis, Zhang Yang; investigation, Chen Tianqing; supervision, Wang Yingguo; project administration, Zhou Hang.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

[1] Wang Y, Liu Y. New material for transforming degraded sandy land into productive farmland. Land Use Policy. 2020;92:104477.10.1016/j.landusepol.2020.104477Suche in Google Scholar

[2] Huang J, Hartemink AE. Soil and environmental issues in sandy soils. Earth-Sci Rev. 2020;208(3):103295.10.1016/j.earscirev.2020.103295Suche in Google Scholar

[3] Zhang H, Chen W, Zhao B, Phillips LA, Zhou Y, Lapen DR, et al. Sandy soils amended with bentonite induced changes in soil microbiota and fungistasis in maize fields. Appl Soil Ecol. 2019;146:103378.10.1016/j.apsoil.2019.103378Suche in Google Scholar

[4] Mau V, Arye G, Gross A. Poultry litter hydrochar as an amendment for sandy soils. J Environ Manag. 2020;271:110959.10.1016/j.jenvman.2020.110959Suche in Google Scholar PubMed

[5] Abdalla MA, Endo T, Maegawa T, Mamedov A, Yamanaka N. Effectiveness of organic amendment and application thickness on properties of a sandy soil and sand stabilization. J Arid Environ. 2020;183:104273.10.1016/j.jaridenv.2020.104273Suche in Google Scholar

[6] Yuan X, Shao Y, Li Y, Liu Y, Zhao Y. Cultivated land quality improvement to promote revitalization of sandy rural areas Along the great wall in northern Shaanxi province, China. J Rural Stud. 2019;93:367–74.10.1016/j.jrurstud.2019.10.011Suche in Google Scholar

[7] Fattah MY, Joni HH, AAl-Dulaimy AS. Compaction and collapse characteristics of dune sand stabilized with lime-silica fume mix. Earth Sci Res J. 2016;20(2):11–8.10.15446/esrj.v20n2.50724Suche in Google Scholar

[8] Fattah MY, Joni HH, Al-Dulaimy ASA. Strength characteristics of dune sand stabilized with lime-silica fume mix. Int J Pavement Eng. 2016;19(10):874–82.10.1080/10298436.2016.1215687Suche in Google Scholar

[9] Fattah MY, Joni HH, Abood AS. Erosion of dune sands stabilised by grouting with lime-silica fume mix. Proc Inst Civ Eng: Ground Improv. 2020;173(1):3–18.10.1680/jgrim.17.00026Suche in Google Scholar

[10] Sun ZH, Han JC. Effect of soft rock amendment on soil hydraulic parameters and crop performance in Mu Us Sandy Land, China. Field Crop Res. 2018;222:85–93.10.1016/j.fcr.2018.03.016Suche in Google Scholar

[11] Zhang YL, Zhen Q, Cui YX, Zhang PP, Zhang XC. Use of montmorillonite-enriched siltstone for improving water condition and plant growth in sandy soil. Ecol Eng. 2020;145:105740.10.1016/j.ecoleng.2020.105740Suche in Google Scholar

[12] Wu L, Li XY, Shi JS, Ye H, Guo J, Cheng Y, et al. Quantitative characteristics of the microstructure of Pisha-sandstone. Acta Geosci Sin. 2007;28(6):597.Suche in Google Scholar

[13] Dai HC, Chen YQ, Liu KC, Li ZX, Qian X, Zang HD, et al. Water-stable aggregates and carbon accumulation in barren sandy soil depend on organic amendment method: A three-year field study. J Clean Prod. 2019;212(3):393–400.10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.12.013Suche in Google Scholar

[14] Wang QK, Wang SL. Forming and stable mechanism of soil aggregate and influencing factors. Chin J Soil Sci. 2005;36(3):415–21.Suche in Google Scholar

[15] Xue B, Huang L, Huang Y, Yin Z, Li X, Lu J. Effects of organic carbon and iron oxides on soil aggregate stability under different tillage systems in a rice–rape cropping system. Catena. 2019;177:1–12.10.1016/j.catena.2019.01.035Suche in Google Scholar

[16] Steffens M, Kölbl A, Schörk E, Gschrey B, Kögel-Knabner I. Distribution of soil organic matter between fractions and aggregate size classes in grazed semiarid steppe soil profiles. Plant Soil. 2011;338(S1–2):63–81.10.1007/s11104-010-0594-9Suche in Google Scholar

[17] Feng WT, Plante AF, Six J. Improving estimates of maximal organic carbon stabilization by fine soil particles. Biogeochemistry. 2013;112:81–93.10.1007/s10533-011-9679-7Suche in Google Scholar

[18] Pronk GJ, Heister K, KöGel-Knabner I. Iron oxides as major available interface component in loamy arable topsoils. Soil Sci Soc Am J. 2011;75(6):2158–68.10.2136/sssaj2010.0455Suche in Google Scholar

[19] Schweizer SA, Bucka FB, Graf-Rosenfellner M, Kgel-Knabner I. Soil microaggregate size composition and organic matter distribution as affected by clay content. Geoderma. 2019;355:113901.10.1016/j.geoderma.2019.113901Suche in Google Scholar

[20] Spaccini R, Piccolo A. Effects of field managements for soil organic matter stabilization on water-stable aggregate distribution and aggregate stability in three agricultural soils. J Geochem Explor. 2013;129:45–51.10.1016/j.gexplo.2012.10.004Suche in Google Scholar

[21] Guo Z, Han JC, Li J. Response of organic carbon mineralization and bacterial communities to soft rock additions in sandy soils. PeerJ. 2020;8:e8948.10.7717/peerj.8948Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[22] Guo Z, Han JC, Xu Y, Lu YJ, Shi CD, Ge L, et al. The mineralization characteristics of organic carbon and particle composition analysis in reconstructed soil with different proportions of soft rock and sand. PeerJ. 2020;7:e7707.10.7717/peerj.7707Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[23] Saygın SD, Cornelis WM, Erpul G, Gabriels D. Comparison of different aggregate stability approaches for loamy sand soils. Appl Soil Ecol. 2012;54:1–6.10.1016/j.apsoil.2011.11.012Suche in Google Scholar

[24] Li W, Zheng ZC, Li TX, Zhang X, Wang Y, Yu H, et al. Effect of tea plantation age on the distribution of soil organic carbon fractions within water-stable aggregates in the hilly region of Western Sichuan, China. Catena. 2015;133:198–205.10.1016/j.catena.2015.05.017Suche in Google Scholar

[25] Xue B, Huang L, Huang Y, Zhou F, Li F, Kubar KA, et al. Roles of soil organic carbon and iron oxides on aggregate formation and stability in two paddy soils. Soil Tillage Res. 2019;187:161–71.10.1016/j.still.2018.12.010Suche in Google Scholar

[26] Wang Y, Yao SH, Li HX. Relationship between distribution patterns of iron oxidates and soil organic matter in aggregates of paddy soil in a long-term fertilization. Soils. 2013;45(4):666–72.Suche in Google Scholar

[27] Zhao W, Tan WF. Quantitative and structural analysis of minerals in soil clay fractions developed under different climate zones in china by xrd with rietveld method, and its implications for pedogenesis. Appl Clay Sci. 2018;162(sep):351–61.10.1016/j.clay.2018.05.019Suche in Google Scholar

[28] Jozefaciuk G, Czachor H. Impact of organic matter, iron oxides, alumina, silica and drying on mechanical and water stability of artificial soil aggregates. Assessment of new method to study water stability. Geoderma. 2014;221–222:1–10.10.1016/j.geoderma.2014.01.020Suche in Google Scholar

[29] Ye H, Shi JS, Li XQ. The effect of soft rock lithology upon its anti-erodibility. Acta Geosci Sin. 2006;27(2):145–50.Suche in Google Scholar

[30] Shi Z, Wang J, Liang H, Shi H, Wei B, Wang Y. Status and evolution of soil aggregates in apple orchards different in age in Weibei. Acta Pedol Sin. 2017;54(2):387–99.Suche in Google Scholar

[31] Herndon E, AlBashaireh A, Singer D, Chowdhury TR, Gu B, Graham D. Influence of iron redox cycling on organo-mineral associations in Arctic tundra soil. Geochim Cosmochim Acta: J Geochem Soc Meteorit Soc. 2017;207:210–31.10.1016/j.gca.2017.02.034Suche in Google Scholar

[32] Xue YF, Xue W, Zhang SL, Yang XY. Effects of long-term fertilization regimes on changes of aggregate cementing agent on Lou Soil. Plant Nutr Fert Sci. 2015;21:1622–32.Suche in Google Scholar

[33] Wang XH, Yang ZJ, Liu XF, Lin WS, Yang YS, Liu ZJ, et al. Effects of different forms of Fe and Al oxides on soil aggregate stability in mid-subtropical mountainous area of southern China. Acta Ecol Sin. 2016;36(9):2588–96.10.5846/stxb201408021542Suche in Google Scholar

[34] Huang XL, Jiang H, Li Y, Ma YC, Tang HY, Ran W, et al. The role of poorly crystalline iron oxides in the stability of soil aggregate-associated organic carbon in a rice–wheat cropping system. Geoderma. 2016;279:1–10.10.1016/j.geoderma.2016.05.011Suche in Google Scholar

[35] Wilson CA, Cloy JM, Graham MC, Hamlet LE. A microanalytical study of iron, aluminium and organic matter relationships in soils with contrasting hydrological regimes. Geoderma. 2013;202–203(1):71–81.10.1016/j.geoderma.2013.03.020Suche in Google Scholar

[36] Djajadi, Abbott LK, Hinz C. Synergistic impacts of clay and organic matter on structural and biological properties of a sandy soil. Geoderma. 2012;183–184:19–24.10.1016/j.geoderma.2012.03.012Suche in Google Scholar

[37] Taguchi S, Mizuta K, Sato S. Soil aggregate formation and stability induced by starch and cellulose. Soil Biol Biochem. 2015;87:90–6.10.1016/j.soilbio.2015.04.011Suche in Google Scholar

[38] Wu XL, Cai CF, Wang JG, Wei YJ, Wang S. Spatial variations of aggregate stability in relation to sesquioxides for zonal soils, South-central China. Soil Tillage Res. 2016;157:11–22.10.1016/j.still.2015.11.005Suche in Google Scholar

[39] Zhou L, Monreal CM, Xu S, McLaughlin NB, Zhang H, Hao G, et al. Effect of bentonite-humic acid application on the improvement of soil structure and maize yield in a sandy soil of a semi-arid region. Geoderma. 2019;338:269–80.10.1016/j.geoderma.2018.12.014Suche in Google Scholar

[40] Tahir S, Marschner P. Clay addition to sandy soil – Influence of clay type and size on nutrient availability in sandy soils amended with residues differing in C/N ratio. Pedosphere. 2017;27(2):293–305.10.1016/S1002-0160(17)60317-5Suche in Google Scholar

[41] Ismail SM, Ozawa K. Improvement of crop yield, soil moisture distribution and water use efficiency in sandy soils by clay application. Appl Clay Sci. 2007;37(1–2):81–9.10.1016/j.clay.2006.12.005Suche in Google Scholar

[42] Asghari E, Toll DG, Haeri SM. Triaxial behaviour of a cemented gravely sand, Tehran alluvium. J Geotech Geol Eng. 2003;21(1):1–28.10.1023/A:1022934624666Suche in Google Scholar

[43] Haeri SM, Hamidi A, Hosseini SM, Asghari E, Toll DG. Effect of cement type on the mechanical behavior of a gravely sand. J Geotech Geol Eng. 2006;24(2):335–60.10.1007/s10706-004-7793-1Suche in Google Scholar

[44] Fattah MY, Salim NM, Irshayyid EJ. Influence of soil suction on swelling pressure of bentonite-sand mixtures. Eur J Environ Civ Eng. 2017;26(7):1–15.10.1080/19648189.2017.1320236Suche in Google Scholar
Received: 2023-02-26
Revised: 2023-07-06
Accepted: 2023-08-08
Published Online: 2023-09-27

© 2023 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Artikel in diesem Heft

  1. Regular Articles
  2. Diagenesis and evolution of deep tight reservoirs: A case study of the fourth member of Shahejie Formation (cg: 50.4-42 Ma) in Bozhong Sag
  3. Petrography and mineralogy of the Oligocene flysch in Ionian Zone, Albania: Implications for the evolution of sediment provenance and paleoenvironment
  4. Biostratigraphy of the Late Campanian–Maastrichtian of the Duwi Basin, Red Sea, Egypt
  5. Structural deformation and its implication for hydrocarbon accumulation in the Wuxia fault belt, northwestern Junggar basin, China
  6. Carbonate texture identification using multi-layer perceptron neural network
  7. Metallogenic model of the Hongqiling Cu–Ni sulfide intrusions, Central Asian Orogenic Belt: Insight from long-period magnetotellurics
  8. Assessments of recent Global Geopotential Models based on GPS/levelling and gravity data along coastal zones of Egypt
  9. Accuracy assessment and improvement of SRTM, ASTER, FABDEM, and MERIT DEMs by polynomial and optimization algorithm: A case study (Khuzestan Province, Iran)
  10. Uncertainty assessment of 3D geological models based on spatial diffusion and merging model
  11. Evaluation of dynamic behavior of varved clays from the Warsaw ice-dammed lake, Poland
  12. Impact of AMSU-A and MHS radiances assimilation on Typhoon Megi (2016) forecasting
  13. Contribution to the building of a weather information service for solar panel cleaning operations at Diass plant (Senegal, Western Sahel)
  14. Measuring spatiotemporal accessibility to healthcare with multimodal transport modes in the dynamic traffic environment
  15. Mathematical model for conversion of groundwater flow from confined to unconfined aquifers with power law processes
  16. NSP variation on SWAT with high-resolution data: A case study
  17. Reconstruction of paleoglacial equilibrium-line altitudes during the Last Glacial Maximum in the Diancang Massif, Northwest Yunnan Province, China
  18. A prediction model for Xiangyang Neolithic sites based on a random forest algorithm
  19. Determining the long-term impact area of coastal thermal discharge based on a harmonic model of sea surface temperature
  20. Origin of block accumulations based on the near-surface geophysics
  21. Investigating the limestone quarries as geoheritage sites: Case of Mardin ancient quarry
  22. Population genetics and pedigree geography of Trionychia japonica in the four mountains of Henan Province and the Taihang Mountains
  23. Performance audit evaluation of marine development projects based on SPA and BP neural network model
  24. Study on the Early Cretaceous fluvial-desert sedimentary paleogeography in the Northwest of Ordos Basin
  25. Detecting window line using an improved stacked hourglass network based on new real-world building façade dataset
  26. Automated identification and mapping of geological folds in cross sections
  27. Silicate and carbonate mixed shelf formation and its controlling factors, a case study from the Cambrian Canglangpu formation in Sichuan basin, China
  28. Ground penetrating radar and magnetic gradient distribution approach for subsurface investigation of solution pipes in post-glacial settings
  29. Research on pore structures of fine-grained carbonate reservoirs and their influence on waterflood development
  30. Risk assessment of rain-induced debris flow in the lower reaches of Yajiang River based on GIS and CF coupling models
  31. Multifractal analysis of temporal and spatial characteristics of earthquakes in Eurasian seismic belt
  32. Surface deformation and damage of 2022 (M 6.8) Luding earthquake in China and its tectonic implications
  33. Differential analysis of landscape patterns of land cover products in tropical marine climate zones – A case study in Malaysia
  34. DEM-based analysis of tectonic geomorphologic characteristics and tectonic activity intensity of the Dabanghe River Basin in South China Karst
  35. Distribution, pollution levels, and health risk assessment of heavy metals in groundwater in the main pepper production area of China
  36. Study on soil quality effect of reconstructing by Pisha sandstone and sand soil
  37. Understanding the characteristics of loess strata and quaternary climate changes in Luochuan, Shaanxi Province, China, through core analysis
  38. Dynamic variation of groundwater level and its influencing factors in typical oasis irrigated areas in Northwest China
  39. Creating digital maps for geotechnical characteristics of soil based on GIS technology and remote sensing
  40. Changes in the course of constant loading consolidation in soil with modeled granulometric composition contaminated with petroleum substances
  41. Correlation between the deformation of mineral crystal structures and fault activity: A case study of the Yingxiu-Beichuan fault and the Milin fault
  42. Cognitive characteristics of the Qiang religious culture and its influencing factors in Southwest China
  43. Spatiotemporal variation characteristics analysis of infrastructure iron stock in China based on nighttime light data
  44. Interpretation of aeromagnetic and remote sensing data of Auchi and Idah sheets of the Benin-arm Anambra basin: Implication of mineral resources
  45. Building element recognition with MTL-AINet considering view perspectives
  46. Characteristics of the present crustal deformation in the Tibetan Plateau and its relationship with strong earthquakes
  47. Influence of fractures in tight sandstone oil reservoir on hydrocarbon accumulation: A case study of Yanchang Formation in southeastern Ordos Basin
  48. Nutrient assessment and land reclamation in the Loess hills and Gulch region in the context of gully control
  49. Handling imbalanced data in supervised machine learning for lithological mapping using remote sensing and airborne geophysical data
  50. Spatial variation of soil nutrients and evaluation of cultivated land quality based on field scale
  51. Lignin analysis of sediments from around 2,000 to 1,000 years ago (Jiulong River estuary, southeast China)
  52. Assessing OpenStreetMap roads fitness-for-use for disaster risk assessment in developing countries: The case of Burundi
  53. Transforming text into knowledge graph: Extracting and structuring information from spatial development plans
  54. A symmetrical exponential model of soil temperature in temperate steppe regions of China
  55. A landslide susceptibility assessment method based on auto-encoder improved deep belief network
  56. Numerical simulation analysis of ecological monitoring of small reservoir dam based on maximum entropy algorithm
  57. Morphometry of the cold-climate Bory Stobrawskie Dune Field (SW Poland): Evidence for multi-phase Lateglacial aeolian activity within the European Sand Belt
  58. Adopting a new approach for finding missing people using GIS techniques: A case study in Saudi Arabia’s desert area
  59. Geological earthquake simulations generated by kinematic heterogeneous energy-based method: Self-arrested ruptures and asperity criterion
  60. Semi-automated classification of layered rock slopes using digital elevation model and geological map
  61. Geochemical characteristics of arc fractionated I-type granitoids of eastern Tak Batholith, Thailand
  62. Lithology classification of igneous rocks using C-band and L-band dual-polarization SAR data
  63. Analysis of artificial intelligence approaches to predict the wall deflection induced by deep excavation
  64. Evaluation of the current in situ stress in the middle Permian Maokou Formation in the Longnüsi area of the central Sichuan Basin, China
  65. Utilizing microresistivity image logs to recognize conglomeratic channel architectural elements of Baikouquan Formation in slope of Mahu Sag
  66. Resistivity cutoff of low-resistivity and low-contrast pays in sandstone reservoirs from conventional well logs: A case of Paleogene Enping Formation in A-Oilfield, Pearl River Mouth Basin, South China Sea
  67. Examining the evacuation routes of the sister village program by using the ant colony optimization algorithm
  68. Spatial objects classification using machine learning and spatial walk algorithm
  69. Study on the stabilization mechanism of aeolian sandy soil formation by adding a natural soft rock
  70. Bump feature detection of the road surface based on the Bi-LSTM
  71. The origin and evolution of the ore-forming fluids at the Manondo-Choma gold prospect, Kirk range, southern Malawi
  72. A retrieval model of surface geochemistry composition based on remotely sensed data
  73. Exploring the spatial dynamics of cultural facilities based on multi-source data: A case study of Nanjing’s art institutions
  74. Study of pore-throat structure characteristics and fluid mobility of Chang 7 tight sandstone reservoir in Jiyuan area, Ordos Basin
  75. Study of fracturing fluid re-discharge based on percolation experiments and sampling tests – An example of Fuling shale gas Jiangdong block, China
  76. Impacts of marine cloud brightening scheme on climatic extremes in the Tibetan Plateau
  77. Ecological protection on the West Coast of Taiwan Strait under economic zone construction: A case study of land use in Yueqing
  78. The time-dependent deformation and damage constitutive model of rock based on dynamic disturbance tests
  79. Evaluation of spatial form of rural ecological landscape and vulnerability of water ecological environment based on analytic hierarchy process
  80. Fingerprint of magma mixture in the leucogranites: Spectroscopic and petrochemical approach, Kalebalta-Central Anatolia, Türkiye
  81. Principles of self-calibration and visual effects for digital camera distortion
  82. UAV-based doline mapping in Brazilian karst: A cave heritage protection reconnaissance
  83. Evaluation and low carbon ecological urban–rural planning and construction based on energy planning mechanism
  84. Modified non-local means: A novel denoising approach to process gravity field data
  85. A novel travel route planning method based on an ant colony optimization algorithm
  86. Effect of time-variant NDVI on landside susceptibility: A case study in Quang Ngai province, Vietnam
  87. Regional tectonic uplift indicated by geomorphological parameters in the Bahe River Basin, central China
  88. Computer information technology-based green excavation of tunnels in complex strata and technical decision of deformation control
  89. Spatial evolution of coastal environmental enterprises: An exploration of driving factors in Jiangsu Province
  90. A comparative assessment and geospatial simulation of three hydrological models in urban basins
  91. Aquaculture industry under the blue transformation in Jiangsu, China: Structure evolution and spatial agglomeration
  92. Quantitative and qualitative interpretation of community partitions by map overlaying and calculating the distribution of related geographical features
  93. Numerical investigation of gravity-grouted soil-nail pullout capacity in sand
  94. Analysis of heavy pollution weather in Shenyang City and numerical simulation of main pollutants
  95. Road cut slope stability analysis for static and dynamic (pseudo-static analysis) loading conditions
  96. Forest biomass assessment combining field inventorying and remote sensing data
  97. Late Jurassic Haobugao granites from the southern Great Xing’an Range, NE China: Implications for postcollision extension of the Mongol–Okhotsk Ocean
  98. Petrogenesis of the Sukadana Basalt based on petrology and whole rock geochemistry, Lampung, Indonesia: Geodynamic significances
  99. Numerical study on the group wall effect of nodular diaphragm wall foundation in high-rise buildings
  100. Water resources utilization and tourism environment assessment based on water footprint
  101. Geochemical evaluation of the carbonaceous shale associated with the Permian Mikambeni Formation of the Tuli Basin for potential gas generation, South Africa
  102. Detection and characterization of lineaments using gravity data in the south-west Cameroon zone: Hydrogeological implications
  103. Study on spatial pattern of tourism landscape resources in county cities of Yangtze River Economic Belt
  104. The effect of weathering on drillability of dolomites
  105. Noise masking of near-surface scattering (heterogeneities) on subsurface seismic reflectivity
  106. Query optimization-oriented lateral expansion method of distributed geological borehole database
  107. Petrogenesis of the Morobe Granodiorite and their shoshonitic mafic microgranular enclaves in Maramuni arc, Papua New Guinea
  108. Environmental health risk assessment of urban water sources based on fuzzy set theory
  109. Spatial distribution of urban basic education resources in Shanghai: Accessibility and supply-demand matching evaluation
  110. Spatiotemporal changes in land use and residential satisfaction in the Huai River-Gaoyou Lake Rim area
  111. Walkaway vertical seismic profiling first-arrival traveltime tomography with velocity structure constraints
  112. Study on the evaluation system and risk factor traceability of receiving water body
  113. Predicting copper-polymetallic deposits in Kalatag using the weight of evidence model and novel data sources
  114. Temporal dynamics of green urban areas in Romania. A comparison between spatial and statistical data
  115. Passenger flow forecast of tourist attraction based on MACBL in LBS big data environment
  116. Varying particle size selectivity of soil erosion along a cultivated catena
  117. Relationship between annual soil erosion and surface runoff in Wadi Hanifa sub-basins
  118. Influence of nappe structure on the Carboniferous volcanic reservoir in the middle of the Hongche Fault Zone, Junggar Basin, China
  119. Dynamic analysis of MSE wall subjected to surface vibration loading
  120. Pre-collisional architecture of the European distal margin: Inferences from the high-pressure continental units of central Corsica (France)
  121. The interrelation of natural diversity with tourism in Kosovo
  122. Assessment of geosites as a basis for geotourism development: A case study of the Toplica District, Serbia
  123. IG-YOLOv5-based underwater biological recognition and detection for marine protection
  124. Monitoring drought dynamics using remote sensing-based combined drought index in Ergene Basin, Türkiye
  125. Review Articles
  126. The actual state of the geodetic and cartographic resources and legislation in Poland
  127. Evaluation studies of the new mining projects
  128. Comparison and significance of grain size parameters of the Menyuan loess calculated using different methods
  129. Scientometric analysis of flood forecasting for Asia region and discussion on machine learning methods
  130. Rainfall-induced transportation embankment failure: A review
  131. Rapid Communication
  132. Branch fault discovered in Tangshan fault zone on the Kaiping-Guye boundary, North China
  133. Technical Note
  134. Introducing an intelligent multi-level retrieval method for mineral resource potential evaluation result data
  135. Erratum
  136. Erratum to “Forest cover assessment using remote-sensing techniques in Crete Island, Greece”
  137. Addendum
  138. The relationship between heat flow and seismicity in global tectonically active zones
  139. Commentary
  140. Improved entropy weight methods and their comparisons in evaluating the high-quality development of Qinghai, China
  141. Special Issue: Geoethics 2022 - Part II
  142. Loess and geotourism potential of the Braničevo District (NE Serbia): From overexploitation to paleoclimate interpretation
https://doi.org/10.1515/geo-2022-0527
Schlagwörter für diesen Artikel
soft rock; sandy soil; aggregates; clay minerals; stabilization mechanism
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Artikel in diesem Heft

  1. Regular Articles
  2. Diagenesis and evolution of deep tight reservoirs: A case study of the fourth member of Shahejie Formation (cg: 50.4-42 Ma) in Bozhong Sag
  3. Petrography and mineralogy of the Oligocene flysch in Ionian Zone, Albania: Implications for the evolution of sediment provenance and paleoenvironment
  4. Biostratigraphy of the Late Campanian–Maastrichtian of the Duwi Basin, Red Sea, Egypt
  5. Structural deformation and its implication for hydrocarbon accumulation in the Wuxia fault belt, northwestern Junggar basin, China
  6. Carbonate texture identification using multi-layer perceptron neural network
  7. Metallogenic model of the Hongqiling Cu–Ni sulfide intrusions, Central Asian Orogenic Belt: Insight from long-period magnetotellurics
  8. Assessments of recent Global Geopotential Models based on GPS/levelling and gravity data along coastal zones of Egypt
  9. Accuracy assessment and improvement of SRTM, ASTER, FABDEM, and MERIT DEMs by polynomial and optimization algorithm: A case study (Khuzestan Province, Iran)
  10. Uncertainty assessment of 3D geological models based on spatial diffusion and merging model
  11. Evaluation of dynamic behavior of varved clays from the Warsaw ice-dammed lake, Poland
  12. Impact of AMSU-A and MHS radiances assimilation on Typhoon Megi (2016) forecasting
  13. Contribution to the building of a weather information service for solar panel cleaning operations at Diass plant (Senegal, Western Sahel)
  14. Measuring spatiotemporal accessibility to healthcare with multimodal transport modes in the dynamic traffic environment
  15. Mathematical model for conversion of groundwater flow from confined to unconfined aquifers with power law processes
  16. NSP variation on SWAT with high-resolution data: A case study
  17. Reconstruction of paleoglacial equilibrium-line altitudes during the Last Glacial Maximum in the Diancang Massif, Northwest Yunnan Province, China
  18. A prediction model for Xiangyang Neolithic sites based on a random forest algorithm
  19. Determining the long-term impact area of coastal thermal discharge based on a harmonic model of sea surface temperature
  20. Origin of block accumulations based on the near-surface geophysics
  21. Investigating the limestone quarries as geoheritage sites: Case of Mardin ancient quarry
  22. Population genetics and pedigree geography of Trionychia japonica in the four mountains of Henan Province and the Taihang Mountains
  23. Performance audit evaluation of marine development projects based on SPA and BP neural network model
  24. Study on the Early Cretaceous fluvial-desert sedimentary paleogeography in the Northwest of Ordos Basin
  25. Detecting window line using an improved stacked hourglass network based on new real-world building façade dataset
  26. Automated identification and mapping of geological folds in cross sections
  27. Silicate and carbonate mixed shelf formation and its controlling factors, a case study from the Cambrian Canglangpu formation in Sichuan basin, China
  28. Ground penetrating radar and magnetic gradient distribution approach for subsurface investigation of solution pipes in post-glacial settings
  29. Research on pore structures of fine-grained carbonate reservoirs and their influence on waterflood development
  30. Risk assessment of rain-induced debris flow in the lower reaches of Yajiang River based on GIS and CF coupling models
  31. Multifractal analysis of temporal and spatial characteristics of earthquakes in Eurasian seismic belt
  32. Surface deformation and damage of 2022 (M 6.8) Luding earthquake in China and its tectonic implications
  33. Differential analysis of landscape patterns of land cover products in tropical marine climate zones – A case study in Malaysia
  34. DEM-based analysis of tectonic geomorphologic characteristics and tectonic activity intensity of the Dabanghe River Basin in South China Karst
  35. Distribution, pollution levels, and health risk assessment of heavy metals in groundwater in the main pepper production area of China
  36. Study on soil quality effect of reconstructing by Pisha sandstone and sand soil
  37. Understanding the characteristics of loess strata and quaternary climate changes in Luochuan, Shaanxi Province, China, through core analysis
  38. Dynamic variation of groundwater level and its influencing factors in typical oasis irrigated areas in Northwest China
  39. Creating digital maps for geotechnical characteristics of soil based on GIS technology and remote sensing
  40. Changes in the course of constant loading consolidation in soil with modeled granulometric composition contaminated with petroleum substances
  41. Correlation between the deformation of mineral crystal structures and fault activity: A case study of the Yingxiu-Beichuan fault and the Milin fault
  42. Cognitive characteristics of the Qiang religious culture and its influencing factors in Southwest China
  43. Spatiotemporal variation characteristics analysis of infrastructure iron stock in China based on nighttime light data
  44. Interpretation of aeromagnetic and remote sensing data of Auchi and Idah sheets of the Benin-arm Anambra basin: Implication of mineral resources
  45. Building element recognition with MTL-AINet considering view perspectives
  46. Characteristics of the present crustal deformation in the Tibetan Plateau and its relationship with strong earthquakes
  47. Influence of fractures in tight sandstone oil reservoir on hydrocarbon accumulation: A case study of Yanchang Formation in southeastern Ordos Basin
  48. Nutrient assessment and land reclamation in the Loess hills and Gulch region in the context of gully control
  49. Handling imbalanced data in supervised machine learning for lithological mapping using remote sensing and airborne geophysical data
  50. Spatial variation of soil nutrients and evaluation of cultivated land quality based on field scale
  51. Lignin analysis of sediments from around 2,000 to 1,000 years ago (Jiulong River estuary, southeast China)
  52. Assessing OpenStreetMap roads fitness-for-use for disaster risk assessment in developing countries: The case of Burundi
  53. Transforming text into knowledge graph: Extracting and structuring information from spatial development plans
  54. A symmetrical exponential model of soil temperature in temperate steppe regions of China
  55. A landslide susceptibility assessment method based on auto-encoder improved deep belief network
  56. Numerical simulation analysis of ecological monitoring of small reservoir dam based on maximum entropy algorithm
  57. Morphometry of the cold-climate Bory Stobrawskie Dune Field (SW Poland): Evidence for multi-phase Lateglacial aeolian activity within the European Sand Belt
  58. Adopting a new approach for finding missing people using GIS techniques: A case study in Saudi Arabia’s desert area
  59. Geological earthquake simulations generated by kinematic heterogeneous energy-based method: Self-arrested ruptures and asperity criterion
  60. Semi-automated classification of layered rock slopes using digital elevation model and geological map
  61. Geochemical characteristics of arc fractionated I-type granitoids of eastern Tak Batholith, Thailand
  62. Lithology classification of igneous rocks using C-band and L-band dual-polarization SAR data
  63. Analysis of artificial intelligence approaches to predict the wall deflection induced by deep excavation
  64. Evaluation of the current in situ stress in the middle Permian Maokou Formation in the Longnüsi area of the central Sichuan Basin, China
  65. Utilizing microresistivity image logs to recognize conglomeratic channel architectural elements of Baikouquan Formation in slope of Mahu Sag
  66. Resistivity cutoff of low-resistivity and low-contrast pays in sandstone reservoirs from conventional well logs: A case of Paleogene Enping Formation in A-Oilfield, Pearl River Mouth Basin, South China Sea
  67. Examining the evacuation routes of the sister village program by using the ant colony optimization algorithm
  68. Spatial objects classification using machine learning and spatial walk algorithm
  69. Study on the stabilization mechanism of aeolian sandy soil formation by adding a natural soft rock
  70. Bump feature detection of the road surface based on the Bi-LSTM
  71. The origin and evolution of the ore-forming fluids at the Manondo-Choma gold prospect, Kirk range, southern Malawi
  72. A retrieval model of surface geochemistry composition based on remotely sensed data
  73. Exploring the spatial dynamics of cultural facilities based on multi-source data: A case study of Nanjing’s art institutions
  74. Study of pore-throat structure characteristics and fluid mobility of Chang 7 tight sandstone reservoir in Jiyuan area, Ordos Basin
  75. Study of fracturing fluid re-discharge based on percolation experiments and sampling tests – An example of Fuling shale gas Jiangdong block, China
  76. Impacts of marine cloud brightening scheme on climatic extremes in the Tibetan Plateau
  77. Ecological protection on the West Coast of Taiwan Strait under economic zone construction: A case study of land use in Yueqing
  78. The time-dependent deformation and damage constitutive model of rock based on dynamic disturbance tests
  79. Evaluation of spatial form of rural ecological landscape and vulnerability of water ecological environment based on analytic hierarchy process
  80. Fingerprint of magma mixture in the leucogranites: Spectroscopic and petrochemical approach, Kalebalta-Central Anatolia, Türkiye
  81. Principles of self-calibration and visual effects for digital camera distortion
  82. UAV-based doline mapping in Brazilian karst: A cave heritage protection reconnaissance
  83. Evaluation and low carbon ecological urban–rural planning and construction based on energy planning mechanism
  84. Modified non-local means: A novel denoising approach to process gravity field data
  85. A novel travel route planning method based on an ant colony optimization algorithm
  86. Effect of time-variant NDVI on landside susceptibility: A case study in Quang Ngai province, Vietnam
  87. Regional tectonic uplift indicated by geomorphological parameters in the Bahe River Basin, central China
  88. Computer information technology-based green excavation of tunnels in complex strata and technical decision of deformation control
  89. Spatial evolution of coastal environmental enterprises: An exploration of driving factors in Jiangsu Province
  90. A comparative assessment and geospatial simulation of three hydrological models in urban basins
  91. Aquaculture industry under the blue transformation in Jiangsu, China: Structure evolution and spatial agglomeration
  92. Quantitative and qualitative interpretation of community partitions by map overlaying and calculating the distribution of related geographical features
  93. Numerical investigation of gravity-grouted soil-nail pullout capacity in sand
  94. Analysis of heavy pollution weather in Shenyang City and numerical simulation of main pollutants
  95. Road cut slope stability analysis for static and dynamic (pseudo-static analysis) loading conditions
  96. Forest biomass assessment combining field inventorying and remote sensing data
  97. Late Jurassic Haobugao granites from the southern Great Xing’an Range, NE China: Implications for postcollision extension of the Mongol–Okhotsk Ocean
  98. Petrogenesis of the Sukadana Basalt based on petrology and whole rock geochemistry, Lampung, Indonesia: Geodynamic significances
  99. Numerical study on the group wall effect of nodular diaphragm wall foundation in high-rise buildings
  100. Water resources utilization and tourism environment assessment based on water footprint
  101. Geochemical evaluation of the carbonaceous shale associated with the Permian Mikambeni Formation of the Tuli Basin for potential gas generation, South Africa
  102. Detection and characterization of lineaments using gravity data in the south-west Cameroon zone: Hydrogeological implications
  103. Study on spatial pattern of tourism landscape resources in county cities of Yangtze River Economic Belt
  104. The effect of weathering on drillability of dolomites
  105. Noise masking of near-surface scattering (heterogeneities) on subsurface seismic reflectivity
  106. Query optimization-oriented lateral expansion method of distributed geological borehole database
  107. Petrogenesis of the Morobe Granodiorite and their shoshonitic mafic microgranular enclaves in Maramuni arc, Papua New Guinea
  108. Environmental health risk assessment of urban water sources based on fuzzy set theory
  109. Spatial distribution of urban basic education resources in Shanghai: Accessibility and supply-demand matching evaluation
  110. Spatiotemporal changes in land use and residential satisfaction in the Huai River-Gaoyou Lake Rim area
  111. Walkaway vertical seismic profiling first-arrival traveltime tomography with velocity structure constraints
  112. Study on the evaluation system and risk factor traceability of receiving water body
  113. Predicting copper-polymetallic deposits in Kalatag using the weight of evidence model and novel data sources
  114. Temporal dynamics of green urban areas in Romania. A comparison between spatial and statistical data
  115. Passenger flow forecast of tourist attraction based on MACBL in LBS big data environment
  116. Varying particle size selectivity of soil erosion along a cultivated catena
  117. Relationship between annual soil erosion and surface runoff in Wadi Hanifa sub-basins
  118. Influence of nappe structure on the Carboniferous volcanic reservoir in the middle of the Hongche Fault Zone, Junggar Basin, China
  119. Dynamic analysis of MSE wall subjected to surface vibration loading
  120. Pre-collisional architecture of the European distal margin: Inferences from the high-pressure continental units of central Corsica (France)
  121. The interrelation of natural diversity with tourism in Kosovo
  122. Assessment of geosites as a basis for geotourism development: A case study of the Toplica District, Serbia
  123. IG-YOLOv5-based underwater biological recognition and detection for marine protection
  124. Monitoring drought dynamics using remote sensing-based combined drought index in Ergene Basin, Türkiye
  125. Review Articles
  126. The actual state of the geodetic and cartographic resources and legislation in Poland
  127. Evaluation studies of the new mining projects
  128. Comparison and significance of grain size parameters of the Menyuan loess calculated using different methods
  129. Scientometric analysis of flood forecasting for Asia region and discussion on machine learning methods
  130. Rainfall-induced transportation embankment failure: A review
  131. Rapid Communication
  132. Branch fault discovered in Tangshan fault zone on the Kaiping-Guye boundary, North China
  133. Technical Note
  134. Introducing an intelligent multi-level retrieval method for mineral resource potential evaluation result data
  135. Erratum
  136. Erratum to “Forest cover assessment using remote-sensing techniques in Crete Island, Greece”
  137. Addendum
  138. The relationship between heat flow and seismicity in global tectonically active zones
  139. Commentary
  140. Improved entropy weight methods and their comparisons in evaluating the high-quality development of Qinghai, China
  141. Special Issue: Geoethics 2022 - Part II
  142. Loess and geotourism potential of the Braničevo District (NE Serbia): From overexploitation to paleoclimate interpretation
Jetzt anmelden und 20% sparen
Institutioneller Zugang
Wie funktioniert Authentifizierung?
Haben Sie eine Idee, wie wir unsere Website verbessern können?
Bitte schreiben Sie uns.
© 2025 De Gruyter Brill
Heruntergeladen am 21.9.2025 von https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/geo-2022-0527/html
Button zum nach oben scrollen