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Lignin analysis of sediments from around 2,000 to 1,000 years ago (Jiulong River estuary, southeast China)

  • Fang-Fang Jin , Xue-Gang Chen , Pei Sun Loh EMAIL logo , Yuan-Ping Chang and Chin-Wen Yang
Published/Copyright: August 9, 2023
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Open Geosciences
From the journal Open Geosciences Volume 15 Issue 1

Abstract

In this work, a sediment core collected from the Jiulong River estuary in southeastern China was subjected to 14C dating of foraminifera, as well as lignin, total organic carbon, and stable carbon isotope (δ13C) analyses in order to determine the impacts of climate change and human activities on the sedimentary organic matter in this area from around 2,000 to 1,000 years ago. The ratios of lignin parameters syringyl/vanillyl and cinnamyl/vanillyl ranged from 1.60 to 8.63 and 0.11 to 0.45, respectively, and the lignin phenol vegetation index ranged from 25.14 to 1740.14, indicating the presence of non-woody angiosperms. The ratio of vanillic acid/vanillin ranged from 0.42 to 2.04, indicating medium to high degrees of oxidative degradation. The vertical distribution profile showed a similar historical sedimentary trend with locations at higher latitudes along the Zhejiang-Fujian Mud Area, with the lower abundance of total lignin from around 2400 to 2000 BP being attributed to the decreasing temperature during this period. However, all the lignin parameters showed higher values and greater fluctuations due to increasing temperatures after 2000 BP, and human activity has probably had the greatest impact in the most recent 1,000 years.

Keywords: lignin biomarkers; sediment; paleoclimate; human activities; Taiwan Strait

1 Introduction

Continental margins are where most organic matter is deposited and buried [1,2] and where it is affected by highly active biogeochemical processes [3]. The scientific community has been trying to better understand the biogeochemical cycling of sedimentary organic matter in continental margins using various biomarkers [4]. For example, an investigation of globally distributed marine and lake sediments showed that branched and isoprene-like tetraether (BIT) indices correlate with riverine inputs of terrestrial organic matter, suggesting that BIT could be used as a tracer for terrestrial organic carbon in sediments [5]. In another study, trace elements and low-oxygen-tolerant benthic faunal indices were used to reconstruct the recurring hypoxia phenomenon of the last 1,000 years in the Louisiana shelf [6]. A study of the membrane lipids of soil bacteria in Amazonian fan sediment cores found that the Amazon basin was influenced by significant changes in basin dynamics and sediment sources nearly 10,000 years ago [7]. Park et al. [8] investigated the isoprenoid branched glycerol dialkyl glycerol tetraethers (GDGTs) and grain size distribution of surface sediments in the western Arctic Ocean to understand their sources and transportation across the region. In another study, Lopes dos Santos and Vane [9] investigated biomarkers such as branched GDGTs, n-alkanes, BIT, and stable carbon isotopes (δ13C) in the Conwy estuary, UK, and found that the sediments were dominated by terrestrial inputs.

Earthquakes and typhoons frequently occur in the Taiwan Strait, and heavy rainfall and debris flow result in the delivery of large quantities of river material to the ocean [10]. The Zhe-Min Coastal Current (ZMCC) is an important current affecting the western part of the Strait, influenced by the East Asian monsoon [11,12]. In addition, the Taiwan Warm Current (TWC) transports particles from rivers in western Taiwan to the Taiwan Strait and influences the East China Sea (ECS) inland shelf muddy area south of 26°N [13]. Such transport from the Taiwan Strait contributes about one-third of the total sediment input into the ECS [14], thus affecting its circulation and nutrient balance [4]. The Jiulong River, located in south-eastern China, is the second largest river in Fujian Province and is one of the major runoffs originating from the mainland that flows directly into the Taiwan Strait [15]. The Jiulong’s estuary is one of the largest estuary systems in South China [16,17]. Its catchment area is 14,741 km², accounting for about 12% of the land in Fujian Province with an average annual runoff of 14.90 × 109 m³ [18]. River runoff and ocean currents interact in the estuary, resulting in the accumulation of sediment discharged from the Jiulong River [19,20].

Studies on the biogeochemistry of the surface sediments of the Changjiang Estuary, ECS shelf, and across the Zhejiang-Fujian Mud Area (ZFMA) have found that land-derived organic matter decreases from the Changjiang River estuary toward the ZFMA [21], high sedimentation rates occur in these coastal areas [22], and sediments are transported south along the inner shelf in winter and north in summer due to the ZMCC and TWC [23]. Farther south, in the western Taiwan Strait near the Chinese coast, it was found that the land-derived organic matter is buried in estuaries, and the marine matter is buried in upwelling regions; thus, the Taiwan Strait serves as an overall carbon sink [24]. Most paleo-environmental studies in the region have been carried out in the Changjiang estuary, ECS shelf and ZFMA at latitudes north of 28°N and covering time spans from within the last 100 [25,26,27], 130 to 160 [28,29], 800 [30], 2,000 [31], to 4,000 [32] years. A few studies on sediment cores located at lower latitudes of around 26°N covered time spans of 3,600 [33,34] and 1,640 [35] years BP and found the influence of regional and global climate factors in this region. A study between 24°N and 25°N found a decreased contribution from the Changjiang River since around 4,000 years BP due to the weakening of the ZMCC as a result of the decreasing East Asian winter monsoon during the late Holocene [36]. At 24.3°N, the current study represents the southernmost location that might be influenced by the ZMCC; thus, it aims to fill a gap in knowledge relating to the historical profile of sediment deposition off the Jiulong River estuary in the most southerly part of the ZFMA.

Lignin is a polymer in vascular plants containing phenolic structural units. Characterized by its high chemical stability and resistance to microbial degradation, it can be easily distinguished from other natural macromolecular compounds, such as cellulose, starch, and proteins. These characteristics make lignin a good geochemical tracer for identifying terrestrial plant-derived organic carbon sources [37,38]. In this study, 14C age, lignin, total organic carbon (TOC), and δ13C were used to construct a marine environmental record of the west coast of the Taiwan Strait near the Jiulong River estuary from 2,000 to 1,000 years ago. The objective of this study was to determine the impact of climate change and human activity on the carbon dynamics of this coastal area.

2 Methods

2.1 Sampling and sample pre-treatment

A sediment core (known as MK2) was collected under the Fate of Sediments Research Project, which was supported by the Ministry of Science and Technology in Taiwan. The 135 cm core was collected on 7 May 2015 during the Haiyan 3 Voyage to the west of the Taiwan Strait, at coordinates 24.3722°N, 118.3925°E (Figure 1). The sediment was collected using a gravity column sampler lined with a PVC tube measuring 60 mm in diameter. In the laboratory, the sediment core was sliced at intervals of 2 cm. The sediments were freeze-dried and ground into a homogeneous powder using a ceramic mortar and pestle. The dried sediments were stored in glass bottles at room temperature, awaiting further analysis.

Figure 1 Location of the core MK2. The upper left and right corners show the location of the study area (red rectangle). Abbreviations: ECS, East China Sea; SCS, South China Sea.
Figure 1

Location of the core MK2. The upper left and right corners show the location of the study area (red rectangle). Abbreviations: ECS, East China Sea; SCS, South China Sea.

2.2 Bulk elemental and stable carbon isotope determination

The sediment samples weighed approximately 1.0 g. Each was placed in a PVC centrifugal tube, and 10 mL of 1 M HCl was added to remove the carbonates. The HCl was removed the next day, and the samples were then freeze-dried for at least 1 day. The dry samples were weighed to 20 mg and packed into tin foil. TOC was determined using a Flash 2000 elemental analyzer (Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc., Bremen, Germany). The stable carbon isotopes were also determined and studied with the same analyzer coupled with a Delta V isotope ratio mass spectrometer (Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc., Bremen, Germany). A standard USGS40, with an isotopic value of δ13C = −26.39‰ and an analytical error of 0.2 per mil for 13C, was used as the reference material.

2.3 Radiocarbon dating

210Pb is a naturally occurring radionuclide with a half-life of 22.3 years, and the maximum age that can be measured using the 210Pb method is consequently the centennial scale. As there is often an excess of 210Pb in seafloor sediments, the vertical distribution of 210Pb in the sediment layer follows a decay law that allows 210Pb activities to be used to determine the sediment deposition rate and age [39,40]. The 210Pb activities were obtained by analyzing the freeze-dried sediment samples with a gamma counter without damaging or affecting the original specimens. The sediment age was calculated using the constant initial concentration model.

With a half-life of 5,730 years, 14C can calibrate effectively the sediment age over 20,000 years. The samples from the 19.5, 35.5, 79.5, and 101.5 cm core layers were prepared for analysis by converting the foraminiferal macrofossils to CO2 in sealed quartz tubes containing cupric oxide (CuO). The combusted CO2 was then purified and reduced to graphite using a sealed-tube zinc reduction method and submitted to an accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) facility using a 1.0-MV Tandetron Model 4110 BO-AMS. The calibration age was calculated using the CALIB 8.2 program, and the reservoir age was calculated as 400 years to remove the possible effect of the carbon reservoir of water masses.

2.4 Lignin analysis

Lignin was elucidated using the CuO oxidation method, following the work of Hedges and Ertel [41]. First, 0.3–0.5 g of the dry sediment sample was accurately weighed into a polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) vessel to which 1.0 g of CuO powder was added. About 10 mL of 8% w/v NaOH was poured into a test tube and bubbled with nitrogen to remove excess oxygen. The PTFE vessels and test tubes were placed in a sealed glove bag into which nitrogen was blown for approximately 5 min. Then, the NaOH solution was poured into the PTFE vessel and the vessel was tightly closed. The PTFE vessels were heated in a muffle furnace at 155°C for 3 h. Next, the contents of each vessel were transferred to a centrifuge tube and centrifuged at 2,000 rpm. This process was repeated three times. The solution was pooled and acidified to pH 1 using 6 M HCl. About 10 mL of anhydrous ethyl acetate was used for extraction purposes, and this was repeated three times. The extracts were combined and dried with anhydrous Na2SO4, filtered through filter paper, and 100 μg of internal standard ethyl vanillin was added to the supernatant. Rotary evaporation was performed until the solution was nearly dry, and the oxidation products were pipetted into vials. Subsequently, the ethyl acetate in the vial was removed by heat evaporation and nitrogen blowing down. The next step was derivatization with BSTFA/TMCS (10:1), followed by gas chromatography (GC) analysis using a GC-2010 Plus flame ionization detector (Shimadzu, Kyoto, Japan). The quantification of lignin phenols was based on an ethyl vanillin internal standard and a mixed standard containing known amounts of all lignin reaction products of interest to determine their response factors. Eleven lignin phenol oxidation products were quantified and used as molecular indicators for the source and diagenetic state of vascular plant tissues, namely vanillin, acetovanillone, vanillic acid, syringaldehyde, acetosyringone, syringic acid, p-cinnamic acid, ferulic acid, p-hydroxybenzaldehyde, p-hydroxyacetophenol, and p-hydroxybenzoic acid.

3 Results

3.1 Sediment ages

The 210Pb data show that sediments in the top 20 cm of the core have mostly continuous 210Pb activities and an average sedimentation rate of about 0.23 cm/year (Figure 2). The benthic foraminiferal 14C dating trend lines of 19.5, 35.5, 79.5, and 101.5 cm layers were calculated using the CALIB model, and the corresponding ages of the remaining depths were obtained (Figure 3). The results indicate that the sedimentation was continuous, at a rate of approximately 0.096 cm/year, and the total age represented by the MK2 core was 2,378 years, with a correlation coefficient R 2 = 0.996.

Figure 2 210Pb dating results show that the sedimentation rate was continuous with an average of about 0.23 cm per year for the upper 20 cm of the core.
Figure 2

210Pb dating results show that the sedimentation rate was continuous with an average of about 0.23 cm per year for the upper 20 cm of the core.

Figure 3 Results of 14C dating of the sediment slices in core MK2. The parts marked in red are the dating points for the samples from depths of 19.5, 35.5, 79.5, and 101.5 cm.
Figure 3

Results of 14C dating of the sediment slices in core MK2. The parts marked in red are the dating points for the samples from depths of 19.5, 35.5, 79.5, and 101.5 cm.

3.2 Bulk elemental composition and stable carbon isotope results

The bulk elemental composition and stable carbon isotope results from along the MK2 core are presented together with their depths and ages in Table 1 and Figure 4. Overall, TOC percentages ranged from 0.31 to 1.02%. The values were slightly higher between 2378 and 2118 BP (ranging from 0.60 to 0.81%), then decreased to their lowest from 2057 to 1956 BP (ranging from 0.36 to 0.52%), and rapidly increased to 1.02% in 1897 BP. The TOCs ranged between 0.44 and 0.72% from 1877 to 1450 BP and between 0.31 and 0.76% from 1425 to 1178 BP. There was a gradual increase in TOCs from 0.48 in 1130 to 0.94% in 992 BP.

Table 1

Analytical results of the bulk elemental composition, the stable-carbon isotope concentrations, and the various lignin parameters in the successive sediment slices of the core MK2

Depth (cm) Age (BP) Age (AD) TN (%) TC (%) TOC (%) δ13C (‰) S/V C/V (Ad/Al)v P/(V + S) Λ LPVI
1.5 972.1 977.9 0.1 1.25 0.88 −21.805
3.5 991.9 958.1 0.11 1.3 0.94 −21.808
5.5 1011.9 938.1 0.1 1.24 0.89 −21.733
7.5 1031.8 918.2 0.08 1.03 0.71 −21.859
9.5 1051.8 898.2 0.09 1.07 0.73 −21.757
11.5 1071.6 878.4 0.08 1.03 0.71 −21.809
13.5 1091.6 858.4 0.08 1.05 0.69 −21.997
15.5 1111.1 838.9 0.07 1.01 0.63 −22.253
17.5 1130.3 819.7 0.06 0.91 0.48 −21.933
19.5 1150.8 799.2 0.07 1.03 0.46 −21.948
21.5 1177.6 772.4 0.18 0.82 0.31 −22.095 8.2028 0.1993 1.8636 0.0384 1.22 184.36
23.5 1207.4 742.6 0.31 0.99 0.64 −22.077
25.5 1238 712 0.17 0.99 0.63 −21.865 3.2579 0.1488 0.7556 0.0507 0.69 55.13
27.5 1271.5 678.5 0.22 1.2 0.49 −21.898
29.5 1304.9 645.1 0.23 1.02 0.76 −21.692 3.9183 0.1111 0.9429 0.0588 1.33 98.79
31.5 1337.6 612.4 0.23 0.99 0.63 −21.771
33.5 1370.3 579.7 0.22 0.96 0.63 −21.92 8.6284 0.1662 1.2000 0.0471 1.08 235.82
35.5 1400.6 549.4 0.21 1.32 0.5 −22.103
37.5 1425.4 524.6 0.21 1.21 0.36 −22.093 15.4044 0.3535 2.0000 0.0450 2.87 1364.15
39.5 1450.2 499.8 0.22 0.97 0.62 −21.859
41.5 1469.7 480.3 0.21 0.94 0.63 −21.895 17.6525 0.4548 1.8816 0.0445 2.26 1684.68
43.5 1488.1 461.9 0.22 0.94 0.62 −21.875
45.5 1506.4 443.6 0.21 0.99 0.71 −21.974 5.0287 0.1802 0.5789 0.0563 0.81 101.53
47.5 1524.8 425.2 0.21 0.98 0.62 −21.845
49.5 1543.3 406.7 0.21 1.00 0.71 −21.835 17.2352 0.3492 1.8395 0.0427 2.63 1740.14
51.5 1561.8 388.2 0.22 1.01 0.67 −21.708
53.5 1579.8 370.2 0.21 1.05 0.72 −21.704 8.4353 0.2587 1.6053 0.0527 1.47 438.83
55.5 1597.8 352.2 0.21 0.97 0.64 −21.821
57.5 1616.8 333.2 0.22 0.99 0.64 −21.821 1.9438 0.1344 1.0541 0.0602 0.93 42.70
59.5 1635.6 314.4 0.21 0.97 0.65 −21.679
61.5 1654.1 295.9 0.22 0.98 0.59 −21.683 2.9959 0.1261 1.024 0.0580 1.33 105.30
63.5 1672.6 277.4 0.21 0.95 0.53 −21.791
65.5 1691.1 258.9 0.22 0.92 0.55 −22.073 3.8357 0.1643 0.4848 0.0513 1.24 109.26
67.5 1710.0 240.0 0.21 0.99 0.59 −21.780
69.5 1728.6 221.4 0.22 1.26 0.59 −21.818 3.8766 0.1727 0.5190 0.0459 1.09 107.97
71.5 1747.1 202.9 0.06 1.33 0.44 −21.871
73.5 1765.3 184.7 0.07 0.93 0.49 −21.777 5.9982 0.1627 1.5294 0.0353 1.85 217.29
75.5 1783.5 166.5 0.07 1.13 0.55 −21.964
77.5 1801.7 148.3 0.07 0.89 0.64 −21.788 7.7209 0.3067 0.9778 0.0419 1.11 228.69
79.5 1820.4 129.6 0.07 0.96 0.50 −21.908
81.5 1839.4 110.6 0.07 1.00 0.53 −22.072 4.8517 0.1862 0.9189 0.0513 0.73 67.17
83.5 1858.2 91.8 0.08 1.00 0.64 −22.288
85.5 1877.2 72.8 0.08 1.09 0.70 −22.075 6.0821 0.1718 1.7111 0.0978 0.96 148.22
87.5 1896.6 53.4 0.09 1.05 1.02 −23.678
89.5 1916.2 33.8 0.08 1.12 0.68 −22.102 4.7514 0.1387 2.0417 0.0714 0.43 75.68
91.5 1935.9 14.1 0.18 1.16 0.67 −22.009
93.5 1956.0 −6.0 0.32 1.18 0.41 −22.273 4.2083 0.1763 0.9783 0.0640 0.53 55.56
95.5 1976.3 −26.3 0.17 0.94 0.52 −22.418
97.5 1996.2 −46.2 0.22 0.94 0.38 −22.507 2.0106 0.2511 0.4423 0.0698 0.89 41.02
99.5 2016.2 −66.2 0.23 0.91 0.38 −22.506
101.5 2036.4 −86.4 0.21 0.81 0.38 −22.778 1.9912 0.2093 0.5676 0.0742 1.44 45.86
103.5 2056.8 −106.8 0.22 0.82 0.36 −22.682
105.5 2077.2 −127.2 0.22 0.80 0.39 −22.791 2.8941 0.2892 0.4177 0.0534 1.30 65.75
107.5 2097.7 −147.7 0.21 0.91 0.42 −22.936
109.5 2118.1 −168.1 0.22 1.07 0.62 −23.019 1.6048 0.1822 0.6024 0.0516 1.22 32.41
111.5 2138.1 −188.1 0.21 1.08 0.68 −23.091
113.5 2158.1 −208.1 0.22 0.96 0.60 −22.727 2.6037 0.2398 0.4828 0.0666 0.60 44.30
115.5 2178.1 −228.1 0.21 1.06 0.67 −22.930
117.5 2198.2 −248.2 0.22 1.14 0.75 −22.831 2.6646 0.1700 0.4500 0.0638 0.81 57.69
119.5 2217.7 −267.7 0.21 1.10 0.71 −22.959
121.5 2237.5 −287.5 0.22 1.16 0.78 −23.016 1.6256 0.1537 0.5101 0.0477 0.91 41.01
123.5 2257.8 −307.8 0.22 1.09 0.73 −23.132
125.5 2277.6 −327.6 0.21 1.04 0.69 −23.067 1.6948 0.1257 0.5714 0.0661 0.59 25.14
127.5 2297.6 −347.6 0.22 1.17 0.81 −22.845
129.5 2318.0 −368.0 0.21 1.03 0.69 −23.005
131.5 2338.0 −388.0 0.21 1.05 0.61 −22.936
133.5 2358.2 −408.2 0.21 1.22 0.62 −23.179
135.5 2378.4 −428.4 0.21 1.10 0.67 −23.175
Figure 4 TOC and δ13C values, and fluctuations of the various lignin parameters with Modelled Age (Cal. yr BP) for the successive sediment slices from the core MK2. δ18O values are from the study of Dykosi et al. [42].
Figure 4

TOC and δ13C values, and fluctuations of the various lignin parameters with Modelled Age (Cal. yr BP) for the successive sediment slices from the core MK2. δ18O values are from the study of Dykosi et al. [42].

Overall, the δ13C values along the MK2 core fall within a narrow range from −23.68 to −21.68‰. Except for a sharp decrease around 1897 BP to −23.68‰, the δ13C results show a steadily increasing trend from 2378 (−23.18‰) to 1710 BP (−21.78‰). The values were stable after 1800 BP and then increased slightly from −22.25 (1111 BP) to −21.81‰ (972 BP).

3.3 Lignin phenols

The variations in lignin parameters along the MK2 core are presented in Table 1 and Figure 4. There are no data for the top 20 cm of the sediment layer because the sample was insufficient for lignin analysis. The total lignin (Λ, mg/100 mg TOC) values along the length of the core varied considerably, ranging from 0.43 to 2.87. The highest Λ values occurred around 1425 BP (2.87) and 1543 BP (2.63). Before 1765 BP, the Λ values ranged from 0.43 to 1.44, subsequently increasing to a range from 0.81 to 2.87 after this point. Λ decreased from 2.87 in 1425 BP to 0.69 in 1238 BP. The syringyl/vanillyl (S/V) and cinnamyl/vanillyl (C/V) trends are similar to the Λ values. The S/V ratio was lower before 1580 BP (ranging from 1.60 to 7.72), higher from 1580 to 1425 BP (ranging from 5.03 to 17.65), and then decreased to 3.26 in 1238 BP. The C/V ratios were also lower from around 2278 to 1580 BP (ranging from 0.13 to 0.31), increased during the time span from 1580 to 1425 BP (ranging from 0.18 to 0.45), and then decreased from 0.35 in 1425 BP to 0.15 in 1238 BP.

The lignin phenol vegetation index (LPVI) was calculated as follows, in accordance with Tareq et al. [43]:

LPVI = S ( S + 1 ) V + 1 + 1 × C ( C + 1 ) V + 1 + 1 .

As an index, the LPVI values are 1 for gymnosperm wood, 12–19 for non-woody gymnosperm, 67–181 for angiosperm wood, and 378–1,090 for non-woody gymnosperm [43]. Overall, the LPVI showed a similar trend to the S/V and C/V ratios with lower values ranging from 25 to 229 from 2278 to 1580 BP, an increase to 102–1,740 between 1580 and 1425 BP, and then a decrease from 236 in 1370 BP to 55 in 1238 BP. The vanillic acid/vanillin, or (Ad/Al)v, values along the MK2 core varied between 0.42 and 2.04, with a mean value of 1.34. They were constant between 2278 and 1996 BP (ranging from 0.42 to 0.60), increased drastically to 2.04 in 1916 BP, subsequently decreased to 0.49 in 1691 BP, and increased to 1.88 in 1470 BP before decreasing again to 0.76 in 1238 BP.

4 Interpretation

4.1 Sedimentary dynamics

Along the MK2 core, the sedimentation rate of 0.23 cm/year for the top 20 cm, measured by the distribution of 210Pb activities, was slightly higher than the rate of 0.096 cm/year lower down, calculated from the 14C dating of benthic foraminifers. In comparison with the Yangtze River estuary, where the sedimentation ranged from 0.19 to 0.34 cm/year [26] and the ECS shelf break ranged from 0.26 to 0.31 cm/year [30], a slightly lower rate at MK2 could be due to its location south of Kinmen Island, which might be slightly blocking it from direct discharge from the Jiulong River and currents from the ZFMA. The ages calculated along the MK2 core ranged from 2378 to 972 BP, with the last 900 years not represented, probably as a result of sand mining.

4.2 Sources of sedimentary organic matter

Sources of sedimentary organic matter can be distinguished using δ13C values. Land plants that synthesize atmospheric CO2 into organic matter via the Calvin cycle (i.e., C3 plants) have an average δ13C value of −27‰, while plants that use the Hatch–Slack pathway (C4-dicarboxylic acid cycle or C4 cycle) (i.e. C4 plants) have an average of around −14‰. δ13C in marine algae is usually between −20 and −22‰ [44]. The δ13C values in the MK2 core ranged from −21.68 to −23.68‰, falling in the range of marine organic matter and similar to those found in the Zhe-Min coastal mud zone (−21.51 to −22.42‰) [45]; the ECS muddy area (−19.95 to −22.26‰) [46]; the ECS continental shelf (−21.0 to −22.8‰) [47]; the ECS itself (−21.7 ± 0.5‰) [30]; and its outer (−19.86 to −23.57‰) [22] and inner (−19.14 to −23.90‰) [22] shelf.

The lignin parameters, such as S/V and C/V ratios, are useful indicators of vegetation types because angiosperms produce S and V phenols, gymnosperms produce V phenols, and non-woody tissues produce C phenols upon CuO oxidation. Therefore, high C/V and S/V ratios imply non-woody and woody contributions, respectively. More specifically, C/V > 0.2 indicates non-woody tissues; C/V < 0.05 represents woody tissues; S/V > 0.4 indicates angiosperm tissues; and S/V ≈ 0 represents gymnosperm tissues [48]. Analysis of the MK2 core showed S/V ratios ranging from 1.60 to 8.63 (apart from some values greater than 10) and C/V ratios ranging from 0.11 to 0.45, indicating a predominance of non-woody angiosperms, which is illustrated by the S/V versus C/V compositional plot (Figure 5). The S/V ratios within the Jiulong River estuary were higher than those of nearby locations, such as the ECS (0.30–1.13) [45]; inner (0.71 ± 0.22) [15], and outer shelf sediments (0.95 ± 0.32) [49]; the An Dong Wetland (0.40–2.74) [50]; and the ECS shelf break (0.62 ± 0.22) [30]. The C/V ratios in this study were slightly higher in comparison with those of the ECS (0.03–0.33) [45]; the inner (0.15 ± 0.17) [15] and outer shelf sediments (0.16 ± 0.09) [49]; the An Dong Wetland (0.02–0.41) [50]; and the ECS shelf break (0.14 ± 0.07) [30].

Figure 5 Relationship between the S/V and C/V ratios for the various groups of plants for the successive sediment slices from the core MK2.
Figure 5

Relationship between the S/V and C/V ratios for the various groups of plants for the successive sediment slices from the core MK2.

During the transportation of plant debris along coastal areas, denser woody tissues have been found to settle near the shore, and less dense non-woody particles are transported farther offshore, resulting in increased C/V ratios in that area [51,52]. In this study, non-woody tissues were transported from the Yangtze River farther offshore toward MK2, resulting in higher C/V ratios in MK2 compared to the Yangtze River estuary and the ECS.

The (Ad/Al)v ratio is an important indicator for assessing the degree of oxidative degradation of lignin decomposition. Higher (Ad/Al)v values are indicative of more highly degraded lignin materials [53]. Generally, a lignin (Ad/Al)v in the range of ∼0.1–0.3 can be considered to indicate fresh plant tissues, while a value greater than 0.6 indicates highly degraded lignin materials [51,54]. The (Ad/Al)v values along the MK2 core ranged from 0.42 to 2.04, indicating medium to high degradation of lignin materials at this location. These (Ad/Al)v values were higher compared with those in the Zhe-Min mud area (0.03–0.70) [45]; a salt marsh in the southwest of Hangzhou Bay (0.2–0.4) [55]; the Yangtze River estuary (0.1–0.7) [56]; the inner shelf of the ECS (1.63 ± 0.88) [57]; and the ECS shelf break (0.56–2.13) [30]. The slightly higher (Ad/Al)v at MK2 could be due to increased lignin decomposition during its transportation farther offshore.

4.3 Vertical profile of the sedimentary organic matter

The three major dispersal systems in the Taiwan Strait are the TWC, transporting discharge from the Choshui River, and the seven rivers to its north toward the ECS; discharge from the other rivers in western Taiwan south of the Choshui, entrained by the Kuroshio Current and transported north; and the southward transport of discharge from the Changjiang and other Chinese rivers through the ZMCC [58]. Our sampling location was near the Chinese coast off the Jiulong River estuary and is most probably the southernmost area of the ZFMA; thus, it is likely to be affected by the transport of ZMCC from the Changjiang River. One of the most northerly sedimentary records in this area was taken at the mouth of Hangzhou Bay, and analysis found that the sedimentary grain size did not change much over 5,000 years and that sedimentary dynamics in the northern ECS were mainly affected by the winter monsoon [59]. A sediment core collected further south at approximately 28°N and spanning 4,000 years BP found increased TOC from 0.40 to 0.86% from 1800 to 750 BP and increased land-derived organic matter during this period due to greater contribution from the Changjiang River under strong East Asian summer monsoons and El Nino. There has been an increase in marine signals from 750 BP to the present day due to intensified vertical mixing driven by strong East Asian winter monsoons [32]. Farther south, a sediment core collected at around 26°N identified abrupt cooling events occurring at 8.2, 7.2, 6.2, 5.1, 4.2, 3.2, 2.3, and 1.2 ka BP [34]. Other studies of cores from the same latitude found an increased intensity of the East Asian summer monsoon, resulting in intensive coastal upwelling and Changjiang discharge during 3.6–2.7 ka BP [33] and that the area was affected by regional and global climate factors [35]. A sediment core collected near this study’s location found a decreased contribution from the Yangtze clays to the mud wedge at around 4000 BP, indicating a weakening of the ZMCC during the late Holocene [36].

The lower abundance and more constant total lignin and the S/V, C/V, and (Ad/Al)v values at MK2 from around 2400 to 2000 BP indicate the lower abundance and yet fresher land-derived organic matter, which could be due to the decreasing temperature trend from 2400 to 2000 BP in conjunction with the abrupt cooling event during 2300 BP. During this time span, the δ13C values show an increasing marine signal from 2378 to 1916 BP, and the TOC decreased from 2,378 to 1,956 BP, with a sharp decline from 2,118 to 2,097 BP. The decreasing TOC levels during this period could be in part due to the lower contribution to the TOC of land-derived organic matter. The overall gradual increase in temperature after 2000 BP toward the present could have resulted in higher TOC, Λ, S/V, C/V, and (Ad/Al)v after 2000 BP. The (Ad/Al)v values show increased fluctuations after 1897 BP, while such increased fluctuations were observed for Λ, S/V, and C/V from around 1600 to 1400 BP. The greater fluctuations in the lignin parameters after 2000 BP are in accordance with a study by Wu et al. [32] at 28°N, which found an increase in land-derived organic matter due to the increased contribution from the Changjiang River under strong East Asian summer monsoons and El Nino from 1800 to 750 BP.

Population growth and forest expansion since the late Tang Dynasty in China, nearly 1.3 ka BP, have led to extensive deforestation and silt accumulation [60]. A study of the ECS inland shelf also found that human activity has been intensifying for 1,500 years [61]. The impacts of human activity in our results were mainly manifested in the drastic increase of TOC from 1177 to 972 BP. The profile of the sediment core collected nearest to this study shows a gradual decrease in fine sediment but an increase in the sand fraction in this region from nearly 5,500 years BP [36]. Thus, the increase in TOC toward the present in this study, which is similar to findings at 26°N since 1,650 [35] and 3500 BP [33], indicates contributions from marine and anthropogenic sources. This study lacks TOC and δ13C data for the most recent 1,000 years, and lignin parameters since 1200 BP, but we presume the sedimentary profile in this region will be similar to findings at higher latitudes along the ZFMA that saw increased marine organic matter [27], increased human activity [30], and increased downstream erosion of the Changjiang estuary [25].

5 Conclusions

A comparison of records of lignin parameters from around 2000 to 1000 BP has revealed the impact of the East Asian monsoon on the sedimentary record in the study area. Based on these results, the main conclusions can be summarized as follows: (1) warm periods had a significant effect on lignin content, the vegetation parameters S/V and C/V, and the degradation measure (Ad/Al)v; (2) global climate effects, such as solar radiation and heavy precipitation, can also affect the biogeochemical time series of sedimentary organic matter; and (3) the lignin parameters in this study area were also influenced by a combination of depositional environment, terrestrial inputs, and human activity.

Acknowledgements

We wish to thank the crew members of the Haiyan No. 3 Voyage (OR3-1850) for collecting the sediment core.

  1. Author contributions: PSL, X-GC, and Y-PC designed the experiments and F-FJ and C-WY performed them. F-FJ prepared the manuscript with contributions from all co-authors.

  2. Conflict of interest: All authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.

  3. Data availability statement: All data in this manuscript is presented in Table 1.

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Received: 2023-04-02
Revised: 2023-06-26
Accepted: 2023-06-26
Published Online: 2023-08-09

© 2023 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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  67. Examining the evacuation routes of the sister village program by using the ant colony optimization algorithm
  68. Spatial objects classification using machine learning and spatial walk algorithm
  69. Study on the stabilization mechanism of aeolian sandy soil formation by adding a natural soft rock
  70. Bump feature detection of the road surface based on the Bi-LSTM
  71. The origin and evolution of the ore-forming fluids at the Manondo-Choma gold prospect, Kirk range, southern Malawi
  72. A retrieval model of surface geochemistry composition based on remotely sensed data
  73. Exploring the spatial dynamics of cultural facilities based on multi-source data: A case study of Nanjing’s art institutions
  74. Study of pore-throat structure characteristics and fluid mobility of Chang 7 tight sandstone reservoir in Jiyuan area, Ordos Basin
  75. Study of fracturing fluid re-discharge based on percolation experiments and sampling tests – An example of Fuling shale gas Jiangdong block, China
  76. Impacts of marine cloud brightening scheme on climatic extremes in the Tibetan Plateau
  77. Ecological protection on the West Coast of Taiwan Strait under economic zone construction: A case study of land use in Yueqing
  78. The time-dependent deformation and damage constitutive model of rock based on dynamic disturbance tests
  79. Evaluation of spatial form of rural ecological landscape and vulnerability of water ecological environment based on analytic hierarchy process
  80. Fingerprint of magma mixture in the leucogranites: Spectroscopic and petrochemical approach, Kalebalta-Central Anatolia, Türkiye
  81. Principles of self-calibration and visual effects for digital camera distortion
  82. UAV-based doline mapping in Brazilian karst: A cave heritage protection reconnaissance
  83. Evaluation and low carbon ecological urban–rural planning and construction based on energy planning mechanism
  84. Modified non-local means: A novel denoising approach to process gravity field data
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  86. Effect of time-variant NDVI on landside susceptibility: A case study in Quang Ngai province, Vietnam
  87. Regional tectonic uplift indicated by geomorphological parameters in the Bahe River Basin, central China
  88. Computer information technology-based green excavation of tunnels in complex strata and technical decision of deformation control
  89. Spatial evolution of coastal environmental enterprises: An exploration of driving factors in Jiangsu Province
  90. A comparative assessment and geospatial simulation of three hydrological models in urban basins
  91. Aquaculture industry under the blue transformation in Jiangsu, China: Structure evolution and spatial agglomeration
  92. Quantitative and qualitative interpretation of community partitions by map overlaying and calculating the distribution of related geographical features
  93. Numerical investigation of gravity-grouted soil-nail pullout capacity in sand
  94. Analysis of heavy pollution weather in Shenyang City and numerical simulation of main pollutants
  95. Road cut slope stability analysis for static and dynamic (pseudo-static analysis) loading conditions
  96. Forest biomass assessment combining field inventorying and remote sensing data
  97. Late Jurassic Haobugao granites from the southern Great Xing’an Range, NE China: Implications for postcollision extension of the Mongol–Okhotsk Ocean
  98. Petrogenesis of the Sukadana Basalt based on petrology and whole rock geochemistry, Lampung, Indonesia: Geodynamic significances
  99. Numerical study on the group wall effect of nodular diaphragm wall foundation in high-rise buildings
  100. Water resources utilization and tourism environment assessment based on water footprint
  101. Geochemical evaluation of the carbonaceous shale associated with the Permian Mikambeni Formation of the Tuli Basin for potential gas generation, South Africa
  102. Detection and characterization of lineaments using gravity data in the south-west Cameroon zone: Hydrogeological implications
  103. Study on spatial pattern of tourism landscape resources in county cities of Yangtze River Economic Belt
  104. The effect of weathering on drillability of dolomites
  105. Noise masking of near-surface scattering (heterogeneities) on subsurface seismic reflectivity
  106. Query optimization-oriented lateral expansion method of distributed geological borehole database
  107. Petrogenesis of the Morobe Granodiorite and their shoshonitic mafic microgranular enclaves in Maramuni arc, Papua New Guinea
  108. Environmental health risk assessment of urban water sources based on fuzzy set theory
  109. Spatial distribution of urban basic education resources in Shanghai: Accessibility and supply-demand matching evaluation
  110. Spatiotemporal changes in land use and residential satisfaction in the Huai River-Gaoyou Lake Rim area
  111. Walkaway vertical seismic profiling first-arrival traveltime tomography with velocity structure constraints
  112. Study on the evaluation system and risk factor traceability of receiving water body
  113. Predicting copper-polymetallic deposits in Kalatag using the weight of evidence model and novel data sources
  114. Temporal dynamics of green urban areas in Romania. A comparison between spatial and statistical data
  115. Passenger flow forecast of tourist attraction based on MACBL in LBS big data environment
  116. Varying particle size selectivity of soil erosion along a cultivated catena
  117. Relationship between annual soil erosion and surface runoff in Wadi Hanifa sub-basins
  118. Influence of nappe structure on the Carboniferous volcanic reservoir in the middle of the Hongche Fault Zone, Junggar Basin, China
  119. Dynamic analysis of MSE wall subjected to surface vibration loading
  120. Pre-collisional architecture of the European distal margin: Inferences from the high-pressure continental units of central Corsica (France)
  121. The interrelation of natural diversity with tourism in Kosovo
  122. Assessment of geosites as a basis for geotourism development: A case study of the Toplica District, Serbia
  123. IG-YOLOv5-based underwater biological recognition and detection for marine protection
  124. Monitoring drought dynamics using remote sensing-based combined drought index in Ergene Basin, Türkiye
  125. Review Articles
  126. The actual state of the geodetic and cartographic resources and legislation in Poland
  127. Evaluation studies of the new mining projects
  128. Comparison and significance of grain size parameters of the Menyuan loess calculated using different methods
  129. Scientometric analysis of flood forecasting for Asia region and discussion on machine learning methods
  130. Rainfall-induced transportation embankment failure: A review
  131. Rapid Communication
  132. Branch fault discovered in Tangshan fault zone on the Kaiping-Guye boundary, North China
  133. Technical Note
  134. Introducing an intelligent multi-level retrieval method for mineral resource potential evaluation result data
  135. Erratum
  136. Erratum to “Forest cover assessment using remote-sensing techniques in Crete Island, Greece”
  137. Addendum
  138. The relationship between heat flow and seismicity in global tectonically active zones
  139. Commentary
  140. Improved entropy weight methods and their comparisons in evaluating the high-quality development of Qinghai, China
  141. Special Issue: Geoethics 2022 - Part II
  142. Loess and geotourism potential of the Braničevo District (NE Serbia): From overexploitation to paleoclimate interpretation
https://doi.org/10.1515/geo-2022-0511
Keywords for this article
lignin biomarkers; sediment; paleoclimate; human activities; Taiwan Strait
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

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  66. Resistivity cutoff of low-resistivity and low-contrast pays in sandstone reservoirs from conventional well logs: A case of Paleogene Enping Formation in A-Oilfield, Pearl River Mouth Basin, South China Sea
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  72. A retrieval model of surface geochemistry composition based on remotely sensed data
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  74. Study of pore-throat structure characteristics and fluid mobility of Chang 7 tight sandstone reservoir in Jiyuan area, Ordos Basin
  75. Study of fracturing fluid re-discharge based on percolation experiments and sampling tests – An example of Fuling shale gas Jiangdong block, China
  76. Impacts of marine cloud brightening scheme on climatic extremes in the Tibetan Plateau
  77. Ecological protection on the West Coast of Taiwan Strait under economic zone construction: A case study of land use in Yueqing
  78. The time-dependent deformation and damage constitutive model of rock based on dynamic disturbance tests
  79. Evaluation of spatial form of rural ecological landscape and vulnerability of water ecological environment based on analytic hierarchy process
  80. Fingerprint of magma mixture in the leucogranites: Spectroscopic and petrochemical approach, Kalebalta-Central Anatolia, Türkiye
  81. Principles of self-calibration and visual effects for digital camera distortion
  82. UAV-based doline mapping in Brazilian karst: A cave heritage protection reconnaissance
  83. Evaluation and low carbon ecological urban–rural planning and construction based on energy planning mechanism
  84. Modified non-local means: A novel denoising approach to process gravity field data
  85. A novel travel route planning method based on an ant colony optimization algorithm
  86. Effect of time-variant NDVI on landside susceptibility: A case study in Quang Ngai province, Vietnam
  87. Regional tectonic uplift indicated by geomorphological parameters in the Bahe River Basin, central China
  88. Computer information technology-based green excavation of tunnels in complex strata and technical decision of deformation control
  89. Spatial evolution of coastal environmental enterprises: An exploration of driving factors in Jiangsu Province
  90. A comparative assessment and geospatial simulation of three hydrological models in urban basins
  91. Aquaculture industry under the blue transformation in Jiangsu, China: Structure evolution and spatial agglomeration
  92. Quantitative and qualitative interpretation of community partitions by map overlaying and calculating the distribution of related geographical features
  93. Numerical investigation of gravity-grouted soil-nail pullout capacity in sand
  94. Analysis of heavy pollution weather in Shenyang City and numerical simulation of main pollutants
  95. Road cut slope stability analysis for static and dynamic (pseudo-static analysis) loading conditions
  96. Forest biomass assessment combining field inventorying and remote sensing data
  97. Late Jurassic Haobugao granites from the southern Great Xing’an Range, NE China: Implications for postcollision extension of the Mongol–Okhotsk Ocean
  98. Petrogenesis of the Sukadana Basalt based on petrology and whole rock geochemistry, Lampung, Indonesia: Geodynamic significances
  99. Numerical study on the group wall effect of nodular diaphragm wall foundation in high-rise buildings
  100. Water resources utilization and tourism environment assessment based on water footprint
  101. Geochemical evaluation of the carbonaceous shale associated with the Permian Mikambeni Formation of the Tuli Basin for potential gas generation, South Africa
  102. Detection and characterization of lineaments using gravity data in the south-west Cameroon zone: Hydrogeological implications
  103. Study on spatial pattern of tourism landscape resources in county cities of Yangtze River Economic Belt
  104. The effect of weathering on drillability of dolomites
  105. Noise masking of near-surface scattering (heterogeneities) on subsurface seismic reflectivity
  106. Query optimization-oriented lateral expansion method of distributed geological borehole database
  107. Petrogenesis of the Morobe Granodiorite and their shoshonitic mafic microgranular enclaves in Maramuni arc, Papua New Guinea
  108. Environmental health risk assessment of urban water sources based on fuzzy set theory
  109. Spatial distribution of urban basic education resources in Shanghai: Accessibility and supply-demand matching evaluation
  110. Spatiotemporal changes in land use and residential satisfaction in the Huai River-Gaoyou Lake Rim area
  111. Walkaway vertical seismic profiling first-arrival traveltime tomography with velocity structure constraints
  112. Study on the evaluation system and risk factor traceability of receiving water body
  113. Predicting copper-polymetallic deposits in Kalatag using the weight of evidence model and novel data sources
  114. Temporal dynamics of green urban areas in Romania. A comparison between spatial and statistical data
  115. Passenger flow forecast of tourist attraction based on MACBL in LBS big data environment
  116. Varying particle size selectivity of soil erosion along a cultivated catena
  117. Relationship between annual soil erosion and surface runoff in Wadi Hanifa sub-basins
  118. Influence of nappe structure on the Carboniferous volcanic reservoir in the middle of the Hongche Fault Zone, Junggar Basin, China
  119. Dynamic analysis of MSE wall subjected to surface vibration loading
  120. Pre-collisional architecture of the European distal margin: Inferences from the high-pressure continental units of central Corsica (France)
  121. The interrelation of natural diversity with tourism in Kosovo
  122. Assessment of geosites as a basis for geotourism development: A case study of the Toplica District, Serbia
  123. IG-YOLOv5-based underwater biological recognition and detection for marine protection
  124. Monitoring drought dynamics using remote sensing-based combined drought index in Ergene Basin, Türkiye
  125. Review Articles
  126. The actual state of the geodetic and cartographic resources and legislation in Poland
  127. Evaluation studies of the new mining projects
  128. Comparison and significance of grain size parameters of the Menyuan loess calculated using different methods
  129. Scientometric analysis of flood forecasting for Asia region and discussion on machine learning methods
  130. Rainfall-induced transportation embankment failure: A review
  131. Rapid Communication
  132. Branch fault discovered in Tangshan fault zone on the Kaiping-Guye boundary, North China
  133. Technical Note
  134. Introducing an intelligent multi-level retrieval method for mineral resource potential evaluation result data
  135. Erratum
  136. Erratum to “Forest cover assessment using remote-sensing techniques in Crete Island, Greece”
  137. Addendum
  138. The relationship between heat flow and seismicity in global tectonically active zones
  139. Commentary
  140. Improved entropy weight methods and their comparisons in evaluating the high-quality development of Qinghai, China
  141. Special Issue: Geoethics 2022 - Part II
  142. Loess and geotourism potential of the Braničevo District (NE Serbia): From overexploitation to paleoclimate interpretation
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