Home Fingerprint of magma mixture in the leucogranites: Spectroscopic and petrochemical approach, Kalebalta-Central Anatolia, Türkiye
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Fingerprint of magma mixture in the leucogranites: Spectroscopic and petrochemical approach, Kalebalta-Central Anatolia, Türkiye

  • Bahattin Güllü EMAIL logo and Asuman Akşit
Published/Copyright: October 7, 2023
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Open Geosciences
From the journal Open Geosciences Volume 15 Issue 1

Abstract

Leucogranites of Kalebalta in Central Anatolia are composed of plagioclase, quartz, orthoclase, and biotite and contains mafic microgranular enclaves (MME) in sizes ranging from few cm to 70 cm. In the total alkali-silica diagram, they fall typically in the granite field and show a calc-alkaline nature in the alkalis-iron-magnesium diagram whereas enclaves are Medium K series calc-alkaline, which represents the transition from tholeiitic to calc-alkaline. Leucogranites which have A/CNK(mol%) > 1 are strong peraluminous and seen as the products of magma derived from a metasedimentary source. Signs of magma mixing expressing the mantle inputs are also observed in many bivariation diagrams. Zircon and apatite saturation temperatures calculated on the basis of whole rock chemistry are 744–829°C for leucogranites and 761–832°C for their enclaves. According to the Raman spectra, biotite and plagioclase minerals in leucogranites and their enclaves show similar Raman spectrums. The biotite minerals have Mg–O and/or Fe–O translational (transformation) bonds between 182 and 552 cm−1, Si–O–Si bending between 552 and 1,100 cm−1 and Si–O–Si vibrational bonds between 1,100 and 1,200 cm−1. The results of this study suggest that the leucogranites and enclaves are most probably derived from different magmas. In addition, according to geochemical and spectroscopic data, they may also have fractional crystallization, which is effective after the mixing process.

Keywords: leucogranites; mafic microgranular enclave; mantle inputs

1 Introduction

Leucogranites are light-colored granites that contain alkali feldspar, quartz, and lesser amounts of dark-colored minerals (chiefly biotite). They represent the magma products which are derived from low-grade partial melting of continental crust followed by crustal thickening due to continental collision [1]. Although leucogranites can be observed in various terrains throughout the world, they are characteristic rock types of orogenic belts [2,3,4,5]. The most significant and widely distributed leucogranite outcrops are located in the Himalayan orogenic belt [6,7,8,9,10,11,12]. Leucogranites are strongly peraluminous and are of I- and/or S-type granite character based on the geochemical composition [13]. While many of the I-type leucogranites (especially more felsic ones) show weak peraluminous tendencies, S-type leucogranites display dominant peraluminous tendencies. The S-type leucogranites have more Al than K, Ca, and Na contents, since they are derived from a meta-sedimentary source [14]. Even if peraluminous granites/leucogranites are recognized as igneous rocks, which are derived from the partial melting of metasedimentary rocks, experimental petrology studies reveal that they are also formed by partial melting of meta-igneous rocks [15,16]. Furthermore, leucogranites can be generated by fractional crystallization processes of mafic and metaluminous magmas [17,18].

A geochemical approach to the origin of leucogranites can be made by using the aluminum saturation index [19] or A/CNK ratios [20]. On the other hand, field observations of leucogranites could also provide evidence regarding their origin. For instance, the presence of xenolithic enclaves [21,22] in the host rock (mostly observed in the marginal zones) indicates an origin (S-type) derived from the partial melting of pure metasedimentary protoliths, while the mafic microgranular enclaves (MMEs) or magma segregation-type enclaves [23,24,25,26,27,28] in the host rock, which have been subject to intense continental crustal contamination, may indicate meta-igneous (I-type) origin or mantle contribution.

The main purpose of this manuscript is to present spectroscopic and geochemical approaches in order to enlighten the enclave–host rock interactions in the Kalebalta leucogranite in the Central Anatolia. Although previous studies have mentioned the mantle contribution to the formation of leucogranitic rocks [29], MMEs, which are clear evidence of mantle contribution, have not been evaluated in detail. For the first time, this manuscript deals with the enclave–host rock interaction and some information on their evolutions will be presented.

2 Geological setting and field characteristics

Turkey is located in the Alpine-Himalayan orogenetic belt and the first effective period of the Alpine orogenesis in Turkey is the Laramide orogeny which occurred between Upper Cretaceous and Eocene. This period is especially effective in Central Anatolia and Taurides. In this period, different continental blocks are formed by suture zones due to the closure of different branches of Neo-Tethyan ocean [30]. Kırşehir block is one of these blocks and it has a key position in understanding either the evolution of Neo-Tethys or the Central Anatolian Upper Cretaceous-Late Paleocene/Early Eocene magmatism.

The area between Ankara-Sivas-Ulukışla is identified as Central Anatolian Massive (CAM) [31], Central Anatolia Crystalline Complex (CACC) [32], and Central Anatolia Basement Units (CABU) [33] by different researchers. This area is bordered by İzmir-Ankara-Erzincan Suture zone in north, Tuzgölü Fault Zone in the west, and Ecemiş Fault Zone in the east. The rock lithologies of the Central Anatolia region consist of, from bottom to top, the Paleozoic aged metamorphic basement rocks, ophiolitic rocks, mafic and felsic intrusions, Neogene aged sedimentary units, and alluvium. The Paleozoic aged metamorphic rocks are tectonically overlain by the ophiolitic rocks. The ophiolitic rocks are generally represented by harzburgite, dunite, gabbro, diabase, and spilitic basalt. Additionally, these metamorphic and ophiolitic units are cut by felsic and mafic intrusions [32,33,34,35,36,37,38,39]. The mafic intrusions are represented by gabbros, while the felsic intrusions are represented by granites, monzonites, and syenites [40] (Figure 1a).

Figure 1 (a) Central Anatolia basement units (from refs [36,40]) and (b) geological map of the study area.
Figure 1

(a) Central Anatolia basement units (from refs [36,40]) and (b) geological map of the study area.

The studied area is located in the southern part of CABU and coeval mafic (gabbro) and felsic (granite-granodiorite) magmatic units are present [36]. In general, gabbros are located in topographically high level of the region and are in sinusoidal and/or gradual contact with granitic rocks.

Leucogranites are enclosed by gabbros in the north, cover units and gabbros in the east and granodiorites and microgranites in the west. The most common products of magmatic activity in the region are granitic rocks in composition (Figure 1b).

Felsic minerals are dominant in leucogranites and are observed as medium-coarse crystal sizes (Figure 2a and b). Lens-shaped pegmatite bodies (Figure 2c) are present in leucogranites, and tourmaline and garnet minerals can be observed in these lens-shaped bodies (Figure 2d). Biotite segregations can be seen in leucogranites (Figure 2e). MMEs [23,34] are characteristic (Figure 2f) in leucogranites. MMEs are observed as droplets/bubbles which are formed due to the viscosity differences of mafic magma which has been mixed with the felsic host rock. The MMEs are mostly in ellipsoidal shape and observed in the field as roundish/oval shapes. This morphological feature is the result of fundamental physical properties and magmatic movement capacity. While most of the enclaves formed near the places where the magma mingling event took place are observed as having irregular shaped and fine-grained edges; these special characteristics are not observed in the enclaves that have been found in far locations [41]. If the geometrical-morphological properties of the enclaves are taken into account, it can be said that these rocks are formed nearby the place where the heterogeneous mixing has occurred. In addition to enclaves that reflect the magma mingling processes in the region, syn-plutonic dike formations are also present and they reflect another process (Figure 2g). Syn-plutonic dikes are characterized by the filling of the early-stage fractures with mafic magma which shows Newtonian behavior that may occur within the body while the felsic magma is about to solidify. Following this process, they are again refilled with felsic magma according to the breaking of the dykes formed by the mobility of felsic magma [42].

Figure 2 (a) Field view of Kalebalta leucogranites, (b) general textural features of leucogranites, (c) pegmatite lenses in leucogranites, (d) garnet mineral within the pegmatites, (e) biotite segregations in leucogranites, (f) mafic micro granules within the pegmatites, (g) syn-plutonic dike formations in granitic rocks, (h) sinusoidal contact between granitoids and mafic products, (i) felsic enclave development in mafic products (Qz: Quartz, Kfs: K-feldspar, Bt: Biotite, Grt: garnet).
Figure 2

(a) Field view of Kalebalta leucogranites, (b) general textural features of leucogranites, (c) pegmatite lenses in leucogranites, (d) garnet mineral within the pegmatites, (e) biotite segregations in leucogranites, (f) mafic micro granules within the pegmatites, (g) syn-plutonic dike formations in granitic rocks, (h) sinusoidal contact between granitoids and mafic products, (i) felsic enclave development in mafic products (Qz: Quartz, Kfs: K-feldspar, Bt: Biotite, Grt: garnet).

Granites and mafic units are transitional and characterized by sinusoidal contact that reflects the coeval crystallization process (Figure 2h). Also, rare felsic enclaves [26,42] can be found in mafic units (Figure 2i). Fernandez [42] has indicated that the felsic enclaves are formed by the remobilization of mafic dikes in the crystallization process with felsic magma and the inclusion of felsic products as bubble shapes inside the mafic magma.

3 Methods

Within the scope of this study, unaltered, fresh samples which represent the rock types in the region have been collected. Thin sections of the samples are prepared in the Thin Section Laboratory of Ankara University Earth Sciences Application and Research Centre (YEBIM). X-Ray diffraction (XRD) analyses are conducted to determine dominant mineralogical phases. Samples are crushed and grinded to 20 μm size using a mortar with a Tungsten carbide ball. XRD analyses are performed with Inel Equinox device in the XRD Laboratory of YEBIM. The radius of curvature of the device with a Curved Position Sensitive X-ray Detector (CPS120) is 120 mm. The device has a slit size of 5 mm × 300 mm and the cross-section is projected to the sample at an angle of 6°. The projection area on the sample is 14.5 mm2 (5 mm × 2.9 mm) and the crystallite dimension on the sample surface is 100 nm [43]. The detection limit of the device which has Co (CoKα = 1.788970 Å) anode tube is between −5.354° and 116.445°.

Major and some trace element analyses of samples are conducted in the Geochemical Analysis Laboratory of Aksaray University Scientific and Technological Application and Research Center (ASUBTAM). Samples are crushed in a jaw crusher and they are grinded to 20 μm size in Tungsten carbide mortar for the analysis of main element oxide. Six grams powdered sample is homogenously mixed with 1 g Mikropulver Wachs C. The Wachs and sample mixture are pelletized by pressing with 13 kg/N pressure by a dye attachment. The pressed pellet is measured by PanAnalytical Axios Max Minerals device which has a wavelength dispersive X-ray fluorescence device. Rh anode X-ray source is existent with five crystals (LiF200, PE002, LiF220, Ge111, and PX1) device and X-ray generator has 4 kW power. Rare earth element (REE) analyses are conducted in ACME (Canada) Analytical Lab with an ICP-MS device. The calibration of the device for this analysis is provided by using SO-18 standards according to the USGS standards. The loss on ignition values of samples is calculated by keeping 2 g powders prepared for analysis in a heating furnace at 950°C for 12 h. The Confocal Raman Spectroscopy studies are conducted by Thermo DXR-Raman device. The device with electronic cooling CCD can read 50–3,500 cm−1 spectrums at once. In 455, 532, 633, and 780 nm fluorescence, correction warning lasers using a device 10-μm–5 mm measurement area can be selected for all warning lasers. The Raman spectroscopy whose working principle is discussed in detail by Long [44] is often used in geology for obtaining and interpreting microcrystalline minerals [45,46,47,48,49].

4 Petrochemical and spectroscopic character of leucogranites and their enclaves

4.1 Petrochemical properties

The leucogranites show holocrystalline hypidiomorphic granular texture. The primer mineral composition consist of quartz, orthoclase, plagioclase (An10–20, according to extinction angles), biotite, and ±muscovite (Figure 3a). Accessory minerals are allanite (orthite), zircon, apatite, titanite, and opaque minerals (Figure 3b, c). Allanites are hypidiomorphic and have a light to dark brown zoned structure. Zircons are observed as having a radioactive wave within biotite minerals. Apatite minerals in the rock are mostly in the form of acicular apatite. Titanites are hypidiomorphic and have fourth-order pastel interference colors.

Figure 3 (a) General microscopic view of leucogranites, (b) allanite and chloritized biotite in leucogranites, (c) zircon inclusion within the biotite, (d) general microscopic view of enclaves, (e) poikilitic K-feldspar, (f) lath-shaped plagioclases, (g) patch-shaped, (h) spongy cellular plagioclase, (i) anti-rapakivi texture occurrences within the leucogranites and their enclaves (Qz: quartz, Pl: plagioclase, Kfs: K-feldspar, Bt: biotite, Aln: allanite; Zrn: zircone; Amp: amphibole; Opq: opaque mineral).
Figure 3

(a) General microscopic view of leucogranites, (b) allanite and chloritized biotite in leucogranites, (c) zircon inclusion within the biotite, (d) general microscopic view of enclaves, (e) poikilitic K-feldspar, (f) lath-shaped plagioclases, (g) patch-shaped, (h) spongy cellular plagioclase, (i) anti-rapakivi texture occurrences within the leucogranites and their enclaves (Qz: quartz, Pl: plagioclase, Kfs: K-feldspar, Bt: biotite, Aln: allanite; Zrn: zircone; Amp: amphibole; Opq: opaque mineral).

Enclaves have fine-to-medium holocrystalline granular and porphyritic textures. Enclaves are mainly composed of plagioclase + biotite ± hornblende ± quartz (Figure 3d), chlorite, epidote, and opaque minerals. Sericitization and epidotization are common in enclaves.

In all leucogranites and MMEs, magma-mixing textural properties such as poiklitic K-feldspars (Figure 3e), lath-shaped small plagioclase formations in large plagioclases (Figure 3f), patch-shaped plagioclase formations (Figure 3g), spongy cellular plagioclase formations (Figure 3h), and anti-rapakivi texture (Figure 3i) are present.

According to Hibbard [24], the formation of poiklitic K-feldspar and prismatic-lath-shaped plagioclases in these mixture textures is the result of molten mixtures of felsic magma and more mafic magmas; however, patch-shaped plagioclases are formed by the surrounding sodic plagioclases crystallized in the felsic system by calcium-rich plagioclases in an equilibrium hybrid system [50].

The geochemical compositions of the leucogranite and enclave samples are presented in Table 1. SiO2 contents are between 65.4 and 74.74% in leucogranites, and 51.67–67.8% in MME. The loss on ignition (LOI) values of the analyzed samples range from 0.26–0.76 (avg. 0.53) in host rock and 0.55–4.14 (avg. 1.64) in enclaves. The LOI variation observed in a wide range in the enclaves is due to the composition and mafic mineral (mostly amphibole) content of the enclaves. Since the mafic mineral content decreases in granite and granodiorite enclaves, LOI values are below expectations.

Table 1

Whole rock geochemical analysis results of leucogranites and their enclaves

L E U C O G R A N I T E
Element Dimension KB_30 KB_44 KB_68 KB_84 KB_37 KB_73 KB_32 KB_39 KB_40 KB_42 KB_45 KB_5 KB_50 KB_56 KB_59 KB_62 KB_63 KB_65 KB_69 KB_74 KB_79 KB_82 KB_83 KB_86 KB_87
Na2O % 3.37 3.54 3.12 3.63 3.67 3.17 3.47 3.35 3.49 3.17 3.73 2.42 3.65 3.99 3.33 3.06 3.82 2.67 3.48 3.08 3.21 3.25 3.53 3.04 3.89
MgO % 0.45 0.13 0.64 0.10 0.31 0.76 0.52 0.53 0.17 0.58 0.10 1.28 0.11 0.07 0.61 0.13 0.10 1.68 0.34 0.50 0.40 1.13 0.16 0.22 0.11
Al2O3 % 14.64 14.57 14.73 14.56 14.03 14.28 15.33 14.58 14.36 15.58 15.48 14.95 14.51 14.69 15.64 13.80 14.42 15.60 13.75 14.81 14.08 14.94 14.83 14.29 14.92
SiO2 % 70.78 72.32 70.00 74.10 74.26 67.88 69.50 70.04 72.23 70.66 71.24 65.40 74.40 72.22 66.59 71.78 74.54 65.52 74.74 69.75 72.68 68.53 71.95 69.61 71.54
P2O5 % 0.04 0.03 0.05 0.03 0.03 0.07 0.04 0.05 0.02 0.04 0.03 0.11 0.02 0.04 0.08 0.05 0.03 0.11 0.03 0.04 0.06 0.07 0.03 0.03 0.17
K2O % 5.42 5.59 5.71 5.48 4.95 5.15 5.65 5.57 5.73 6.19 5.59 5.59 5.19 5.54 5.40 5.09 5.06 4.44 4.73 5.97 4.78 4.92 5.48 6.06 4.91
CaO % 1.14 0.58 1.10 0.49 0.66 1.32 1.25 0.97 0.62 1.01 0.57 2.01 0.40 0.44 1.62 0.60 0.51 2.88 0.79 0.79 1.42 1.63 0.57 0.63 0.77
MnO % 0.11 0.09 0.09 0.06 0.10 0.14 0.12 0.15 0.09 0.06 0.04 0.09 0.05 0.19 0.11 0.15 0.03 0.09 0.06 0.09 0.09 0.14 0.04 0.04 0.03
Fe2O3 % 1.78 1.04 1.87 0.80 1.19 2.75 1.83 2.06 0.81 1.47 0.82 3.91 0.85 0.78 2.49 1.19 0.90 5.09 1.37 1.48 1.76 2.83 0.86 1.10 0.95
Cr2O3 % 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.003 0.002 0.001 0.007 0.000 0.004 0.002 0.001 0.001 0.006 0.002 0.005 0.003 0.001 0.004 0.000 0.006 0.001 0.002 0.000
TiO2 % 0.14 0.08 0.18 0.05 0.09 0.24 0.16 0.18 0.07 0.12 0.07 0.33 0.05 0.05 0.21 0.08 0.06 0.43 0.10 0.16 0.14 0.27 0.07 0.10 0.08
Cl % 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.01
LOI 0.56 0.43 0.51 0.53 0.42 0.61 0.62 0.47 0.47 0.61 0.65 0.73 0.60 0.26 0.42 0.52 0.40 0.47 0.49 0.64 0.60 0.53 0.47 0.60 0.58
TOTAL 98.44 98.41 98.02 99.84 99.73 96.39 98.50 97.96 98.07 99.49 98.32 96.83 99.85 98.27 96.52 96.44 99.89 99.00 99.88 97.33 99.23 98.27 98.00 95.74 97.95
Sc ppm 9.5 9.6 11.4 9.8 5.1 15.0 6.8 10.0 16.6 11.6 10.1 10.5 9.7 11.5 4.9 7.3 8.1 10.2 15.7 8.4 8.9 12.3 15.4 11.4 9.6
Co ppm 7.4 2.9 7.0 7.3 6.0 7.3 2.0 3.4 6.1 6.2 4.7 9.3 7.4 5.3 4.1 4.9 10.3 17.0 13.5 3.6 7.9 8.7 6.0 2.9 1.3
Ni ppm 6.2 7.0 7.1 10.5 7.4 6.1 6.2 8.1 9.3 6.0 10.9 6.8 6.8 15.0 5.5 9.6 6.9 6.1 6.2 6.8 5.0 5.6 10.0 8.5 7.7
Cu ppm 3.2 1.2 0.6 1.0 3.2 3.9 1.9 1.5 1.5 0.8 1.5 1.2 0.4 0.7 3.1 3.8 1.8 3.5 1.0 2.9 0.6 0.9 6.4 0.3 2.1
Zn ppm 26.6 22.7 25.7 17.4 20.4 38.7 26.8 33.6 15.5 19.7 15.7 48.4 20.9 8.4 29.2 10.2 13.8 51.7 19.9 23.7 29.8 46.9 18.2 8.2 13.8
Ga ppm 11.2 12.1 11.1 12.8 11.9 11.7 18.7 17.6 17.9 17.6 19.0 18.5 17.9 18.3 18.5 18.2 18.4 19.4 18.2 18.4 17.2 17.8 17.5 18.1 18.4
Ge ppm 1.9 1.8 1.3 0.5 1.5 0.9 2.1 1.6 0.6 0.9 1.6 1.8 0.8 2.0 1.3 1.1 0.7 0.3 0.7 0.5 1.4 0.4 1.5 1.4 1.7
As ppm 6.8 13.7 5.7 11.4 7.7 5.6 7.0 7.5 10.6 5.5 13.2 4.5 12.7 15.8 5.3 8.6 12.9 2.6 6.5 7.3 5.7 5.1 9.5 8.6 9.9
Rb ppm 343.1 409.6 326.7 476.5 399.6 305.3 364.2 393.2 463.3 315.6 448.5 220.5 640.9 844.6 310.7 356.3 478.4 178.6 321.8 393.4 287.5 279.6 481.7 407.2 402.1
Sr ppm 59.1 6.3 57.1 7.5 28.1 74.8 75.1 52.2 0.3 99.5 3.2 148.5 27.4 69.1 110.1 9.9 17.5 167.3 34.8 40.2 111.8 121.9 7.2 12.1 3.0
Y ppm 30.4 35.8 26.9 49.7 53.6 30.6 28.0 33.1 33.9 14.2 28.6 21.1 33.8 89.7 28.9 72.7 51.6 19.7 41.6 26.5 26.2 18.9 35.1 33.0 27.7
Zr ppm 71.7 85.4 89.9 65.2 75.4 93.4 79.7 86.3 70.8 67.3 65.6 111.8 100.2 147.6 92.1 84.4 109.3 130.5 82.0 83.5 101.7 103.3 82.8 70.1 50.9
Nb ppm 13.4 26.4 14.9 25.7 38.7 15.5 16.8 24.5 28.4 10.2 29.7 10.6 47.1 36.3 16.8 27.5 54.7 12.5 24.0 16.7 21.0 14.4 25.3 22.4 17.4
Sb ppm — — 1.3 0.1 — 0.1 0.4 — 0.5 0.9 — 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.4 0.0 — — 0.4 — 0.1 0.2 — 0.4 0.0
Ba ppm 284.0 5.0 288.0 12.0 101.0 372.0 349.0 282.6 10.4 611.2 19.2 614.7 3.0 29.1 549.9 4.3 7.0 491.2 133.5 152.3 567.3 576.9 3.9 0.3 1.9
Hf ppm 2.6 3.9 3.2 3.8 3.1 3.2 7.1 6.8 7.7 6.5 7.9 7.3 6.7 7.1 7.4 7.0 7.0 6.3 7.3 7.4 8.1 5.8 6.8 8.4 7.1
Pb ppm 74.5 122.0 50.2 44.9 73.9 38.1 80.6 70.0 67.8 37.4 112.9 55.3 86.1 142.9 48.0 65.7 86.9 0.7 38.7 40.8 54.1 21.7 85.8 73.4 92.1
Th ppm 21.7 37.4 30.1 29.6 29.2 25.4 25.9 52.2 41.1 35.5 51.6 24.8 57.7 71.9 31.2 58.0 55.7 8.2 47.2 42.3 29.5 31.4 51.7 41.3 51.2
U ppm 8.1 4.6 10.9 5.5 12.6 8.9 13.4 15.8 18.9 12.4 18.6 7.5 27.4 36.7 11.8 14.7 20.0 5.1 12.8 15.7 10.8 10.3 20.4 16.0 16.7
Cs ppm 9.9 19.6 7.9 15.5 7.9 7.9 — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — —
Ta ppm 1.9 4.6 1.9 7.6 5.3 2.5 — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — —
La ppm 17.0 15.8 20.3 13.9 18.0 19.3 — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — —
Ce ppm 31.2 33.9 37.8 30.4 34.3 36.0 — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — —
Pr ppm 3.2 3.9 3.9 3.8 3.7 3.8 — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — —
Nd ppm 12.0 13.8 13.1 13.8 13.5 13.3 29.6 22.4 5.1 25.3 16.0 22.6 13.2 8.3 36.0 19.0 10.7 29.0 10.1 37.7 26.2 44.0 19.6 8.0 25.2
Sm ppm 2.4 3.6 2.9 4.4 4.0 3.4 5.1 4.2 1.5 3.1 3.4 2.5 3.3 2.1 5.8 4.2 3.7 4.4 2.9 7.7 3.4 8.5 4.1 2.3 6.5
Eu ppm 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.3 — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — —
Gd ppm 3.1 4.1 2.9 5.1 5.3 3.9 5.8 4.7 2.7 4.1 3.6 5.2 3.3 3.7 5.8 5.5 2.4 5.1 2.7 6.7 5.4 3.9 4.6 2.9 4.6
Tb ppm 0.6 0.8 0.6 1.0 1.1 0.7 — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — —
Dy ppm 4.0 5.3 3.4 7.1 8.2 4.7 — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — —
Ho ppm 0.9 1.2 0.8 1.5 1.8 1.0 — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — —
Er ppm 3.0 3.8 2.7 4.8 5.5 3.2 — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — —
Tm ppm 0.5 0.6 0.4 0.8 0.9 0.5 — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — —
Yb ppm 3.3 4.5 2.9 5.9 6.0 3.4 — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — —
Lu ppm 0.5 0.7 0.5 0.9 0.9 0.6 — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — —
L E U C O G R A N I T E E N C L A V E
Element Dimension KB_88 KB_89 KB_90 KB-3 KB-60 KB-75 KB-85 KB_38_a KB_81_a KB_46_a KB_48_a KB_49_a KB_66_a KB_67_a KB_71/2_a KB_72/2_a KB_76/2_a KB_77_a KB_78_a KB_80_a KB_70_a KB_16_a KB_28/2_a KB_14/2_a KB_17/2_a
Na2O % 3.12 3.13 3.35 3.30 2.72 2.99 3.45 4.59 3.82 5.06 3.85 3.45 3.58 3.11 3.44 3.50 3.50 1.98 2.52 3.58 6.74 3.08 2.98 2.83 2.62
MgO % 0.18 0.23 0.21 0.17 0.59 1.18 0.17 1.71 3.64 3.74 3.82 4.17 1.37 1.22 4.42 3.91 3.91 3.13 2.26 4.45 1.76 2.27 2.10 2.40 2.49
Al2O3 % 14.34 15.26 14.46 14.98 15.11 15.78 14.73 16.28 15.68 15.80 15.60 15.62 15.93 15.53 15.76 16.09 16.09 13.42 13.91 15.32 16.61 15.87 15.54 15.83 15.70
SiO2 % 74.18 70.47 73.83 71.03 66.61 67.13 71.79 65.01 52.56 57.91 54.42 51.67 67.80 66.40 53.16 53.33 53.33 61.76 66.18 54.35 65.27 60.06 61.63 59.18 59.07
P2O5 % 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.06 0.08 0.03 0.14 0.21 0.21 0.24 0.25 0.09 0.10 0.18 0.22 0.22 0.18 0.12 0.19 0.13 0.21 0.26 0.15 0.19
K2O % 5.83 6.13 5.64 5.78 6.14 5.39 5.83 2.59 1.03 1.17 1.57 1.40 3.54 5.02 1.60 1.71 1.71 5.59 5.92 1.41 0.93 2.57 2.53 2.86 2.75
CaO % 0.60 0.65 0.64 0.76 1.33 1.38 0.62 1.72 5.17 2.25 4.44 3.85 2.18 1.66 3.86 4.03 4.03 0.96 0.76 4.00 0.82 3.56 3.03 2.94 3.23
MnO % 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.09 0.16 0.02 0.43 0.49 0.50 0.75 0.77 0.23 0.18 0.70 0.63 0.63 0.43 0.33 0.90 0.26 0.20 0.16 0.20 0.17
Fe2O3 % 0.93 1.16 0.92 1.13 2.10 2.92 0.97 5.02 9.59 9.81 10.75 11.69 3.98 3.46 11.05 10.69 10.69 8.98 5.48 10.86 5.38 9.17 8.38 9.12 8.85
Cr2O3 % 0.001 0.001 0.000 0.001 0.005 0.004 0.003 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.001 0.002 0.002 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.001 0.002 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.001 0.002
TiO2 % 0.07 0.10 0.07 0.05 0.23 0.29 0.08 0.42 0.65 0.76 0.73 0.98 0.33 0.35 0.79 0.77 0.77 0.94 0.62 0.64 0.45 0.68 0.61 0.71 0.64
Cl % 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.06 0.04 0.05 0.06
LOI 0.46 0.66 0.48 0.70 0.46 0.76 0.35 1.09 4.14 1.66 1.88 2.46 0.55 0.75 2.94 2.89 2.89 0.86 1.03 2.47 1.16 1.33 1.11 1.06 0.96
TOTAL 99.76 97.83 99.66 97.96 95.48 98.07 98.05 99.01 98.19 98.89 98.08 96.74 99.61 97.79 98.42 98.08 98.08 98.26 99.16 98.19 99.52 99.04 98.36 97.33 96.76
Sc ppm 12.3 15.5 8.6 14.4 9.6 12.7 8.5 19.2 16.7 13.2 11.1 14.5 7.7 9.4 15.2 16.3 16.3 12.1 17.6 16.1 14.1 20.8 7.6 16.3 14.1
Co ppm 8.8 4.0 8.3 2.5 2.2 3.0 1.7 9.3 12.0 11.8 14.9 12.1 11.6 6.6 16.1 13.1 13.1 13.8 12.0 20.0 5.3 9.2 9.3 9.3 8.8
Ni ppm 6.5 6.4 6.8 7.2 6.2 6.1 8.5 6.2 8.3 6.8 4.3 6.0 8.3 4.7 8.2 6.3 6.3 7.4 5.5 13.2 6.7 5.6 4.7 3.9 1.4
Cu ppm 0.7 9.6 1.9 0.1 5.2 3.1 10.5 1.6 2.5 3.0 1.1 8.6 3.3 4.8 5.1 6.7 6.7 2.6 0.9 10.3 1.6 5.3 0.1 0.6 1.2
Zn ppm 8.0 17.1 10.6 15.2 26.7 42.6 9.1 92.2 120.1 136.2 131.9 183.3 77.7 56.2 158.7 139.6 139.6 131.0 96.8 159.1 119.0 93.0 96.0 106.2 88.2
Ga ppm 17.7 19.5 17.8 17.4 18.7 19.8 19.1 21.2 24.5 23.4 19.9 22.0 18.9 18.0 22.6 22.8 22.8 18.4 17.5 20.8 22.3 20.5 18.3 20.1 20.5
Ge ppm 0.1 1.7 0.8 1.4 1.1 0.9 1.4 1.1 1.1 1.0 0.6 1.2 0.8 1.0 1.1 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.9 1.3 0.9 0.4 0.3 1.5 0.8
As ppm 8.2 9.1 8.7 11.4 5.6 5.9 8.8 3.4 6.5 3.9 4.6 23.3 3.5 5.5 5.2 5.4 5.4 5.3 6.1 5.3 1.1 0.2 1.2 0.6 0.7
Rb ppm 374.6 375.2 374.6 318.1 235.3 324.0 401.3 325.5 225.9 220.0 245.6 279.8 312.4 316.3 344.7 321.7 321.7 441.1 418.2 279.5 144.2 199.7 173.9 160.3 151.5
Sr ppm 16.1 12.7 26.9 19.1 121.7 76.9 6.4 75.2 53.2 75.4 69.8 79.1 153.3 119.5 73.1 70.2 70.2 28.0 48.0 84.6 82.4 157.5 158.7 176.8 180.2
Y ppm 31.9 34.7 31.7 31.0 21.2 23.0 42.6 65.4 127.2 55.5 84.4 67.4 36.7 27.2 93.5 87.6 87.6 44.0 32.2 108.1 69.3 29.2 22.4 23.5 19.5
Zr ppm 70.1 63.7 67.7 71.3 111.5 121.4 84.7 108.2 169.1 157.8 94.6 102.0 146.5 163.0 94.1 115.8 115.8 206.1 134.2 59.0 98.8 193.8 167.8 156.1 119.6
Nb ppm 28.9 22.6 17.4 14.0 15.1 13.3 25.7 38.7 30.8 30.8 26.3 34.5 16.9 14.8 33.2 29.9 29.9 34.0 29.4 30.5 41.3 25.8 15.1 20.1 13.0
Sb ppm 0.9 0.1 0.0 0.8 0.6 0.1 0.9 0.0 — 0.1 — — — 0.7 — — — 0.4 0.8 — — 0.2 — 1.8 0.3
Ba ppm 71.7 0.2 60.9 47.9 927.5 360.5 35.1 148.0 80.0 57.9 126.1 80.5 681.5 821.0 134.2 98.0 98.0 387.7 409.9 210.8 2.0 186.0 305.0 296.1 251.0
Hf ppm 7.1 5.5 7.7 6.9 5.7 6.4 5.5 4.7 6.1 7.6 7.2 5.5 6.4 7.5 6.7 6.6 6.6 4.3 5.6 5.8 7.8 6.0 4.7 6.0 6.6
Pb ppm 30.0 87.7 58.0 94.5 43.3 44.2 79.4 32.6 51.9 33.2 23.3 179.7 20.1 40.7 — 30.4 30.4 26.6 40.2 49.7 11.0 — — 19.2 0.7
Th ppm 45.9 56.9 42.8 54.0 25.8 47.1 42.4 11.4 9.5 13.7 13.9 41.7 9.8 45.7 11.6 16.7 16.7 80.2 50.5 6.1 6.4 17.6 14.1 24.1 5.9
U ppm 15.1 15.4 14.8 12.6 8.0 12.9 15.8 16.0 9.9 7.0 8.1 10.4 10.6 12.5 12.6 12.1 12.1 18.3 16.9 8.9 3.5 4.0 7.4 5.1 4.1
Cs ppm — — — — — — — 16.4 12.3 — — — — — — — — — — — — 19.1 13.3 — —
Ta ppm — — — — — — — 8.2 4.9 — — — — — — — — — — — — 2.4 1.6 — —
La ppm — — — — — — — 7.3 8.7 — — — — — — — — — — — — 30.6 30.9 — —
Ce ppm — — — — — — — 14.9 17.8 — — — — — — — — — — — — 59.5 58.1 — —
Pr ppm — — — — — — — 1.8 2.4 — — — — — — — — — — — — 6.5 6.2 — —
Nd ppm 22.8 9.0 5.9 12.7 42.6 17.9 17.8 7.3 11.3 — 14.1 23.0 32.9 33.6 11.1 19.1 19.1 46.5 28.8 8.8 16.4 23.3 23.0 15.1 35.7
Sm ppm 4.9 1.9 2.6 3.6 6.0 3.4 4.2 3.1 5.1 — 3.4 4.4 4.7 5.4 3.0 5.4 5.4 9.5 6.0 1.4 3.5 5.3 4.6 3.7 8.0
Eu ppm — — — — — — — 0.2 0.3 — — — — — — — — — — — — 0.7 0.7 — —
Gd ppm 5.4 4.9 1.7 3.6 5.5 3.5 4.1 5.6 9.7 1.0 3.3 5.7 3.7 3.8 5.8 6.3 6.3 7.3 5.6 3.2 4.4 5.4 4.5 2.2 3.8
Tb ppm — — — — — — — 1.2 2.2 — — — — — — — — — — — — 0.9 0.7 — —
Dy ppm — — — — — — — 8.6 16.4 — — — — — — — — — — — — 5.0 4.2 — —
Ho ppm — — — — — — — 1.9 3.9 — — — — — — — — — — — — 1.0 0.8 — —
Er ppm — — — — — — — 6.4 12.2 — — — — — — — — — — — — 2.9 2.4 — —
Tm ppm — — — — — — — 1.0 1.9 — — — — — — — — — — — — 0.4 0.4 — —
Yb ppm — — — — — — — 7.6 12.9 — — — — — — — — — — — — 3.2 2.4 — —
Lu ppm — — — — — — — 1.2 2.1 — — — — — — — — — — — — 0.5 0.4 — —

In the total alkali (Na2O + K2O)-silica (SiO2) diagram [51], the host rocks plot on the granite-granodiorite area, whereas MMEs plot on granite, granodiorite, diorite, and gabbro-diorite area (Figure 4a).

Figure 4 (a) Distribution of magmatic rocks on geochemical classification diagram [51] and total alkaline vs silica diagram and (b) AFM diagram [52].
Figure 4

(a) Distribution of magmatic rocks on geochemical classification diagram [51] and total alkaline vs silica diagram and (b) AFM diagram [52].

It is observed that all host rocks and enclaves have sub-alkaline characteristics in the diagram suggested by Irvine and Baragar [52] to differentiate various magma products (Figure 4a). Host rocks have calc-alkaline characteristics while enclaves have medium to high calc-alkaline series (on the boundary of tholeiitic-calc-alkaline) characteristics in the alkalis-iron-magnesium (AFM) diagram suggested by Irvine and Baragar [52] for differentiating sub-alkaline rocks (Figure 4b).

On molar A/CNK vs molar A/NK classification diagram, host rocks and MMEs samples fall into peraluminous field. A different peraluminous orientation of Kalebalta enclaves is noticeable if we compare them with the enclaves in Bekrekdağ, Cefalıkdağ, Çelebi [53], Baranadağ [54], Ekecikdağ [29], Karacaali [55], Üçkapılı [56], and Ağaçören [34,35] (Figure 5a).

Figure 5 (a) Distribution of magmatic rocks on A/NK–A/CNK diagram [59], boundary of enclaves of Central Anatolia are according to refs [29,34,35,53,54,55,56], (b) Na2O vs K2O diagram [57], and (c) K2O vs SiO2 diagram [58].
Figure 5

(a) Distribution of magmatic rocks on A/NK–A/CNK diagram [59], boundary of enclaves of Central Anatolia are according to refs [29,34,35,53,54,55,56], (b) Na2O vs K2O diagram [57], and (c) K2O vs SiO2 diagram [58].

In the K2O–Na2O diagram [57], host rocks are in the K-dominant series while enclaves show the transitional trend in the Na series (Figure 5b). Similarly, in the K2O–SiO2 diagram [58], enclaves are plotted on middle-high K-calc-alkaline series against the apparent shoshonitic character of the host rock (Figure 5c).

All rock groups show chemical compositional variations without gaps in the major oxide bivariation diagrams. A linear regression was observed in TiO2, Fe2O3, CaO, MgO, P2O5, and partially in Al2O3 (Figure 6a–e and g) depending on the increase in SiO2 while a linear increase was observed in total alkaline oxides (Na2O + K2O) (Figure 6f) related to plagioclase, K-feldspar amphibole, biotite, Fe–Ti oxide, and apatite weathering, which is effective on the rock formations in the study area. The strong correlation between main element oxides and SiO2 indicates the interaction of mafic and felsic phases (such as homogenous mixture) [60] and fractionation. In addition, the parabolic negative correlation in the SiO2–CaO/(CaO + Na2O) and –MgO/(MgO + Fe2O3) diagrams express the evolution of fractionation [61] which reflects the magma mixing processes (Figure 6h and i).

Figure 6 Harker diagrams of selected major and trace elements.
Figure 6

Harker diagrams of selected major and trace elements.

Sr, Zn, and Y apparently decrease during the crystallization process of magma in bivariation diagrams vs SiO2. Sr, Zn, and Y significantly decrease during the crystallization process of magma. This decrease can be expressed by plagioclase fraction for Sr, amphibole crystallization for Y, and forming of accessory minerals (such as allanite and titan) for Zn (Figure 6j–l). This may indicate that plagioclase, amphibole, and biotite differentiation are effective in the crystallization process of the pluton [62]. After reaching a certain concentration, Zr increases in the early stages of crystallization and is consumed by accessory minerals (Figure 6n). Th and Rb, which are positively correlated with the increase in SiO2, reflect the continental crust effect (Figure 6o and p). Increasing Nb during the crystallization process (Figure 6q) can represent the enrichment in the transition from the magmatic phase to the pegmatitic phase [63,64]. No significant change was observed in Hf concentration (Figure 6r).

Trace element distribution diagrams of leucogranites and enclaves normalized to ocean ridge granite (ORG) [65] show a great similarity to each other (Figure 7a and b). In granites and enclaves, there is enrichment in terms of K2O, Rb, and Th, and depletion by Zr, Hf, Sm, Y, and Yb elements. In the diagram, the consumption of enriched Rb, Th, and Ba may be related to crustal properties that generate some impurities during magma evolution [66]. Negative Zr and Ba anomalies represent accessory mineral and K-feldspar fractions, respectively. The non-depletion of Nb-Ta during the magma crystallization process may indicate a magma source reflecting the shoshonitic character [67].

Figure 7 ORG normalized spider diagrams of (a) leucogranites and (b) enclaves (ORG values from ref. [65]).
Figure 7

ORG normalized spider diagrams of (a) leucogranites and (b) enclaves (ORG values from ref. [65]).

4.2 Spectroscopic properties

4.2.1 XRD

The results of XRD analysis were evaluated with the Search&Match program. According to XRD analysis, biotite is the mafic component in leucogranites and biotite + actinolite in enclaves. Plagioclase minerals are in the composition of albite-oligoclase in leucogranites and in the composition of oligoclase-andesine in enclaves. Quartz and orthoclase minerals are the dominant felsic minerals in leucogranites and enclaves (Figure 8).

Figure 8 Whole rock XRD patterns and mineral contents of leucogranites and enclaves.
Figure 8

Whole rock XRD patterns and mineral contents of leucogranites and enclaves.

4.2.2 Confocal Raman spectroscopy (CRS)

The essential of Raman spectroscopy is a measurement of the ray which scattered because of beaming a strong laser source formed by near-infrared or infrared (visible region) that dropped onto any sample [33,68]. The differences that occurred in the wavelength of the scattered ray relative to the wavelength of the ray which interacted with the molecule are named Raman shift. The Raman shift values of minerals are fingerprints of them and are effectively used to differentiate minerals.

CRS analyses have been performed on plagioclase and biotite minerals to determine the spectroscopic effects of the fractional crystallization and/or magma mixing process. These minerals are selected because they are present in both rock groups and they show the most evidential reactions to the magma crystallization processes. The biotite minerals in leucogranites and enclaves show a similar Raman spectrum. In Raman shift interval of 182–552 cm−1, translational Mg–O and/or Fe–O bonds; in 552–1,100 cm−1, Si–O–Si bending; and in 1,100–1,200 cm−1, even weak Si–O–Si vibrational bond are present (Figure 9) [69,70].

Figure 9 Comparison of Raman spectra of biotite minerals in leucogranite and enclaves.
Figure 9

Comparison of Raman spectra of biotite minerals in leucogranite and enclaves.

Three main groups were detected where strong peaks are present in plagioclase minerals. The border relations/Raman shift changes of these main groups are identified by von Manfried and von Stengel [71]. This analysis is very important in the differentiation of tectosilicate group minerals. The Raman spectrums of feldspars are characteristic in an interval of 450–515 cm−1 (the strongest are in intervals of 505–515 cm−1) [72].

Freeman and Wang [72] differentiated the Raman spectrums of feldspar group minerals. The researchers indicate that Group 1 spikes are between 450 and 520 cm−1, Group II spikes are between 200 and 400 cm−1, Group III spikes are >200 cm−1, Group IV spikes are between 600 and 800 cm−1, and Group V spikes are between 900 and 1,200 cm−1. Here Group I spikes indicate T–O pulling and O–T–O deformation mode bonds, while Group II spikes indicate O–T–O deformation and T–O–T cage mode bonds, and Group III spikes indicate T–O–T and M–O cage mode bonds (Figure 10).

Figure 10 Comparison of Raman spectra of plagioclase minerals in leucogranite and enclaves.
Figure 10

Comparison of Raman spectra of plagioclase minerals in leucogranite and enclaves.

5 Discussion

5.1 Temperature estimation

Zircon ( T Zr sat ) and apatite ( T Ap sat ) saturation [73,74] temperature calculations are performed to determine crystallization temperatures of leucogranites and enclaves. The estimations of 456–482°C for leucogranites by geothermometric calculations [75], ( T Zr sat ) 644–734°C, and ( T Ap sat ) 769–856°C by zircon-apatite saturation temperature calculations [29] were done in previous studies. The lower temperatures estimated by Toksoy-Köksal [75] indicate re-crystallization at the late stage during slow cooling [29]. In this study, the zircon-apatite saturation temperatures were calculated as ( T Zr sat ) 724–788°C (avg. 744°C) and ( T Ap sat ) 782–879°C (avg. 829°C) for leucogranites. The values of 685–815°C (avg. 761°C) and 723–889°C (avg. 832°C) were achieved in zircon-apatite saturation temperature calculations for enclaves. Actually, these values are accepted as the temperatures of a Zr-saturated magma, which started to crystallize the zircon minerals [76]. For this reason, the significantly lower value calculated for leucogranites and enclaves may be due to the absence of zircon minerals in the early crystallization phase [77]. It can be said that during the interaction between the calculated temperature values and the enclaves and the leucogranite magma, the magma forming the enclaves is hotter and completes the crystallization process in the partially colder granite magma [78].

5.2 Origin of the leucogranites

Considering the rock type and age range, Kalebalta leucogranites are very similar to the other leucogranites within Central Anatolia (Table 2). Geodynamically, leucogranites in Central Anatolia generally developed during the closure of the Inner Tauride and İzmir-Ankara-Erzincan suture zones. Leucogranites, which are generally associated with different types of partial melting of the metasediments that form the base of central Anatolia, exhibit similar mineralogical composition and magma character. However, Kalebalta leucogranites differ from Danacıobası [79] and Sarıhacılı leucogranites [80] in their MME content. While Danacıobası and Sarıhacılı leucogranites exhibit an S-type character, Kalebalta leucogranites exhibit an S + I type character, indicating the interaction of different magma sources. Even though Kalebalta leucogranites are developed in different geodynamic environments, they are very similar to Langkazi (Himalayan) [81] leucogranites in their MME content. It is seen that crustal melting, as well as mantle contribution and magma mixtures, are effective in the formation of both leucogranites. Tourmaline leucogranites [82] in the Menderes massif reflect the traces of a partial melting process.

Table 2

Comparison of some leucogranites

Location Central Anatolia SW Anatolia Himalayan
Intrusive unit Kalebalta leucogranites (this study) Danacıobası biotite leucogranites [79] Sarıhacılı two-mica leucogranite [80] Menderes Massif leucogranites [82] Langkazi leucogranite [81]
Mineralogical composition Quartz Quartz Quartz Quartz Quartz plagioclase
Orthoclase Orthoclase Orthoclase Biotite Muscovite
Plagioclase Plagioclase Biotite ±Muscovite Biotite
Biotite Biotite ±Plagioclase ±Garnet Orthoclase
±Muscovite ±Muscovite ±Tourmaline ±Tourmaline
±Garnet Quartz Quartz plagioclase
Rocks type Granite/alkali feldspar granite Granite Alkali feldspar granite Granite/alkali feldspar granite Alkali feldspar granite
Enclave Includes MME Absent Absent Includes restite Includes MME
A/CNK >1.1 peraluminous >1.1 peraluminous >1.1 peraluminous >1.1 peraluminous >1 peraluminous
Magma character High-K calc-alkaline High-K calc-alkaline High-K calc-alkaline High-K calc-alkaline High-K calc-alkaline
Age *82.7 ± 1.0 Ma (Pb/U) 69.1 ± 1.42 Ma 71.5 ±1.45 Ma (K/Ar) 79.69 ± 0.55 Ma (Ar/Ar) Tertiary 11.6 ± 0.5 Ma (Pb/U)
Nature type S + I type S-type S-type S-type S + I type

*after [29].

Leucogranites show modal mineralogical and geochemical similarities compared to standard granites, thus they both could not be easily differentiated. However, 72–76% SiO2, 13–16% Al2O3, and 0.5–2.5% Fe2O3 + MgO content of leucogranites may be used to differentiate them from standard granites (Figure 11).

Figure 11 (a) Al2O3 vs SiO2 and (b) tFe2O3+MgO vs SiO2 diagrams [11] of Kalebalta leucogranites.
Figure 11

(a) Al2O3 vs SiO2 and (b) tFe2O3+MgO vs SiO2 diagrams [11] of Kalebalta leucogranites.

High SiO2 vs low MgO, CaO, and Fe2O3 concentrations, low CaO/Na2O ratio, and Al2O3/TiO2 ratios in Kalebalta leucogranite indicate that these rocks may be the magma products which are dominantly derived from a metasedimentary source (Figure 12a) [81]. According to Rb/Ba and Rb/Sr ratios, it can be seen that the metasedimentary source was rich in clay (Figure 12b).

Figure 12 (a) CaO/Na2O vs Al2O3/TiO2 ratio and (b) Rb/Ba versus Rb/Sr ratio diagrams [83] of leucogranites (SP: strongly peraluminous).
Figure 12

(a) CaO/Na2O vs Al2O3/TiO2 ratio and (b) Rb/Ba versus Rb/Sr ratio diagrams [83] of leucogranites (SP: strongly peraluminous).

5.3 Magma mixing and the nature of enclaves

In many previous studies, it has been stated that leucogranites contain two-mica minerals. Two-mica granites can be formed due to relation to the melting of muscovite in metapelites under high-pressure conditions in post-collisional systems [81]. The Rb, Sr, and Ba variations of these granites with strong peraluminous character could be used to interpret the pelitic or psammitic origin because these elements are found in all mica and feldspar [83,84]. Large ranges of Ba concentrations (3.9–927 ppm) and low Rb/Sr ratios (avg. 12.2 ppm) in Kalebalta leucogranites and enclaves may indicate that the magmas form leucogranite mix with mantle-derived melts rather than the melting of biotites in metapelitic rocks [81] (Figure 13a). In addition, leucogranites show a heterogenous trend in Th vs Th/V and 1/V vs Sm/V diagrams [85] controlling the proportional distributions of congruent and unconformable elements for granodioritic gneisses (Figure 13b and c).

Figure 13 Distribution of leucogranites and their enclaves on (a) Rb/Sr–Ba, (b) Th–Th/V, and (c) 1/V–Sm/V diagrams.
Figure 13

Distribution of leucogranites and their enclaves on (a) Rb/Sr–Ba, (b) Th–Th/V, and (c) 1/V–Sm/V diagrams.

Chondrite-normalized REE spider diagram of leucogranites shows a marginal differentiation compared to enclaves with their negative Eu anomaly and high light REE (LREE)/heavy REE (HREE) ratio [(LREE/HREE)avg-enc = 1.2, (LREE/HREE)avg-leuc = 4.9)] (Figure 14). This distribution, which has a typical wing-shaped model and is enriched with HREE, can be explained by pure fractional crystallization of K-feldspar and/or crystallization of auxiliary phases that do not deplete the HREE in the melt [86].

Figure 14 Chondrite-normalized REE diagrams of leucogranites and enclaves (Chondrite value from ref. [87]).
Figure 14

Chondrite-normalized REE diagrams of leucogranites and enclaves (Chondrite value from ref. [87]).

Leucogranites in the study area contain elliptical enclaves in limited areas. They are compositionally more mafic compared to the host rock units. These enclaves in felsic igneous rocks can be interpreted either as the origin rock (restite type enclaves) remaining from the partial melting process or as the remains of more mafic components (mafic microgranular type enclaves) added to the felsic magma chamber [88,89,90]. It is common to observe restite enclaves in peraluminous granites where partial melting processes are effective.

However, enclaves that exhibit typical magmatic rock characteristics with their microgranular texture and mineralogical composition are defined as MME with these features. (La/Yb) N values in enclaves and leucogranites vary between 0.41–0.68 and 1.68–4.05, respectively. This ratio, observed at low values in enclaves, reflects a melting regime dominated by relatively large melting fractions or the accompanying spinel-dominated residual phase [91,92]. The magma which has formed at the boundary of the upper mantle and lower continental crust would either interact with the continental crust or mix with magma derived from the continental crust in this melting regime. The traces of the homogeneous mixture in this mixing process would reflect the mixing textures and geochemical characteristics in the leucogranites. Depending on the relative rheological properties of magmas encountered in the same mixing process, mafic magmatic enclaves reflecting the heterogeneous mixture will also form.

6 Conclusion

Kalebalta leucogranites differ from other many leucogranites because they contain MME. Petrogenetic characteristics and all other data of the Kalebalta leucogranites and their enclaves reflect this.

  1. Geochemical discrimination diagrams reveal that leucogranites are derived from the partial melting of a clay-rich metasedimentary source.

  2. The ratio of K2O/P2O5 which is characterized in mantle-derived rocks ≤ 2 [93] is between 51.2–253.8 (avg. 147) for leucogranites, meanwhile 4.9–52.2 (avg. 19) for enclaves. This ratio which reaches very high values for leucogranites indicates that the magma which forms leucogranites should not be associated with the source mantle. However, this ratio which is observed as much lower values in enclaves indicates the presence of a more mafic mantle which forms the enclaves, subjected to intense continental crustal contamination.

  3. The enclaves in leucogranites are the indicator of heterogenous mixing of magmas which form the magmatic rocks in the region. However, interaction (magma mixing) between the main melt which forms leucogranites and more mafic melt which forms the enclaves is possible during the mixing process. The linear correlation between SiO2 vs main oxides are indicator of this mixing [94].

  4. CRS analyses have been performed on plagioclase and biotite minerals to determine the effects of fractional crystallization process. The change in intensity in biotite and plagioclase bonds indicates a magma evolution in which fractional crystallization is effective following the mixing process.

  5. In addition, similarities of the Chondrite-normalized REE spider diagram between leucogranites and enclaves point out that the magma source that forms leucogranites (derived from the metasedimentary source – upper crust like) and the magma source that is effective in the formation of enclaves (derived from upper mantle source – intensely crustal contaminated) interact intensively.

Acknowledgments

This study was supported by Aksaray University Research Project BAP-2016-001 number. The authors would like to thank Aksaray University and Ankara University, the Directory of Earth Science Applications and Research Center-YEBIM and its employees for their support of this study. We also thank the reviewers for their efforts to improve the article.

  1. Author contributions: As the corresponding author, B.G. conducted field and all analytic studies. He also formed the composition of the article by interpreting all the obtained data. Co-author A.A. contributed to the literature review, field studies, and the preparation of the samples for geochemical analysis. He also contributed to the petrographic description and the drawings of the diagrams. All authors have read this manuscript and agreed to publish in Open Geosciences.

  2. Conflict of interest: All authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.

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Received: 2023-08-24
Revised: 2023-09-14
Accepted: 2023-09-18
Published Online: 2023-10-07

© 2023 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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  30. Risk assessment of rain-induced debris flow in the lower reaches of Yajiang River based on GIS and CF coupling models
  31. Multifractal analysis of temporal and spatial characteristics of earthquakes in Eurasian seismic belt
  32. Surface deformation and damage of 2022 (M 6.8) Luding earthquake in China and its tectonic implications
  33. Differential analysis of landscape patterns of land cover products in tropical marine climate zones – A case study in Malaysia
  34. DEM-based analysis of tectonic geomorphologic characteristics and tectonic activity intensity of the Dabanghe River Basin in South China Karst
  35. Distribution, pollution levels, and health risk assessment of heavy metals in groundwater in the main pepper production area of China
  36. Study on soil quality effect of reconstructing by Pisha sandstone and sand soil
  37. Understanding the characteristics of loess strata and quaternary climate changes in Luochuan, Shaanxi Province, China, through core analysis
  38. Dynamic variation of groundwater level and its influencing factors in typical oasis irrigated areas in Northwest China
  39. Creating digital maps for geotechnical characteristics of soil based on GIS technology and remote sensing
  40. Changes in the course of constant loading consolidation in soil with modeled granulometric composition contaminated with petroleum substances
  41. Correlation between the deformation of mineral crystal structures and fault activity: A case study of the Yingxiu-Beichuan fault and the Milin fault
  42. Cognitive characteristics of the Qiang religious culture and its influencing factors in Southwest China
  43. Spatiotemporal variation characteristics analysis of infrastructure iron stock in China based on nighttime light data
  44. Interpretation of aeromagnetic and remote sensing data of Auchi and Idah sheets of the Benin-arm Anambra basin: Implication of mineral resources
  45. Building element recognition with MTL-AINet considering view perspectives
  46. Characteristics of the present crustal deformation in the Tibetan Plateau and its relationship with strong earthquakes
  47. Influence of fractures in tight sandstone oil reservoir on hydrocarbon accumulation: A case study of Yanchang Formation in southeastern Ordos Basin
  48. Nutrient assessment and land reclamation in the Loess hills and Gulch region in the context of gully control
  49. Handling imbalanced data in supervised machine learning for lithological mapping using remote sensing and airborne geophysical data
  50. Spatial variation of soil nutrients and evaluation of cultivated land quality based on field scale
  51. Lignin analysis of sediments from around 2,000 to 1,000 years ago (Jiulong River estuary, southeast China)
  52. Assessing OpenStreetMap roads fitness-for-use for disaster risk assessment in developing countries: The case of Burundi
  53. Transforming text into knowledge graph: Extracting and structuring information from spatial development plans
  54. A symmetrical exponential model of soil temperature in temperate steppe regions of China
  55. A landslide susceptibility assessment method based on auto-encoder improved deep belief network
  56. Numerical simulation analysis of ecological monitoring of small reservoir dam based on maximum entropy algorithm
  57. Morphometry of the cold-climate Bory Stobrawskie Dune Field (SW Poland): Evidence for multi-phase Lateglacial aeolian activity within the European Sand Belt
  58. Adopting a new approach for finding missing people using GIS techniques: A case study in Saudi Arabia’s desert area
  59. Geological earthquake simulations generated by kinematic heterogeneous energy-based method: Self-arrested ruptures and asperity criterion
  60. Semi-automated classification of layered rock slopes using digital elevation model and geological map
  61. Geochemical characteristics of arc fractionated I-type granitoids of eastern Tak Batholith, Thailand
  62. Lithology classification of igneous rocks using C-band and L-band dual-polarization SAR data
  63. Analysis of artificial intelligence approaches to predict the wall deflection induced by deep excavation
  64. Evaluation of the current in situ stress in the middle Permian Maokou Formation in the Longnüsi area of the central Sichuan Basin, China
  65. Utilizing microresistivity image logs to recognize conglomeratic channel architectural elements of Baikouquan Formation in slope of Mahu Sag
  66. Resistivity cutoff of low-resistivity and low-contrast pays in sandstone reservoirs from conventional well logs: A case of Paleogene Enping Formation in A-Oilfield, Pearl River Mouth Basin, South China Sea
  67. Examining the evacuation routes of the sister village program by using the ant colony optimization algorithm
  68. Spatial objects classification using machine learning and spatial walk algorithm
  69. Study on the stabilization mechanism of aeolian sandy soil formation by adding a natural soft rock
  70. Bump feature detection of the road surface based on the Bi-LSTM
  71. The origin and evolution of the ore-forming fluids at the Manondo-Choma gold prospect, Kirk range, southern Malawi
  72. A retrieval model of surface geochemistry composition based on remotely sensed data
  73. Exploring the spatial dynamics of cultural facilities based on multi-source data: A case study of Nanjing’s art institutions
  74. Study of pore-throat structure characteristics and fluid mobility of Chang 7 tight sandstone reservoir in Jiyuan area, Ordos Basin
  75. Study of fracturing fluid re-discharge based on percolation experiments and sampling tests – An example of Fuling shale gas Jiangdong block, China
  76. Impacts of marine cloud brightening scheme on climatic extremes in the Tibetan Plateau
  77. Ecological protection on the West Coast of Taiwan Strait under economic zone construction: A case study of land use in Yueqing
  78. The time-dependent deformation and damage constitutive model of rock based on dynamic disturbance tests
  79. Evaluation of spatial form of rural ecological landscape and vulnerability of water ecological environment based on analytic hierarchy process
  80. Fingerprint of magma mixture in the leucogranites: Spectroscopic and petrochemical approach, Kalebalta-Central Anatolia, Türkiye
  81. Principles of self-calibration and visual effects for digital camera distortion
  82. UAV-based doline mapping in Brazilian karst: A cave heritage protection reconnaissance
  83. Evaluation and low carbon ecological urban–rural planning and construction based on energy planning mechanism
  84. Modified non-local means: A novel denoising approach to process gravity field data
  85. A novel travel route planning method based on an ant colony optimization algorithm
  86. Effect of time-variant NDVI on landside susceptibility: A case study in Quang Ngai province, Vietnam
  87. Regional tectonic uplift indicated by geomorphological parameters in the Bahe River Basin, central China
  88. Computer information technology-based green excavation of tunnels in complex strata and technical decision of deformation control
  89. Spatial evolution of coastal environmental enterprises: An exploration of driving factors in Jiangsu Province
  90. A comparative assessment and geospatial simulation of three hydrological models in urban basins
  91. Aquaculture industry under the blue transformation in Jiangsu, China: Structure evolution and spatial agglomeration
  92. Quantitative and qualitative interpretation of community partitions by map overlaying and calculating the distribution of related geographical features
  93. Numerical investigation of gravity-grouted soil-nail pullout capacity in sand
  94. Analysis of heavy pollution weather in Shenyang City and numerical simulation of main pollutants
  95. Road cut slope stability analysis for static and dynamic (pseudo-static analysis) loading conditions
  96. Forest biomass assessment combining field inventorying and remote sensing data
  97. Late Jurassic Haobugao granites from the southern Great Xing’an Range, NE China: Implications for postcollision extension of the Mongol–Okhotsk Ocean
  98. Petrogenesis of the Sukadana Basalt based on petrology and whole rock geochemistry, Lampung, Indonesia: Geodynamic significances
  99. Numerical study on the group wall effect of nodular diaphragm wall foundation in high-rise buildings
  100. Water resources utilization and tourism environment assessment based on water footprint
  101. Geochemical evaluation of the carbonaceous shale associated with the Permian Mikambeni Formation of the Tuli Basin for potential gas generation, South Africa
  102. Detection and characterization of lineaments using gravity data in the south-west Cameroon zone: Hydrogeological implications
  103. Study on spatial pattern of tourism landscape resources in county cities of Yangtze River Economic Belt
  104. The effect of weathering on drillability of dolomites
  105. Noise masking of near-surface scattering (heterogeneities) on subsurface seismic reflectivity
  106. Query optimization-oriented lateral expansion method of distributed geological borehole database
  107. Petrogenesis of the Morobe Granodiorite and their shoshonitic mafic microgranular enclaves in Maramuni arc, Papua New Guinea
  108. Environmental health risk assessment of urban water sources based on fuzzy set theory
  109. Spatial distribution of urban basic education resources in Shanghai: Accessibility and supply-demand matching evaluation
  110. Spatiotemporal changes in land use and residential satisfaction in the Huai River-Gaoyou Lake Rim area
  111. Walkaway vertical seismic profiling first-arrival traveltime tomography with velocity structure constraints
  112. Study on the evaluation system and risk factor traceability of receiving water body
  113. Predicting copper-polymetallic deposits in Kalatag using the weight of evidence model and novel data sources
  114. Temporal dynamics of green urban areas in Romania. A comparison between spatial and statistical data
  115. Passenger flow forecast of tourist attraction based on MACBL in LBS big data environment
  116. Varying particle size selectivity of soil erosion along a cultivated catena
  117. Relationship between annual soil erosion and surface runoff in Wadi Hanifa sub-basins
  118. Influence of nappe structure on the Carboniferous volcanic reservoir in the middle of the Hongche Fault Zone, Junggar Basin, China
  119. Dynamic analysis of MSE wall subjected to surface vibration loading
  120. Pre-collisional architecture of the European distal margin: Inferences from the high-pressure continental units of central Corsica (France)
  121. The interrelation of natural diversity with tourism in Kosovo
  122. Assessment of geosites as a basis for geotourism development: A case study of the Toplica District, Serbia
  123. IG-YOLOv5-based underwater biological recognition and detection for marine protection
  124. Monitoring drought dynamics using remote sensing-based combined drought index in Ergene Basin, Türkiye
  125. Review Articles
  126. The actual state of the geodetic and cartographic resources and legislation in Poland
  127. Evaluation studies of the new mining projects
  128. Comparison and significance of grain size parameters of the Menyuan loess calculated using different methods
  129. Scientometric analysis of flood forecasting for Asia region and discussion on machine learning methods
  130. Rainfall-induced transportation embankment failure: A review
  131. Rapid Communication
  132. Branch fault discovered in Tangshan fault zone on the Kaiping-Guye boundary, North China
  133. Technical Note
  134. Introducing an intelligent multi-level retrieval method for mineral resource potential evaluation result data
  135. Erratum
  136. Erratum to “Forest cover assessment using remote-sensing techniques in Crete Island, Greece”
  137. Addendum
  138. The relationship between heat flow and seismicity in global tectonically active zones
  139. Commentary
  140. Improved entropy weight methods and their comparisons in evaluating the high-quality development of Qinghai, China
  141. Special Issue: Geoethics 2022 - Part II
  142. Loess and geotourism potential of the Braničevo District (NE Serbia): From overexploitation to paleoclimate interpretation
https://doi.org/10.1515/geo-2022-0548
Keywords for this article
leucogranites; mafic microgranular enclave; mantle inputs
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Regular Articles
  2. Diagenesis and evolution of deep tight reservoirs: A case study of the fourth member of Shahejie Formation (cg: 50.4-42 Ma) in Bozhong Sag
  3. Petrography and mineralogy of the Oligocene flysch in Ionian Zone, Albania: Implications for the evolution of sediment provenance and paleoenvironment
  4. Biostratigraphy of the Late Campanian–Maastrichtian of the Duwi Basin, Red Sea, Egypt
  5. Structural deformation and its implication for hydrocarbon accumulation in the Wuxia fault belt, northwestern Junggar basin, China
  6. Carbonate texture identification using multi-layer perceptron neural network
  7. Metallogenic model of the Hongqiling Cu–Ni sulfide intrusions, Central Asian Orogenic Belt: Insight from long-period magnetotellurics
  8. Assessments of recent Global Geopotential Models based on GPS/levelling and gravity data along coastal zones of Egypt
  9. Accuracy assessment and improvement of SRTM, ASTER, FABDEM, and MERIT DEMs by polynomial and optimization algorithm: A case study (Khuzestan Province, Iran)
  10. Uncertainty assessment of 3D geological models based on spatial diffusion and merging model
  11. Evaluation of dynamic behavior of varved clays from the Warsaw ice-dammed lake, Poland
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  14. Measuring spatiotemporal accessibility to healthcare with multimodal transport modes in the dynamic traffic environment
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  16. NSP variation on SWAT with high-resolution data: A case study
  17. Reconstruction of paleoglacial equilibrium-line altitudes during the Last Glacial Maximum in the Diancang Massif, Northwest Yunnan Province, China
  18. A prediction model for Xiangyang Neolithic sites based on a random forest algorithm
  19. Determining the long-term impact area of coastal thermal discharge based on a harmonic model of sea surface temperature
  20. Origin of block accumulations based on the near-surface geophysics
  21. Investigating the limestone quarries as geoheritage sites: Case of Mardin ancient quarry
  22. Population genetics and pedigree geography of Trionychia japonica in the four mountains of Henan Province and the Taihang Mountains
  23. Performance audit evaluation of marine development projects based on SPA and BP neural network model
  24. Study on the Early Cretaceous fluvial-desert sedimentary paleogeography in the Northwest of Ordos Basin
  25. Detecting window line using an improved stacked hourglass network based on new real-world building façade dataset
  26. Automated identification and mapping of geological folds in cross sections
  27. Silicate and carbonate mixed shelf formation and its controlling factors, a case study from the Cambrian Canglangpu formation in Sichuan basin, China
  28. Ground penetrating radar and magnetic gradient distribution approach for subsurface investigation of solution pipes in post-glacial settings
  29. Research on pore structures of fine-grained carbonate reservoirs and their influence on waterflood development
  30. Risk assessment of rain-induced debris flow in the lower reaches of Yajiang River based on GIS and CF coupling models
  31. Multifractal analysis of temporal and spatial characteristics of earthquakes in Eurasian seismic belt
  32. Surface deformation and damage of 2022 (M 6.8) Luding earthquake in China and its tectonic implications
  33. Differential analysis of landscape patterns of land cover products in tropical marine climate zones – A case study in Malaysia
  34. DEM-based analysis of tectonic geomorphologic characteristics and tectonic activity intensity of the Dabanghe River Basin in South China Karst
  35. Distribution, pollution levels, and health risk assessment of heavy metals in groundwater in the main pepper production area of China
  36. Study on soil quality effect of reconstructing by Pisha sandstone and sand soil
  37. Understanding the characteristics of loess strata and quaternary climate changes in Luochuan, Shaanxi Province, China, through core analysis
  38. Dynamic variation of groundwater level and its influencing factors in typical oasis irrigated areas in Northwest China
  39. Creating digital maps for geotechnical characteristics of soil based on GIS technology and remote sensing
  40. Changes in the course of constant loading consolidation in soil with modeled granulometric composition contaminated with petroleum substances
  41. Correlation between the deformation of mineral crystal structures and fault activity: A case study of the Yingxiu-Beichuan fault and the Milin fault
  42. Cognitive characteristics of the Qiang religious culture and its influencing factors in Southwest China
  43. Spatiotemporal variation characteristics analysis of infrastructure iron stock in China based on nighttime light data
  44. Interpretation of aeromagnetic and remote sensing data of Auchi and Idah sheets of the Benin-arm Anambra basin: Implication of mineral resources
  45. Building element recognition with MTL-AINet considering view perspectives
  46. Characteristics of the present crustal deformation in the Tibetan Plateau and its relationship with strong earthquakes
  47. Influence of fractures in tight sandstone oil reservoir on hydrocarbon accumulation: A case study of Yanchang Formation in southeastern Ordos Basin
  48. Nutrient assessment and land reclamation in the Loess hills and Gulch region in the context of gully control
  49. Handling imbalanced data in supervised machine learning for lithological mapping using remote sensing and airborne geophysical data
  50. Spatial variation of soil nutrients and evaluation of cultivated land quality based on field scale
  51. Lignin analysis of sediments from around 2,000 to 1,000 years ago (Jiulong River estuary, southeast China)
  52. Assessing OpenStreetMap roads fitness-for-use for disaster risk assessment in developing countries: The case of Burundi
  53. Transforming text into knowledge graph: Extracting and structuring information from spatial development plans
  54. A symmetrical exponential model of soil temperature in temperate steppe regions of China
  55. A landslide susceptibility assessment method based on auto-encoder improved deep belief network
  56. Numerical simulation analysis of ecological monitoring of small reservoir dam based on maximum entropy algorithm
  57. Morphometry of the cold-climate Bory Stobrawskie Dune Field (SW Poland): Evidence for multi-phase Lateglacial aeolian activity within the European Sand Belt
  58. Adopting a new approach for finding missing people using GIS techniques: A case study in Saudi Arabia’s desert area
  59. Geological earthquake simulations generated by kinematic heterogeneous energy-based method: Self-arrested ruptures and asperity criterion
  60. Semi-automated classification of layered rock slopes using digital elevation model and geological map
  61. Geochemical characteristics of arc fractionated I-type granitoids of eastern Tak Batholith, Thailand
  62. Lithology classification of igneous rocks using C-band and L-band dual-polarization SAR data
  63. Analysis of artificial intelligence approaches to predict the wall deflection induced by deep excavation
  64. Evaluation of the current in situ stress in the middle Permian Maokou Formation in the Longnüsi area of the central Sichuan Basin, China
  65. Utilizing microresistivity image logs to recognize conglomeratic channel architectural elements of Baikouquan Formation in slope of Mahu Sag
  66. Resistivity cutoff of low-resistivity and low-contrast pays in sandstone reservoirs from conventional well logs: A case of Paleogene Enping Formation in A-Oilfield, Pearl River Mouth Basin, South China Sea
  67. Examining the evacuation routes of the sister village program by using the ant colony optimization algorithm
  68. Spatial objects classification using machine learning and spatial walk algorithm
  69. Study on the stabilization mechanism of aeolian sandy soil formation by adding a natural soft rock
  70. Bump feature detection of the road surface based on the Bi-LSTM
  71. The origin and evolution of the ore-forming fluids at the Manondo-Choma gold prospect, Kirk range, southern Malawi
  72. A retrieval model of surface geochemistry composition based on remotely sensed data
  73. Exploring the spatial dynamics of cultural facilities based on multi-source data: A case study of Nanjing’s art institutions
  74. Study of pore-throat structure characteristics and fluid mobility of Chang 7 tight sandstone reservoir in Jiyuan area, Ordos Basin
  75. Study of fracturing fluid re-discharge based on percolation experiments and sampling tests – An example of Fuling shale gas Jiangdong block, China
  76. Impacts of marine cloud brightening scheme on climatic extremes in the Tibetan Plateau
  77. Ecological protection on the West Coast of Taiwan Strait under economic zone construction: A case study of land use in Yueqing
  78. The time-dependent deformation and damage constitutive model of rock based on dynamic disturbance tests
  79. Evaluation of spatial form of rural ecological landscape and vulnerability of water ecological environment based on analytic hierarchy process
  80. Fingerprint of magma mixture in the leucogranites: Spectroscopic and petrochemical approach, Kalebalta-Central Anatolia, Türkiye
  81. Principles of self-calibration and visual effects for digital camera distortion
  82. UAV-based doline mapping in Brazilian karst: A cave heritage protection reconnaissance
  83. Evaluation and low carbon ecological urban–rural planning and construction based on energy planning mechanism
  84. Modified non-local means: A novel denoising approach to process gravity field data
  85. A novel travel route planning method based on an ant colony optimization algorithm
  86. Effect of time-variant NDVI on landside susceptibility: A case study in Quang Ngai province, Vietnam
  87. Regional tectonic uplift indicated by geomorphological parameters in the Bahe River Basin, central China
  88. Computer information technology-based green excavation of tunnels in complex strata and technical decision of deformation control
  89. Spatial evolution of coastal environmental enterprises: An exploration of driving factors in Jiangsu Province
  90. A comparative assessment and geospatial simulation of three hydrological models in urban basins
  91. Aquaculture industry under the blue transformation in Jiangsu, China: Structure evolution and spatial agglomeration
  92. Quantitative and qualitative interpretation of community partitions by map overlaying and calculating the distribution of related geographical features
  93. Numerical investigation of gravity-grouted soil-nail pullout capacity in sand
  94. Analysis of heavy pollution weather in Shenyang City and numerical simulation of main pollutants
  95. Road cut slope stability analysis for static and dynamic (pseudo-static analysis) loading conditions
  96. Forest biomass assessment combining field inventorying and remote sensing data
  97. Late Jurassic Haobugao granites from the southern Great Xing’an Range, NE China: Implications for postcollision extension of the Mongol–Okhotsk Ocean
  98. Petrogenesis of the Sukadana Basalt based on petrology and whole rock geochemistry, Lampung, Indonesia: Geodynamic significances
  99. Numerical study on the group wall effect of nodular diaphragm wall foundation in high-rise buildings
  100. Water resources utilization and tourism environment assessment based on water footprint
  101. Geochemical evaluation of the carbonaceous shale associated with the Permian Mikambeni Formation of the Tuli Basin for potential gas generation, South Africa
  102. Detection and characterization of lineaments using gravity data in the south-west Cameroon zone: Hydrogeological implications
  103. Study on spatial pattern of tourism landscape resources in county cities of Yangtze River Economic Belt
  104. The effect of weathering on drillability of dolomites
  105. Noise masking of near-surface scattering (heterogeneities) on subsurface seismic reflectivity
  106. Query optimization-oriented lateral expansion method of distributed geological borehole database
  107. Petrogenesis of the Morobe Granodiorite and their shoshonitic mafic microgranular enclaves in Maramuni arc, Papua New Guinea
  108. Environmental health risk assessment of urban water sources based on fuzzy set theory
  109. Spatial distribution of urban basic education resources in Shanghai: Accessibility and supply-demand matching evaluation
  110. Spatiotemporal changes in land use and residential satisfaction in the Huai River-Gaoyou Lake Rim area
  111. Walkaway vertical seismic profiling first-arrival traveltime tomography with velocity structure constraints
  112. Study on the evaluation system and risk factor traceability of receiving water body
  113. Predicting copper-polymetallic deposits in Kalatag using the weight of evidence model and novel data sources
  114. Temporal dynamics of green urban areas in Romania. A comparison between spatial and statistical data
  115. Passenger flow forecast of tourist attraction based on MACBL in LBS big data environment
  116. Varying particle size selectivity of soil erosion along a cultivated catena
  117. Relationship between annual soil erosion and surface runoff in Wadi Hanifa sub-basins
  118. Influence of nappe structure on the Carboniferous volcanic reservoir in the middle of the Hongche Fault Zone, Junggar Basin, China
  119. Dynamic analysis of MSE wall subjected to surface vibration loading
  120. Pre-collisional architecture of the European distal margin: Inferences from the high-pressure continental units of central Corsica (France)
  121. The interrelation of natural diversity with tourism in Kosovo
  122. Assessment of geosites as a basis for geotourism development: A case study of the Toplica District, Serbia
  123. IG-YOLOv5-based underwater biological recognition and detection for marine protection
  124. Monitoring drought dynamics using remote sensing-based combined drought index in Ergene Basin, Türkiye
  125. Review Articles
  126. The actual state of the geodetic and cartographic resources and legislation in Poland
  127. Evaluation studies of the new mining projects
  128. Comparison and significance of grain size parameters of the Menyuan loess calculated using different methods
  129. Scientometric analysis of flood forecasting for Asia region and discussion on machine learning methods
  130. Rainfall-induced transportation embankment failure: A review
  131. Rapid Communication
  132. Branch fault discovered in Tangshan fault zone on the Kaiping-Guye boundary, North China
  133. Technical Note
  134. Introducing an intelligent multi-level retrieval method for mineral resource potential evaluation result data
  135. Erratum
  136. Erratum to “Forest cover assessment using remote-sensing techniques in Crete Island, Greece”
  137. Addendum
  138. The relationship between heat flow and seismicity in global tectonically active zones
  139. Commentary
  140. Improved entropy weight methods and their comparisons in evaluating the high-quality development of Qinghai, China
  141. Special Issue: Geoethics 2022 - Part II
  142. Loess and geotourism potential of the Braničevo District (NE Serbia): From overexploitation to paleoclimate interpretation
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