Home Petrogenesis of the Sukadana Basalt based on petrology and whole rock geochemistry, Lampung, Indonesia: Geodynamic significances
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Petrogenesis of the Sukadana Basalt based on petrology and whole rock geochemistry, Lampung, Indonesia: Geodynamic significances

  • Luhut Pardamean Siringoringo EMAIL logo , Benyamin Sapiie , Alfend Rudyawan and I Gusti Bagus Eddy Sucipta
Published/Copyright: November 15, 2023
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Open Geosciences
From the journal Open Geosciences Volume 15 Issue 1

Abstract

The petrogenesis of Sukadana Basalt remains an enigma till present. Major and trace element data are analyzed from Sukadana Basalt lava, located at East Lampung, Sumatra, to study the processes involved in the petrogenesis of the erupted magmas and the origin of mantle source compositions. The Sukadana Basalt display SiO2 (48.1–52.5 wt%), MgO (5.3–9.3 wt%), TiO2 (1.3–2.6 wt%), P2O5 (0.2–0.6 wt%), and Fe2O3T (8.9–11.3 wt%) contents. The Sukadana Basalt enriched in light rare earth elements with weak negative Eu anomalies (Eu/Eu* = 0.8–1) and show Ocean Island Basalt (OIB)-like characteristics. There are two different petrogenesis groups, namely group A and group B. Group A samples show enrichment of Hf, Pb, K, and Sr and depletion of Nb. Group B samples show enrichment of K, Sr, and depletion of Pb. These differences are closely related to the mechanism of slab roll-back and normal fault activity. This study shows that Sukadana Basalt has Nb = 7.4–29.8 ppm, Nb/U = 18–060.3, and Nb/La = 0.8–1.6. These characteristics were similar to those found in typical Nb-enriched basalts. Geochemical analyses suggest that the Sukadana Basalt have experienced minimal crustal contamination and Olivine plagioclase, clinopyroxene, and magnetite fractional crystallization. The chemical features, together with high incompatible-element ratios, are consistent with low degrees of partial melting of a dominantly a partial melting of garnet–peridotite mantle source. The trace-element patterns suggest a mantle source influenced by an enriched component. The occurrence of OIB-like basalt suggests significant upwelling of the asthenosphere in response to slab roll-back. These processes occured in the above of a Paleo Indo-Australia subducting N–S beneath the southern part of Sumatra.

Graphical abstract

Keywords: Sumatra; Sukadana Basalt; Back arc; OIB; subduction; slab roll-back

1 Introduction

Indonesia, located in the Sundaland Block, has the highest number of active volcanoes among other countries in the region [1]. Sundaland is the continental extension of the Eurasian plate in Southeast Asia [2]. These volcanoes are formed by the subduction of the Indian, Australian, Pacific, and Philippine oceanic plates beneath Southeast Asia [3,4,5]. The accumulation of magma on the surface creates volcanoes, with magma produced from the partial melting of the oceanic plate at depths of 150–300 km [6]. The subduction of oceanic plates forms the convergent subduction mechanism, including the Andaman–Sumatra–Java trench in the west and south and the Philippine Trench in the east [7]. In Sumatra Island, the subduction mechanism creates the Bukit Barisan volcanic chain.

Unlike the Bukit Barisan, the Sukadana Basalt is an anomalous volcano. The anomaly encompasses a very wide lava distribution, location in the back-arc, and its composition dominated by mafic minerals (Figure 1(a)). According to Dosso et al. [8], its affinity is between Mid Oceanic Ridge Basalt (MORB) and Oceanic Island Basalt (OIB). However, Nishimura et al. [9] and Gasparon [10] suggested that its magma affinity is MORB, while Romeur [11] proposed that it is Enriched Mid Oceanic Ridge Basalt (E-MORB). These differences highlight the unresolved nature of its petrogenesis.

Figure 1 (a) The southern of Sumatra Island with location of the Sukadana Basalt (red rectangle). (b) The cinder cones distribution at the Sukadana Basalt with sampling location of this study and Gasparon’s study [10]. (c) The geology of Basalt Sukadana and its surroundings, as outlined in the Tanjungkarang quadrangle regional geology [22].
Figure 1

(a) The southern of Sumatra Island with location of the Sukadana Basalt (red rectangle). (b) The cinder cones distribution at the Sukadana Basalt with sampling location of this study and Gasparon’s study [10]. (c) The geology of Basalt Sukadana and its surroundings, as outlined in the Tanjungkarang quadrangle regional geology [22].

This study presents new geochemical analysis (major and trace element) and petrographic data from 13 samples of Sukadana Basalt (Figure 1(b)) to better understand the degree of alteration and metamorphism, identify the magma processes (such as fractional crystallization and crustal contamination) and determine the mantle source of the basalt, and develop a new tectonic model for the geodynamic evolution of southern Sumatra. This study is very important in understanding the petrogenesis characteristics of basalt that appear in the back arc of the Eurasian plate and the correlation of the appearance of basalt in the back-arc with the tectonic complexity of the Sunda Strait, which is a transitional zone of oblique and orthogonal subduction.

2 Geology background and petrography

The Indo-Australian Oceanic Plate subducts beneath the Eurasian continental plate at a rate of 6–7 cm/year [12,13], forming a 5,600 km magmatism arc from the Andaman Islands to the Banda Arc. The Sunda Strait, a transitional zone between the Sumatra oblique and Java perpendicular subductions, is of particular interest [14,15,16]. It is related to an extensional feature caused by either the northwestward displacement of the southern Sumatra block along the Sumatra Fault [15] or the rotation of Sumatra relative to Java in the Late Cenozoic [17]. The age of the oceanic lithosphere beneath Sumatra is less than 100 million years old, while the oceanic lithosphere beneath Java and the eastern Sunda is older [18]. A volcanic configuration across the Sunda Strait spans from Panaitan Island through Krakatau Island, the Sebesi and Sebuku Islands, the Rajabasa Volcano, to the Sukadana Basalt plateau from SSW to NNE, according to Harjono et al. [19] and Nishimura et al. [9] (Figure 1(a)). The Sukadana Basalt and Bukit Telor Basalt are located in the back-arc region of Sumatra [10], but the existence of this volcanic lineament is still debated, especially its influence on the presence of the Sukadana Basalt.

The age of Sukadana Basalt is quaternary. K–Ar method show that the age of Sukadana Basalt is 0.8 Ma [9], 1.2 Ma [20], and 0.5–1.3 Ma [11]. This age suggests that the presence of the Sukadana Basalt is not much different from the eruption of Mount Rajabasa, the nearest mount to Sukadana Basalt. Mount Rajabasa age is 0.12–0.31 Ma [21]. Figure 1(c) shows the complexity of Lampung tectonics especially surrounding the Sukadana Basalt. The old and young rocks are exposed not far from each other. This condition makes this area is very interesting to study. The Sukadana Basalt is not the only young rock in this area. The Sukadana Basalt overlays pliocene Lampung Formation and Eocene Tarahan Formations which are emitted by centers within the volcanic arc [14,22]. The Sukadana Basalt is located on Lampung Province. The Sukadana Basalt spans an estimated area of 1,000 km2 and is comprised of numerous basaltic flows with thicknesses of up to 2–3 m. There are several hills present, which likely represent the eruptive centers, with elevations exceeding 200 m above sea level. Although the thickness of the basaltic pile can reach up to 200 m in certain areas, it varies locally [14].

The Sukadana Basalt consists of a cinder cone and plain morphology (Figure 1b). The cinder cone shows dimensions about 290–5,200 m (wide) and 111–270 m (height) above sea level. In observation point 1.2, The Sukadana Basalt shows the cave as a part of a lava tube feature with layered lava structure, dark to green weathered color, light grey fresh color, and vesicular structures (Figure 2(a) and (b)). In addition, observation point 3.1 shows cinder cone morphology without lava tube features (Figure 2(c)). The basalt shows a brown-dark grey weathered color, light grey fresh color with vesicular structures. Certain areas of rocks show vesicular structures that are filled by zeolite (Figure 2(d)). Almost all of the research area found cobble-bolder size basalt either at cinder cone or plain morphology (Figure 2(c), (e), and (g)). The bolder also shows vesicular structures with middle to high quantity of vesicles, dark weathered color, and light grey fresh color (Figure 2(f) and (h)). This vesicular structure indicates that magma contains a massive amount of gas, specifically H2O, CO2, and S [23,24].

Figure 2 (a) Basalt outcrops at observation point 1.2 show the cave as a part of a lava tube. (b) Layered lava structure with dark to green weathered color. (c) Observation point 3.1 shows cinder cone morphology without lava tube feature. (d) At observation point 3.1, the basalt shows a brown-dark grey weathered color, light grey fresh color with vesicular structures. Certain areas of rocks show vesicular structures that are filled by zeolite. (e) and (g) Almost all of the research area was found cobble-bolder size basalt either at cinder cone or plain morphology. (f) and (h) The bolder also shows vesicular structures with middle to high quantity of vesicles with dark weathered color.
Figure 2

(a) Basalt outcrops at observation point 1.2 show the cave as a part of a lava tube. (b) Layered lava structure with dark to green weathered color. (c) Observation point 3.1 shows cinder cone morphology without lava tube feature. (d) At observation point 3.1, the basalt shows a brown-dark grey weathered color, light grey fresh color with vesicular structures. Certain areas of rocks show vesicular structures that are filled by zeolite. (e) and (g) Almost all of the research area was found cobble-bolder size basalt either at cinder cone or plain morphology. (f) and (h) The bolder also shows vesicular structures with middle to high quantity of vesicles with dark weathered color.

Petrographically, Sukadana Basalt can be divided according to their mineralogy into sub-groups, including basalt, basaltic trachy andesite, and basaltic andesite. The basalt lithologies contain mainly plagioclase (30–52%), olivine (10–27%), volcanic glass (5–50%), pyroxene (19–30%), and iddingsite rim (3–7%) with vesicular structures. The phenocryst includes plagioclase, olivine, piroxene, and opaque mineral. The plagioclase (grain size: 0.05–1.4 mm) is euhedral–subhedral, carlsbad, and carlsbad–albit twinning, some plagioclases show sieve–glomeroporphyritic texture, and labradorite–andesin composition. The olivine (grain size: 0.05–1.5 mm) is euhedral–subhedral; some olivine shows plagioclase inclusion and iddingsite rim. The piroxene (grain size: 0.05–1.4 mm) consists of clinopiroxene (8–20%) and ortopiroxene (3–15%) with subhedral-anhedral crystals (Figure 3(a) and (b)). The opaque mineral (grain size: 0.025–0.25 mm) is subhedral-anhedral. The groundmass includes plagioclase, piroxene, and volcanic glass.

Figure 3 Cross-polarized photomicrographs from Sukadana Basalt. (a) and (b) The basalt lithologies contain mainly plagioclase, olivine, volcanic glass, pyroxene, and iddingsite rim with vesicular structures. Some plagioclases show sieve-glomeroporphyritic texture. The olivine shows plagioclase inclusion and iddingsite rim. (c) The basaltic trachy andesite lithologies contain mainly plagioclase, olivine, pyroxene, and iddingsite rim with vesicular structures. Some plagioclases show sieve texture. Some olivines show plagioclase inclusion and iddingsite rim. (d) The basaltic andesite lithologies contain plagioclase, olivine, pyroxene, volcanic glass, and iddingsite rim with vesicular structures. Some plagioclases display a sieve texture. Some olivines show iddingsite rim.
Figure 3

Cross-polarized photomicrographs from Sukadana Basalt. (a) and (b) The basalt lithologies contain mainly plagioclase, olivine, volcanic glass, pyroxene, and iddingsite rim with vesicular structures. Some plagioclases show sieve-glomeroporphyritic texture. The olivine shows plagioclase inclusion and iddingsite rim. (c) The basaltic trachy andesite lithologies contain mainly plagioclase, olivine, pyroxene, and iddingsite rim with vesicular structures. Some plagioclases show sieve texture. Some olivines show plagioclase inclusion and iddingsite rim. (d) The basaltic andesite lithologies contain plagioclase, olivine, pyroxene, volcanic glass, and iddingsite rim with vesicular structures. Some plagioclases display a sieve texture. Some olivines show iddingsite rim.

The basaltic trachy andesite lithologies contain mainly plagioclase (40%), olivine (20%), pyroxene (30%), and iddingsite rim (5%) with vesicular structures. The phenocryst includes plagioclase, olivine, piroxene, and opaque mineral. The plagioclase (grain size: 0.075–0.5 mm) is euhedral–subhedral, carlsbad and carlsbad–albit twinning, some plagioclases show sieve texture, and labradorite-andesin composition. The olivine (grain size: 0.25–0.5 mm) is anhedral-subhedral, some olivines show plagioclase inclusion and iddingsite rim. The piroxene (grain size: 0.05–1.4 mm) consists of clinopiroxene (17%) and ortopiroxene (13%) with subhedral–anhedral crystals (Figure 3(c)). The opaque mineral (grain size: 0.025–0.1 mm) is subhedral–anhedral. The groundmass includes olivine and piroxene.

The basaltic andesite lithologies contain mainly plagioclase (25%), olivine (8%), pyroxene (15%), volcanic glass (50%), and iddingsite rim (2%) with vesicular structures. The phenocryst includes plagioclase, olivine, piroxene, and opaque mineral. The plagioclase (grain size: 0.05–0.375 mm) is euhedral–subhedral, carlsbad, and albit twinning; some plagioclases display a sieve texture and labradorite–andesin composition. The olivine (grain size: 0.1–1.5 mm) is anhedral–euhedral; some olivines show iddingsite rim. The piroxene crystals, with a grain size: 0.075–0.125 mm, consist of clinopiroxene (8%) and ortopiroxene (7%) which are euhedral-anhedral in shape (Figure 3(d)). The groundmass includes plagioclase, piroxene, and volcanic glass.

3 Methods

Thirteen samples of fresh basalt were gathered for geochemical and petrographic analysis. Nine of these samples (69%), were obtained from the center of cones while the remaining 31%, or four samples, were gathered from plain morphologies (Figure 1(b)). The petrographic analysis was performed at the Petrology-Mineralogy Laboratory of the Geological Engineering Department of Sumatera Institute of Technology using a polarization microscope. The geochemical analysis, which included both major and trace elements, took place at the Intertek Laboratory in Jakarta, Indonesia. Samples fused using Lithium Metaborate then were detected using XRF (Malvern Panalytical brand) and recalculated to 100%, volatile free for major elements analysis. Trace elements were identified using the four acids digestion-ICP OES (Agilent brand) and MS method.

The measurement was conducted by utilizing predetermined calibration standards, and the resulting data was processed through laboratory information management system software. This software automates the necessary calculations to determine both the percentage of oxide for individual elements and the total percentage of major elements in the sample, including the Loss on Ignition (LOI). All results have passed rigorous quality control, as indicated by the tolerable deviation. For instance, SiO2 from 1.4 is 51% (Table 1). Quality control protocol used NCS DC 73322 standards, which have a value of 51.09% (lower bound: 50.797%; upper bound: 51.103%). The detection limit was varied during analysis for different elements. It was 50 ppm for Al, Ca, P, S; 5 ppm for Cr, Ti; 1 ppm for Cu, Mn, Ni, Sc, V, Zn, As, Ba, Co, Pb, Se; 0.01% for Fe, Al2O3, CaO, Cr2O3, Fe2O3, K2O, MgO, MnO, Na2O, P2O5, SiO2, TiO2; 20 ppm for K, Mg, Na; 0.5 ppm for Be, Zr, Sr; 0.05 ppm for Bi, Cd, In, Re, Ta, Th, U, Lu, Pr, Tb; 0.1 ppm for Ag, Cs, Ga, Ge, Hf, Li, Mo, Nb, Rb, Sb, Sn, Te, W, Y, Ce, Dy, Er, Eu, Gd, Ho, La, Nd, Sm, Tm, Yb; 0.002% for P2O5, S; 0.02 ppm for Tl.

Table 1

Whole-rock geochemistry data of the Sukadana Basalt

No. samples 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 2.1 2.2 2.3 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4
Lithology Basalt Basalt Basaltic-andesite Basalt Basalt Basaltic trachy-Andesite Basalt Basaltic-andesite Basaltic-andesite Basalt Basalt Baaltic-andesite Basalt
Major elements (%)
SiO2 48.2 51.5 52.1 51.0 51.9 52.5 51.9 52.1 52.3 50.2 49.1 51.3 48.1
TiO2 1.5 1.4 1.4 1.3 1.4 1.8 2.3 1.4 1.4 1.5 1.8 1.5 2.6
Al2O3 16.7 16.3 16.3 16.3 15.8 17.1 15.1 16.3 16.3 15.5 15.6 16.3 16.2
Fe2O3 11 10.1 9.9 9.8 9.4 8.9 9.8 10.8 9.4 10 11.1 9.5 11.3
MnO 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
MgO 9.3 7 6.9 7.9 7.5 5.3 7.1 6.4 6.9 7.7 7.4 6.4 7.5
CaO 8.5 8.5 8 8.4 8.7 8.8 8.5 8.3 8.8 8.7 8.5 8.2 7.5
K2O 0.8 0.8 0.6 0.6 1 1.5 1.3 0.8 1 1.3 1.2 1.3 1.6
Na2O 3 3.6 3.3 3.1 3.4 3.9 3.4 3.5 3.4 3.4 3.4 3.6 3
P2O5 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.3 0.6
LOI 0.9 0 0.7 0.4 0.3 0 0.1 0.5 0.1 1.1 0.3 0.6 1.5
Total 100 99.4 99.5 99.3 100 100 100 100 100 100 99 99.3 100
Mg# 62.9 58.2 58.3 62 61.7 54.6 59.1 54.6 59.5 60.8 57.1 57.5 57.2
Trace elements (ppm)
V 187 152 178 179 167 182 189 155 179 171 169 209 196
Cr 315 162 193 284 202 50 297 177 156 270 273 245 251
Ni 188 94 108 171 136 42 114 164 101 199 195 194 203
Zn 117 105 121 113 104 102 112 111 96 106 129 107 124
Rb 6.2 9.3 7.9 12.1 17.9 21.3 19.5 10.7 18.2 22.6 15.6 17.5 25.3
Sr 488 501 486 486 595 760 672 542 584 486 539 574 624
Y 17.2 14.2 12.5 14.5 16.6 23.6 26.9 14 16.3 17.9 20.3 24.2 31.8
Zr 104 69 73 80 103 168 216 90 93 119 145 135 255
Nb 14.8 10.9 7.4 7.9 11.9 22.3 27.2 13.4 11.2 16.4 16.8 16.2 29.8
Ba 197 101 80 122 175 269 300 136 153 327 310 350 505
La 11.6 7 5.7 9.5 10.7 17.6 20.5 9.4 10.3 13.3 16.3 17.3 21.2
Pb 3 6 2 2 2 3 2 2 2 3 <1 3 2
Th 2.5 1.5 1.2 2.1 2.5 3.1 2.2 1.9 2.2 2.8 2.9 2.9 3.1
Sc 21 16 17 19 19 21 20 15 19 20 21 20 23
Co 47 41 38 41 39 32 37 41 36 49 50 44 49
Cs 0.1 0.4 0.2 0.4 0.7 0.1 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.3 0.5 0.3 0.4
Ce 24.9 16 13.6 20.4 23.6 37.8 47.7 20.2 22.7 26.7 33.8 30.8 46.7
Nd 14.6 11.4 10.5 13.4 14.2 23.3 35.7 12.2 14.3 14.5 20 19.3 34.5
Sm 3.9 3.2 3.3 3.6 3.8 5.7 8.5 3.5 3.8 3.9 5.2 4.9 8.1
Eu 1.2 1.2 1 1.1 1.1 1.7 2.2 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.3 1.3 2
Gd 3.9 3.7 3 3.6 3.8 5.6 7.4 3.4 3.7 3.9 5.1 4.9 7.4
Tb 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.8 1 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.7 1.2
Ho 0.6 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.8 1 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.8 0.7 1.2
Er 1.8 1.3 1.3 1.5 1.7 2.3 2.5 1.4 1.7 1.6 2 1.9 2.9
Tm 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.4
Yb 1.5 1.1 1 1.1 1.5 1.9 1.9 1.1 1.4 1.4 1.7 1.6 2
Lu 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3
Hf 2.6 2.7 2.2 2.3 2.7 4.1 5.2 2.4 2.5 3.6 4 3.7 7
Ta 0.9 0.7 0.5 0.5 0.8 1.3 1.5 0.9 0.7 1.7 1.8 1.7 2.2
U 0.6 0.4 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.4 0.6 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.8
Al 85,800 83,900 85,000 85,700 83,100 89,000 79,200 80,700 82,100 82,300 81,800 89,100 86,200
Ca 59,000 59,500 56,000 59,700 61,500 63,100 59,600 58,000 61,300 63,200 62,100 62,800 53,800
Fe 7.6 6.6 7.0 6.9 6.6 6.1 6.9 7.3 6.4 6.9 7.7 6.8 7.9
K 6,380 5,910 4,580 5,280 8,550 12,500 10,800 6,400 8,280 10,800 9,770 10,900 13,700
Mg 53,500 39,900 39,000 45,800 43,300 30,200 40,000 37,000 39,800 44,000 41,900 37,400 42,500
Mn 1,130 920 924 982 1,030 1,060 966 1,180 944 1,180 1,130 967 1,030
Na 21,500 26,200 23,900 23,000 24,400 28,400 24,900 25,600 25,100 23,700 22,400 24,900 21,500
P 870 880 750 1,170 1,250 1,700 2,120 920 1,020 1,300 2,040 1,360 2,370
S <50 80 50 <50 <50 <50 <50 <50 <50 130 90 90 60
Ti 8,210 7,980 7,930 7,430 8,070 10,400 12,800 7,440 7,830 8,710 8,940 8,370 14,100
Ag <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 0.10 <0.1 0.1
As 2.00 <1 2 2 2 4 3 2 2 3 2 3 1
Bi <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05
Cd 0.3 <0.05 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3
Ge 1.4 1.3 1.5 1.3 1.8 1.6 1.6 1.4 1.6 1.3 1.7 1.7 1.9
Ln 0.1 <0.05 0.1 <0.05 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 <0.05 <0.05 0.1
Mo 0.7 0.9 1.1 0.8 1.3 1.2 4.7 1.4 1.4 1.5 0.7 1.3 1.7
Re <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05
Sb 0.2 0.2 0.1 <0.1 <0.1 0.4 0.5 0.2 0.2 0.1 <0.1 0.2 <0.1
Se <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 1 1 1 2
Sn 1.7 2 1.9 1.4 1.9 2.5 2.1 1.4 1.4 1.8 0.8 1.7 1.8
Te <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 0.2 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1
W <0.1 0.6 0.2 0.3 2.2 0.6 1.1 <0.1 0.3 1.5 0.6 1 0.8
Li 7.5 7 5.5 6.5 7.2 6.9 6.4 5.4 6.8 5.8 5.1 7.3 5.9
Be 1 0.9 1 0.8 1.1 1.5 1.5 1.1 1 1.1 1.5 1.3 1.7
Cu 61 48 57 63 57 43 31 61 60 67 77 48 63
Zn 117 105 121 113 104 102 112 111 96 106 129 107 124
Ga 18.8 19.8 18.9 18.6 18.5 21.5 20 18.2 18.6 20 19.9 21.3 22.6
Pr 3.2 2.1 2.1 2.8 3.1 5.1 7.7 2.7 3 3.2 4 4 6.3
Dy 3.5 2.9 2.6 3 3.2 4.6 5.4 2.8 3.3 3.5 4.1 4.0 6.3

4 Result

All the major element analysis was redetermined to 100 wt% with no volatile material, as illustrated in Table 1. Most of the samples are petrographically unaltered with only slight signs of alteration, demonstrated by their generally low LOI values (<2 wt%). This value indicates that the original chemical composition of the basaltic melts that were formed is reliable [25,26]. Table 1 presents the compositions of both major and trace elements in the samples. The whole-rock SiO2 content of the basaltic samples varies between 48.1 and 52.5 wt% with low Na2O + K2O content (∼3.7–5.4 wt%). All the samples have MgO content greater than 5.2 wt%, with Mg# ranging from 54.6 to 62.9. The LOI values are between 0 and 1.5 wt% (Table 1). The rocks are classified as basalt, basaltic andesite, and basaltic trachy andesite based on their SiO2 vs total alkali (Na2O + K2O) diagram (Figure 4(a)) [27]. This result is consistent with previous studies from Romeur [11], Gasparon [10], and Zulkarnain [28]. The samples are plot in the subalkaline series on the SiO2 vs Na2O + K2O diagram, except for one which plots in the alkaline series (Figure 4(a)) [29]. Most of the samples belong to the sodic series, but one plots in the postasic series on a K2O vs Na2O discrimination diagram (Figure 4(b)) [30]. The samples have high TiO2 (1.3–2.6 wt%), moderate to high Al2O3 (15.1–17.1 wt%), Fe2O3(t) (total Fe oxide, assuming all Fe is trivalent) = 8.9–11.3 wt%, and P2O5 = 0.2–0.6 wt%.

Figure 4 (a) Total alkali-silica classification diagram [27] for Sukadana Basalt with integration from the previous study. The straight blue line represents the boundary between alkaline and sub-alkaline basaltic series after Irvine and Baragar [29]. (b) Na2O vs K2O diagram [30].
Figure 4

(a) Total alkali-silica classification diagram [27] for Sukadana Basalt with integration from the previous study. The straight blue line represents the boundary between alkaline and sub-alkaline basaltic series after Irvine and Baragar [29]. (b) Na2O vs K2O diagram [30].

The Nb vs Ti diagram shows that there are two highly distinct groups (Figure 5). This difference is related to the variation in petrogenesis between these two groups. Group A indicates low values of Nb and Ti, while Group B shows high values of Nb and Ti (Nb > 22; Ti > 10,000). The Rare Earth Element (REE) patterns of Groups A and B (Figure 6) are normalized to primitive mantle (PM) [31] and Chondrite (ChN) [31] identical and similar to the OIB pattern. However, upon closer identification of individual elements, it is observed that the Nb and Ti elements in Group A tend to be depleted.

Figure 5 The Nb vs Ti diagram shows two variations of petrogenesis.
Figure 5

The Nb vs Ti diagram shows two variations of petrogenesis.

Figure 6 (a) Group of samples with depleted Nb. (b) Group of rock samples with stable Nb. Both groups of REE are normalized to ChN and primitive mantle [31]. OIB, N-MORB, and E-MORB from Sun and McDonough [34]. OIB = Oceanic Island Basalts, E-MORB = Enriched Mid Oceanic Ridge Basalt, N-MORB = Normal Mid Oceanic Ridge Basalt.
Figure 6

(a) Group of samples with depleted Nb. (b) Group of rock samples with stable Nb. Both groups of REE are normalized to ChN and primitive mantle [31]. OIB, N-MORB, and E-MORB from Sun and McDonough [34]. OIB = Oceanic Island Basalts, E-MORB = Enriched Mid Oceanic Ridge Basalt, N-MORB = Normal Mid Oceanic Ridge Basalt.

The patterns are characterized by a slight enrichment of light rare earth elements (LREE) with (La/Yb)N = 3.9–7.2, and The LREE content of the sample is approximately 20–100 times chN, while the HREE content is about 8–18 times chN. There is a weakly negative Eu anomaly present, with Eu/Eu* ratios from 0.8 to 1. In general, the spider diagram of group A normalized to primitive mantle [31], the samples show enrichment of Hf, Pb, K, and Sr and depletion of Nb (Figure 6(a)). On the spider diagram of group B normalized to primitive mantle [31], the rock samples show enrichment of K, Sr, and depletion of Pb (Figure 6(b)).

5 Discussion

5.1 Crustal contamination

When hot basaltic magma passes through continental crust, certain elements from the crust can greatly impact the composition of the resulting rocks [32]. But this can be avoided if magma rises quickly through the lithosphere or crust [33].

The Th/Ta ratio in the Sukadana Basalt varies between 1.4 and 3.8, indicating insignificant influence from crustal contamination in its formation. This interpretation is based on a comparison of the ratio of the original mantle (Th/Ta = 2.3) and the continental crust (Th/Ta = 10) as reported by Sun and McDonough [34]. Moreover, Nb/La ratios (<1.0), which are used as an indicator of crustal influence on magma [35], range from 0.8 to 1.6 in the Sukadana Basalt, showing crustal contamination but not significant.

In Figure 7(a) and (b), which show Nb/Th vs Nb/La [36] and Rb/La vs Th diagrams [37] respectively, the samples in the Sukadana Basalt are close to the mantle composition and not precise in the continental crust region. This indicates insignificant contamination from the upper crust (UC). The Sukadana Basalt has a Zr/Nb ratio that ranges from 6.3 to 10.1. This ratio is higher than what is typically found in OIB mantle sources (3.2–5), but lower than the ratios found in continental crust (16.2) and primitive mantle (14.8). It is also much lower than the ratio found in normal-MORB (30) [38,39], which suggests that significant crustal contamination did not occur. In the results, the composition of Sukadana Basalt is more likely influenced by magma dynamics at its source and partial melting in the mantle region. An integration of Ce/Pb and La/Nb values can be utilized to evaluate the extent of crustal contamination and mantle mixing processes [40,41,42]. Basalts with Ce/Pb ratios in the range of ∼20–30 are improbable to have incorporated crustal material [41]. La/Nb ratios of 0.6–1.2 and Ce/Pb ratios of 2.7– > 33.8 plot in the mantle region on a La/Nb-Ce/Pb diagram (Figure 7(c)).

Figure 7 (a) Nb/La vs Nb/Th diagram [36]. (b) Th vs Rb/La diagram [37]. (c) La/Nb vs Ce/Pb [40]. Values of N-MORB, E-MORB, and OIB are from Sun and McDonough [34], uncontaminated basalts zone from Rooney et al. [41]. Values of primitive mantle (PM) are from McDonough and Sun [31]. Values for the UC and lower crust (LC) are from Wedepohl [82]. LC: Lower Crust; UC: Upper Crust; N-MORB: Normal-Mid Oceanic Ridge Basalt; E-MORB: Enriched-Mid Oceanic Ridge Basalt; OIB: Oceanic Island Basalt; PM: Primitive Mantle.
Figure 7

(a) Nb/La vs Nb/Th diagram [36]. (b) Th vs Rb/La diagram [37]. (c) La/Nb vs Ce/Pb [40]. Values of N-MORB, E-MORB, and OIB are from Sun and McDonough [34], uncontaminated basalts zone from Rooney et al. [41]. Values of primitive mantle (PM) are from McDonough and Sun [31]. Values for the UC and lower crust (LC) are from Wedepohl [82]. LC: Lower Crust; UC: Upper Crust; N-MORB: Normal-Mid Oceanic Ridge Basalt; E-MORB: Enriched-Mid Oceanic Ridge Basalt; OIB: Oceanic Island Basalt; PM: Primitive Mantle.

Nevertheless, only 25% of the samples from this and previous studies plot in the contaminated mantle, characterized by low Ce/Pb ratios. The Nb/Th vs Nb/La and Rb/La vs Th diagrams reveal that the influence of crustal material on the production of high Pb content in the Sukadana Basalt is insignificant. The absence of crustal xenoliths in all samples also provides the conclusion of minimal crustal contamination. Overall, The Sukadana Basalt magmatism had moved through the Sumatra continental crust with minimal crustal contamination. This is supported by the fact that the thickness of the Sumatra crust ranges from 27 to 35 km [43] and the position of Sukadana Basalt is in the back arc. This results in relatively little contact between magma and the continental crust.

5.2 Fractional crystallization

To determine the dominant magma process, whether it is partial melting or fractional crystallization, we used the La vs La/Yb diagram (Figure 8) [44]. This diagram displays that the samples are located between the lines of partial melting and fractional crystallization, indicating that the trace elements of the Sukadana Basalt magma were controlled by both processes during its evolution. The weakly negative Eu anomalies (Eu/Eu* = 0.8–1) in the samples suggest that they likely underwent minor plagioclase fractionation, either prior to eruption or during the magma’s ascent and evolution [45]. In addition to La vs La/Yb diagram, another diagram that can explain the processes of fractional crystallization and partial melting during magma evolution is the Harker diagram [46,47]. This diagram shows the correlation between major elements. Referring to the Harker diagram, Sukadana Basalt magma underwent clinopyroxene and magnetite fractionation. This is indicated by the positive correlation between Fe2O3 and TiO2 with MgO (Figure 9). The diagram also indicates the accumulation of olivine and chromite (Fe oxides) and Ti oxide minerals. Moreover, the positive correlation between CaO and MgO (Figure 9) indicates the presence of clinopyroxene fractionation. Additionally, this correlation shows that basaltic andesite is a product of basalt fractional crystallization. The negative correlation between SiO2, Al2O3, and MgO indicates the accumulation of clinopyroxene.

Figure 8 La vs La/Yb diagram [44].
Figure 8

La vs La/Yb diagram [44].

Figure 9 Harker diagram.
Figure 9

Harker diagram.

The previous explanation indicates that half of the Sukadana Basalt magma process underwent fractional crystallization. This is also supported by unequal granular phenocrystic basalts consisting of pyroxene, plagioclase, and olivine phenocrysts, which suggests that the parental magma underwent fractional crystallization before eruption [48]. This is further confirmed by the differences in Mg# values between the Sukadana Basalt (54.6–62.9) and the original basaltic magma (65–70) [49] or higher than 73 [50,51]. The distinctive SiO2 (48.1–52.5 wt%), MgO (5.3–9.3 wt%), and total Fe2O3 (8.9–11.3 wt%) content also support the fractionation nature of the basalt. In addition, the relatively low Ni (42–203 ppm) and Cr (50–315 ppm) content in the Sukadana Basalt compared to primary mafic magmas (Ni > 400 ppm; Cr > 1,000 ppm) [50,51] indicates that the parental magma underwent fractional crystallization of olivine and clinopyroxene during its evolution.

5.3 Partial melting

All of the samples studied display slightly high LREE/HREE ratios, with (La/Yb)N values ranging from 3.9 to 7.2, indicating that they were derived from melts produced at low degrees of melting. In addition, the effect of partial melting is well demonstrated by a model illustrated on the Gd/Yb vs La/Yb diagram (Figure 10(a)) [52]. The curves Garnet 4% and Garnet 8% indicate the contents of garnet in the source, according to Halliday et al. [53]. The diagram shows 4–6% degree of partial melting of garnet peridotite (4–8%). La/Yb vs Dy/Yb diagram [54,55] also indicates that garnet peridotite is a source region of Sukadana Basalt besides low degrees of partial melting (16–20%) (Figure 10(b)). In extensional settings, the asthenosphere experiences decompression melting at a relatively shallow depth of less than 80 km.

Figure 10 (a) The degree of partial melting shows 4−6% of garnet peridotite (4–8%) for the Sukadana Basalt, as shown in the Gd/Yb vs La/Yb diagram [52]. The curves Garnet 4% and Garnet 8% indicate the contents of garnet in the source, according to Halliday et al. [53]. (b) In the La/Yb vs Dy/Yb diagram, garnet peridotite is also a source region of the Sukadana Basalt. the diagram from Thirlwall et al. [54] and Bogaard and Worner [55]. This diagram indicates the low-degree melting (16–20%).
Figure 10

(a) The degree of partial melting shows 4−6% of garnet peridotite (4–8%) for the Sukadana Basalt, as shown in the Gd/Yb vs La/Yb diagram [52]. The curves Garnet 4% and Garnet 8% indicate the contents of garnet in the source, according to Halliday et al. [53]. (b) In the La/Yb vs Dy/Yb diagram, garnet peridotite is also a source region of the Sukadana Basalt. the diagram from Thirlwall et al. [54] and Bogaard and Worner [55]. This diagram indicates the low-degree melting (16–20%).

5.4 Mantle source

In the plot of Th/Yb vs Ta/Yb [56] for determining the tectonic setting of basaltic rocks, the Sukadana Basalt is classified as Within Plate Volcanic Zones and Within Plate Basalt (WPB) based on trace elements (Figure 11(a)). Samples with codes 2.1, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, and 3.4 are located in the WPB zone. More specifically, samples with codes 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, and 3.4 are situated in the OIB region. The presence of samples with codes 2.1 and 3.4 in the WPB zone is consistent with the enrichment of Nb in the spider diagram explained earlier.

Figure 11 (a) Ta/Yb vs Th/Yb diagram [56]. (b) Sukadana Basalt lavas in the Zr/Y vs Nb/Y diagram, relative to the mantle compositional components (grey square) and fields of rocks from various tectonic settings [83]. (c) Sukadana Basalt lavas in the Nb/Th vs Zr/Nb diagram after Weaver [39]. (d) Ti/100 vs Zr vs 3Y diagram [84]. (e) 2 Nb vs Zr/4 vs Y diagram [85]; (f) Hf/3 vs Th vs Ta diagram [86]. ARC: Arc-related basalts; DEP: deep depleted mantle; DM: depleted mantle; EM1 and EM2: enriched mantle sources; EN: enriched component; HIMU: high U/Pb mantle source; REC: recycled component; OPB: Oceanic Plateau Basalt, AFC: assimilation-fractional crystallization curve; EMB: enriched MORB; NMB: normal MORB; OIB: Oceanic Island Basalt; PM: Primitive Mantle from Sun and McDonough [34]; UC: Upper Crust from Taylor and McLennan [37]; ACM: Active Continental Margin; WPVZ: Within Plate Volcanic Zones; WPB: Within Plate Basalt, SC: Subduction Components.
Figure 11

(a) Ta/Yb vs Th/Yb diagram [56]. (b) Sukadana Basalt lavas in the Zr/Y vs Nb/Y diagram, relative to the mantle compositional components (grey square) and fields of rocks from various tectonic settings [83]. (c) Sukadana Basalt lavas in the Nb/Th vs Zr/Nb diagram after Weaver [39]. (d) Ti/100 vs Zr vs 3Y diagram [84]. (e) 2 Nb vs Zr/4 vs Y diagram [85]; (f) Hf/3 vs Th vs Ta diagram [86]. ARC: Arc-related basalts; DEP: deep depleted mantle; DM: depleted mantle; EM1 and EM2: enriched mantle sources; EN: enriched component; HIMU: high U/Pb mantle source; REC: recycled component; OPB: Oceanic Plateau Basalt, AFC: assimilation-fractional crystallization curve; EMB: enriched MORB; NMB: normal MORB; OIB: Oceanic Island Basalt; PM: Primitive Mantle from Sun and McDonough [34]; UC: Upper Crust from Taylor and McLennan [37]; ACM: Active Continental Margin; WPVZ: Within Plate Volcanic Zones; WPB: Within Plate Basalt, SC: Subduction Components.

Plotting of the samples in the Zr/Y vs Nb/Y diagram and Nb/Th vs Zr/Nb diagram (Figure 11(b) and (c)) suggests that they are derived from both Oceanic Plateau Basalt (OPB) and OIB-like mantle with slight influence from arc material. This result is also compatible with the other tectonic discrimination diagrams (Figure 11(d)–(f)). The Within Plate Volcanic Zones and ARC indicate the presence of slab-derived components in the Sukadana Basalt. In this study, the components are not significant. In addition, Oceanic Plateau Basalt shows diagnostic geochemical characteristics of E-MORB (i.e., rocks with Nb/La higher than 0.8; Nb-Ta depletion) to Transitional-Mid Oceanic Ridge Basalt [57] indicate extensional tectonic setting and shallow asthenosphere magma source [58,59]. The Sukadana Basalt fulfills all these characteristics. Based on this description, it can be inferred that there has been magma mixing between magma derived from the lower mantle (enriched) and the upper mantle (depleted) before extensional deformation occurred.

The isotope data from Gasparon [10], including 143Nd/144Nd vs 87Sr/85Sr, 87Sr/86Sr vs 206Pb/204Pb, 207Pb/204Pb vs 206Pb/204Pb, and 208Pb/204Pb vs 206Pb/204Pb, confirm that The Sukadana Basalt has characteristics of an OIB. Additionally, it is interesting to note that the magma source shows similarities with the oceanic crust of the South China Sea. This indicates the presence of magma flow from the South China Sea region, which later became part of the Sukadana Basalt magma (Figure 12(a)–(d)).

Figure 12 (a) 143Nd/144Nd vs 87Sr/86Sr. (b) 87Sr/86Sr vs 206Pb/204Pb. (c) 207Pb/204Pb vs 206Pb/204Pb. (d) 208Pb/204Pb vs 206Pb/204Pb for the Sukadana Basalt from Lampung, Indonesia [10]. Data for the South China Sea are from the literature [87,88,89,90], OIB from Castillo [91] and for Indian Ocean-type MORB from Mahoney et al. [92], Sumatran Arc Granitoids and Sumatran Quaternary volcanics from Gasparon [10].
Figure 12

(a) 143Nd/144Nd vs 87Sr/86Sr. (b) 87Sr/86Sr vs 206Pb/204Pb. (c) 207Pb/204Pb vs 206Pb/204Pb. (d) 208Pb/204Pb vs 206Pb/204Pb for the Sukadana Basalt from Lampung, Indonesia [10]. Data for the South China Sea are from the literature [87,88,89,90], OIB from Castillo [91] and for Indian Ocean-type MORB from Mahoney et al. [92], Sumatran Arc Granitoids and Sumatran Quaternary volcanics from Gasparon [10].

Furthermore, the data suggest that the Sukadana Basalt magma has been contaminated by the continental crust of Sumatra (Sumatran Arc Granitoids). This is reasonable because, during its ascent to the Earth’s surface, it would have interacted with the continental crust of Sumatra, which is composed of granitic rocks. However, the whole rock geochemistry data indicate that this contamination is not significant.

The isotopic data also indicate that there is no influence from the magma forming the Indian-Australia oceanic crust and the magma from the quaternary volcanic arc on the composition of the Sukadana Basalt. The absence of the influence from the magma forming the Indian-Australia oceanic crust suggests the absence of slab window and slab tear around the Sukadana Basalt.

The Nb content as an indicator to determine the origin of the magma [44,45,60] shows that the Nb values range from 7.4 to 29.8 ppm, with an average of 15.9 ppm (Table 1). Two of the samples have particularly high Nb content with values exceeding 20 ppm (27.2 and 29.8 ppm). This anomaly has been observed in other studies as well [10,11]. In general, the Sukadana Basalt is considered to be a typical Nb-enriched basaltic rock, with relatively high Nb content (>6 ppm), (Nb/La)PM ratios >0.5 and Nb/U ratios >10, as well as enrichments in LREEs, LILEs, and HFSEs [61,62,63]. The high Nb values can be caused by two type sources [44,45] (1) OIB source mantle (similarly enriched with OIB-like isotopic and trace element signatures) and (2) partial melting of metasomatized enriched mantle wedge (similar to Normal Mid Oceanic Ridge Basalt like isotopes and OIB-like trace elements). The origin of an enriched mantle source (the first type) may result from either the flow of asthenospheric mantle through slab windows [64] or from the mixing of enriched (plume-type) and depleted components inside the mantle wedge [60]. The Sukadana Basalt exhibits high Nb/U ratios (18–60.3) with indication OIB mantle source [65,66] and is also supported by isotope data (Figure 12).

5.5 Geodynamic significance

Based on the Sukadana Basalt geochemical data, the mechanism of Sukadana Basalt magma emergence to the Earth’s surface can be described in two stages as follows:

  1. The first stage (Figure 13(a)), the subduction of the Indo-Australian plate, underwent roll-back phase. This subduction roll-back has been occurring since the Middle Eocene to the Quaternary period [67,68]. Subduction creates extensional deformation and thinning of the crust in the back-arc region [69,70,71,72]. Additionally, the opening of the Sunda Strait due to the movement of the Sumatra Fault causes extra extensional deformation in the back-arc region during the Quaternary period. At the same time, this subduction induces mantle return flow and upwelling magma from the asthenosphere (poloidal flow) in the lower back-arc region. This flow carries magma from the upper mantle to the lower mantle. Subsequently, magma originating from the lower mantle (OIB-type; enriched in LREE) rises to the upper mantle. This process creates an upper mantle dominated by OIB-like magma. Meanwhile, the other magma remains characteristic of OPB or E-MORB due to less influence from the OIB magma. In this stage, the magma underwent decompression melting in the garnet-peridotite source and then rises to the Earth’s surface through normal faults, reacting to Tuff from Quaternary Lampung Formation before appearing to the surface. This causes the magma to have a slight ARC-like composition, indicated by Pb enrichment. The Lampung Formation is older than Sukadana Basalt. Normal faults are the most favorable structures for magma to emerge from the mantle to the Earth’s surface [73–79].

  2. The second stage (Figure 13(b)) is the ongoing subduction roll-back creating a wider accommodation space for OIB-type magma. During this stage, extensional deformation becomes more intense due to the opening of the Sunda Strait caused by the movement of the Sumatra Fault. Subduction roll-back results in the enrichment of LREE in magma, as indicated by increasing Nb content, while the intensive deformation reduces the contact time between the magma and continental crust indicated by decreasing Pb content. The process of decompression melting continues during this stage.

Figure 13 The simple illustration of the rolling back subduction on the southern of Sumatra during Quaternary period.
Figure 13

The simple illustration of the rolling back subduction on the southern of Sumatra during Quaternary period.

If we look at Figure 6, K (potassium) enrichment occurs in all samples. The enrichment of K in basaltic magma can be caused by various possibilities [80]. However, based on the geochemical data of Sukadana Basalt, which shows characteristics of OIB, and there is a direct correlation between Nb and K, we argue that the K enrichment originates from the melting of paleo subducted crustal or sedimentary materials (Th/Nb = 0.1–0.3; Ba/Th < 200).

Besides, based on geochemical data as used in this study, morphological characteristics on the earth’s surface do not indicate a very wide uplift. Typically, a mantle plume results in a significant uplift within a region with a diameter ranging from 1,000 to 2,000 km [81], which was not observed in the Sukadana Basalt area. Furthermore, the appearance of Sukadana Basalt in the continental plate is not associated with the mantle plume mechanism.

6 Conclusions

Based on our comprehensive study of petrology and whole-rock geochemistry for the Sukadana Basalt in East Lampung, Sumatra, the following main conclusions can be drawn:

  1. The Sukadana Basalt originates from an OIB-type magma source and consists of two distinct petrogenesis groups, namely Group A and Group B. Group A shows enrichment of Hf, Pb, K, and Sr and depletion of Nb, and group B shows enrichment of K, Sr, and depletion of Pb. The trace elements have characteristics of sub-alkaline basalt affinity within a within-plate setting, minimal influence from subduction, or insignificant crustal contamination.

  2. The Sukadana Basalt magmas resulted from partial melting of the upwelling asthenospheric mantle, induced by the retreat of the paleo India–Australia oceanic plate. Decompression melting of the ascending asthenospheric mantle peridotite occurred at depths <80 km within the garnet stability zone.

  3. The weakening of Sundaland’s continental lithosphere during the Middle Eocene to Quaternary period was caused by the heat and melt flux associated with the uprising asthenosphere. This process facilitated extensive back-arc extension within an intracontinental setting.

  4. The sub-alkaline basaltic melts were transported to shallow crustal depths through two stages of extensional fault development implicated to the insignificant crustal contamination. The formation or re-activation of these faults was triggered by the movement of the Sumatra fault during the Quaternary.

Acknowledgements

This study was financially supported by the Sumatra Institute of Technology as part of the doctoral degree scholarship scheme. We are grateful to Heinz-Günter Stosch for the material and kind discussion, Sukadana society, ITB staff, Google, USGS, QGIS developer, Intertek Indonesia, Lampung Province government, and geological and geophysical students for their kind assistance during the field observation. We also would like to express our appreciation to the journal editor and reviewers for their valuable and insightful feedback. The constructive comments have significantly contributed to the improvement of our manuscript.

  1. Funding information: This study was financially supported by Sumatra Institute of Technology as part of the doctoral degree scholarship scheme.

  2. Author contributions: LPS contributed to the analysis of the data and the conception of the manuscript and revised it. BS, AR, AR, and IGBES contributed to the review of data gathering and supervising the analysis. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest

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Received: 2023-05-22
Revised: 2023-09-01
Accepted: 2023-09-02
Published Online: 2023-11-15

© 2023 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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  141. Special Issue: Geoethics 2022 - Part II
  142. Loess and geotourism potential of the Braničevo District (NE Serbia): From overexploitation to paleoclimate interpretation
https://doi.org/10.1515/geo-2022-0544
Keywords for this article
Sumatra; Sukadana Basalt; Back arc; OIB; subduction; slab roll-back
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

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