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Relationship between annual soil erosion and surface runoff in Wadi Hanifa sub-basins

  • Hassan Alzahrani EMAIL logo
Published/Copyright: December 26, 2023
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Open Geosciences
From the journal Open Geosciences Volume 15 Issue 1

Abstract

Soil erosion is the major environmental risk that causes topsoil loss, which decreases fertility in agricultural land. Spatial estimation of soil erosion is essential for conserving land resources and for developing control plans. This study evaluated soil erosion in 17 sub-basins of the Wadi Hanifa catchment using the Gavrilović model. The soil erosion rate is categorized into three classes based on the annual volume of rainfall and runoff. About 21% of the drainage area of Wadi Hanifa is affected by erosion severity, and 33% of the area is affected by severe erosion. The correlation obtained between the annual soil erosion and annual volumes of rainfall and runoff is significant. It is concluded from the results that the drainage area of the north-western part suffers from a high soil erosion risk. The NRCS-CN and erosion predict that the Gavrilović model can be applied for estimating and analyzing the spatial distribution of soil erosion over more drainage watersheds in Saudi Arabia. Now, the GIS techniques are one of the best tools for developing the conservation and management planning processes of soil resources.

Keywords: soil erosion; Gavrilović model; NRCS-CN method; sub-basins; Wadi Hanifa

1 Introduction

In the last few decades, several studies concluded that soil erosion impacts natural resources and agricultural production globally [1,2,3]. In Arid zones, drainage basins are exposed directly to heavy rainfall and its high intensities cause severe land degradation [4,5,6]. The soil erosion consequences mainly impact soil fertility loss and degradation of soil resource quality, especially in the drainage basins where the vegetation is totally absent [7,8]. Some studies show that soil erosion impacts directly the environment, economy, and agriculture and its rate increases with extreme precipitation and temperature patterns [9,10]. Extreme rainfall can frequently cause floods and soil degradation [11,12,13].

The deposition of erosion sediments can affect the hydraulic reservoirs and dams, increase their costs of maintenance and make them unusable in a short time [14]. So, there have been several studies that analyze this situation in order to find the processes that can contribute to controlling soil erosion and ecological restoration [15]. Some researchers consider that erosion can be estimated by using many mathematical models based on the geologic and geomorphologic properties of the highly vulnerable catchments in inaccessible regions [14]. Consequently, several models exist for the prediction of soil erosion from empirical (USLE/RUSLE/Gavrilović) and considerably vary in their data input. Gavrilović developed a method for the analytical determination of erosion coefficients and the quantification of erosion and average annual sediment yield [16,17,18]. Using field investigations on the Morava River (Serbia) and laboratory experimental work, Gavrilović prepared detailed tables for determining the parameters. This method has been widely used in Slovenia and Croatia in the last 30 years to predict erosional processes and implement torrent regulation and other erosion control works [19].

In the last 50 years, the Gavrilović method has been widely used for the prediction of soil erosion and sediment yield on many basin scales in Eastern Europe. The method has been developed for enhancing the management practices in erosion protection, mainly in forest zones affected by violent torrents. The Gavrilović method is used for predicting annual soil erosion rates and annual sediment yield. It uses empirical coefficients (erodibility coefficient, protection coefficient, and erosion coefficient) and morphometric characteristics of basin drainages.

In this article, we evaluate the applicability of the Gavrilović method for analyzing erosional processes in 17 sub-basins of Wadi Hanifa, in the Central area of Saudi Arabia. The Wadi Hanifa basin is one of the most important agricultural areas of Najd. The drainage basin contains good natural resources (thick soils, fertile soils, diversified land covers, moderate slopes, etc.), which enable substantial agricultural development. However, many sites of the sub-basins show a decrease in agricultural lands and productivity because of soil degradation by severe erosion. The Gavrilović model was designed to determine the surface water erosion in the Wadi Hanifa basin, using three groups of components: climatic data, WMS output software, and standard tables of the Gavrilović model. The basin’s geologic structure, steep slopes, poor vegetation that is an important factor in the soil disintegration, and weak human management for retarding floods effect on soil are the principal factors causing the erosion. The empirical coefficients required some morphometric parameters of the sub-basins, which can be computed by WMS software.

2 Methods

2.1 Gavrilović model

Gavrilović proposed an analytical equation for determining the annual volume of detached soil due to surface erosion [17], known as the erosion potential model (EPM):

(1) W p ( m 3 /year ) = π × P a × F × T × ( Z 3 ) 0.5 ,

where W p is the annual volume of detached soil due to surface erosion, P a is the average yearly precipitation (mm), F is the drainage area (km2), T is the temperature coefficient, and Z is the erosion coefficient. T is determined by the following equation:

(2) T = [ ( 0.1 + T 0 / 10 ) ] 0.5 ,

where T 0 is the average yearly temperature (°C). The erosion coefficient Z can be estimated using the corresponding tables or calculated from

(3) Z = Y × X a × [ φ + ( J a ) 0.5 ] ,

where J a is the average slope of the basin (%), Y is the soil erodibility coefficient, X a is the soil protection coefficient, and φ is the erosion and stream network development coefficient.

The coefficients X a and Y were determined using the standard values 0.80 for the area without vegetal cover and 0.90, which is the mean of the rock with moderate erosion resistance. The coefficient of type and extent of erosion (φ) was derived from the stream order map using the Strahler method available in the Hydrology tools of ArcGIS software (Figure 3).

When the drainage basin is not uniform with respect to erosion coefficients, Gavrilović suggested that the basin should be divided into smaller subareas (hydrography units). After the annual soil erosion rates, W ps are calculated for each hydrography unit and are summed to obtain the soil erosion rate for the whole basin. Gavrilović suggested the following equation for determining the sediment delivery ratio (R u) [20]:

(4) R u = [ ( O × D ) 0.5 × ( L + L i ) ] / ( L + 10 ) ,

where O is the perimeter of the basin (km), D is the average height of the basin (km), L is the length of the main channel (km), and L i is the length of the secondary stream (km).

Then, the actual sediment yield is calculated as

(5) Gy = R u × W p ( m 3 / year ) .

2.2 NRCS-CN model

The application of the NRCS-CN model is to determine the soil curve number (CN) from the land cover map. The study relies on the Kingdom’s Land Resources Map issued in 1994 by the Ministry of Agriculture on a scale of 1:500,000. The drainage area of the Wadi Hanifa basin extends to plate numbers 29, 30, 42, and 43. These four panels represent different natural land covers of the studied sub-basins. The land cover derived from these maps is the following:

  1. Pediplain with shallow soils (Pr).

  2. Active slopes (As). This concept was extracted from the legend of the Land Resources Maps (Ministry of Agriculture, 1994).

  3. Severely dissected slopes (Ds)

  4. Pediplain with sand cover (Sa).

  5. Alluvial plain with sand cover (Ps).

  6. Foot slopes (Fs).

  7. Alluvial plain (Ap).

  8. Degraded plain (Dg).

  9. Wadi alluvium.

The CN of every land cover was determined using the standard tables proposed by the United States Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Services [21]. The weighted CN was calculated using the proportion area of the land cover type in every sub-basin (Table 1 and Figure 1).

Table 1

Weighted CN of the studied sub-basins

Sub-basin Area (km2) CNw Sub-basin Area (km2) CNw
1 197.5 78.4 10 41.4 86.5
2 159.0 86.2 11 15.9 85.0
3 59.7 86.2 12 21.2 84.7
4 85.5 87.4 13 61.6 86.2
5 53.8 87.9 14 34.5 79.6
6 24.7 86.8 15 127.5 73.0
7 108.6 87.8 16 39.0 85.0
8 31.4 88.0 17 59.4 85.0
9 99.6 87.9 Basin 1621.5 84.9
Figure 1 The spatial distribution of the weighted CN.
Figure 1

The spatial distribution of the weighted CN.

The components of the NRCS-CN model can be presented as follows:

  1. The potential maximum retention (S) is equal to

    (6) S ( mm ) = ( 25 , 400 / CN ) − 254 ,

    where CN is the soil CN.

  2. The initial abstraction (I a) is equal to

    (7) I a = 0.2 S ( mm ) .

  3. The surface runoff depth (Q a) is equal to

(8) Q a = ( P − I a ) 2 / [ ( P + ( 0.8 S ) ] ,

where P is the amount of rain (mm). The average yearly rainfall (P a) for every sub-basin was calculated with the weighted average obtained using the Thiessen method.

The peak discharge estimation is computed by the modified NRCS for the TR-55 model given by [21]

(9) Q p = q u × A × Q ,

where Q p is the peak discharge (m3/s), A is the area (km2), and Q is the depth of runoff (mm). Q is calculated from the weighted CN NRCS equation, and q u is the unit peak discharge (m3/s/km2/mm), which is calculated from

(10) q u = a × 10 [ C o + C 1 log t c + C 2 ( log t c ) 2 ] − 2.366 ,

where α is the conversion parameter (0.000431 in metric units), t c is the time of concentration, and C 0, C 1, and C 2 are constants based on the storm type.

The time of concentration (t c) is calculated by the equation

(11) t c ( h ) = 1 . 67 T L a g ( h ) ,

where T Lag is the lag time (h) and is calculated as

(12) T Lag ( h ) = [ 2.587 L 0.8 [ ( 1 , 000 / CN ) − 9 ] 0.7 ] / 1 , 900 H 0.5 ,

where L is the watershed length (m), CN is the curve number, and H is the average watershed land slope (%). The values of C 0, C 1, and C 2 are constant factors and can be obtained from the TR-55 model [21].

2.3 Description of the Wadi Hanifa Basin

The Wadi Hanifa basin is located in the Riyadh region, in Central Saudi Arabia (Figure 1). The Wadi Hanifah basin drainage extends along the eastern flank of the Tuwaig mountain between latitude 24°35′ and 25°00′ N and longitude 46°20′ and 47°00′ E, with an area of 1621.8 km2 (Figure 2).

Figure 2 Geographic location of the Wadi Hanifa basin.
Figure 2

Geographic location of the Wadi Hanifa basin.

The dividing line attains an elevation of about 900 m at the crest of the escarpment. The cultivated areas and urban centers are concentrated in a section of about 90 km between Al-Uyaynah in the north and Al-Ha’ir in the south. With an alluvium deposit of about 60 m depth, the channel of the Wadi supplies water for the irrigation of cultivated terraces. Four main urban centers in size and population are in the Wadi Hanifa watershed: Ad-Dir’iyyah, Al-Uyaynah, Al-Ha’ir, and Al-Ammariyyah with 43,709, 8,523, 19,517, and 2,145 people (Services Directory of Riyadh Area, General Authority of Statistics, 2015). The Wadi basin mainly consists of rocky limestone of Jubaila, Arab, Hanifa, Tuwaig, and Dhuruma formations, particularly on the Tuwaig slope. The land covers mainly consist of pediplain with shallow soils and soils of severely dissected slopes.

In the last 15 years, the Wadi region has witnessed major changes, largely due to the expansion of Riyadh city. The growing season of the natural vegetation depends on the rainy season and the type of ecological environment. The Wadi basin consists of rocky limestone, particularly on the Tuwaig slope, and the daily rainfall depth fluctuates from 5 to 20 mm and is uncertain; the vegetation is found in Wadi channels and in loamy micro-depressions. The wild natural vegetation consists mainly of shrub and bush species, such as Calotropis procera, and ephemeral annual species growing after rain, for example, Graminaceae and Plantaginaceae. In the Wadi Hanifah, the ephemeral vegetation is the source of pastoralism and it is hardly used for grazing because of the diminution of nomadism. It is used to provide recreation for sightseers on excursions from the capital and nearby villages (Figure 3).

Figure 3 The spatial distribution of selected rain stations.
Figure 3

The spatial distribution of selected rain stations.

2.3.1 Data collection

The study was based on the following data:

  1. The annual mean temperature was recorded in the meteorology station of King Khalid International Airport (KKIA-40437).

  2. The analysis of the relationship between soil erosion and rainfall was based on the rainfall recorded in five rain stations: Jubaila (1966–2017), Riyadh factories (1964–2017), Dirab (1975–1999), Wadi Hanifa Dam (1965–2015), and King Khalid International Airport (1985–2017).

  3. The runoff depth was computed using the NRCS-CN model.

  4. The morphometric variables were derived from the Aster DEM 30m using WMS software. This DEM is appropriate to determine the morphometric parameters of the Wadi Hanifa watershed.

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Analysis of EPM components

Erosion rates were calculated for 17 hydrography sub-basins extended with an area ranging between 15.9 km2 (sub-basin 11) and 197.5 km2 (sub-basin 1). The different sources of EPM components were described by de Vante and Poesen [22] (Figure 4).

Figure 4 The Strahler stream order and the extent of erosion.
Figure 4

The Strahler stream order and the extent of erosion.

The components of EPM are calculated as follows:

  1. The average yearly rainfall (P a) for every sub-basin was calculated with the weighted average obtained using the Thiessen method.

  2. The soil protection coefficient (X a) was determined from the land resources map of Saudi Arabia edited in 1994 by the Ministry of Agriculture (Sheets 29 and 30, 1:500,000), using the standard value of 0.80 of the area without the vegetal cover of the Gavrilović model.

  3. The soil erodibility coefficient (Y) was estimated from the Geologic map 1:25,000 (sheets NG38-15 Al Quwa’iyah and NG38-16 Ar Riyad) edited by the Saudi Geologic Survey and the land resources map using the standard value of 0.90, which is the mean of the rock with moderate erosion resistance of the Gavrilović model.

  4. The temperature coefficient (T) was computed using the average yearly temperature recorded during the period 1985–2017 at the meteorology station of King Khalid International Airport (40437).

  5. The average slope of the study area (%) was derived from the ASTER DEM30m using WMS software.

  6. The coefficient of type and extent of erosion (φ) was derived from the stream order map using the Strahler method available in Hydrology tools of ArcGIS software.

Table 2 summarizes the computed values of the EPM components in the studied sub-basins.

Table 2

The components of EPM

Sub-basin A (km2) P a X a Y φ J a Z T
1 197.5 89.4 0.72 0.77 1.00 0.45 0.93 1.64
2 159.0 83.2 0.85 0.75 1.00 0.48 1.08 1.64
3 59.7 93.9 0.81 0.77 0.40 1.44 1.00 1.64
4 85.5 93.9 0.90 0.60 0.65 1.20 0.95 1.64
5 53.8 93.9 0.90 0.56 0.40 1.23 0.76 1.64
6 24.7 93.9 0.90 0.84 0.15 1.43 1.01 1.64
7 108.6 93.9 0.90 0.57 0.85 0.72 0.87 1.64
8 31.4 68.2 0.90 0.55 0.15 1.29 0.64 1.64
9 99.6 85.6 0.89 0.55 0.85 1.30 0.99 1.64
10 41.4 82.4 0.80 0.63 0.40 1.58 0.83 1.64
11 15.9 20.4 0.71 0.70 0.15 1.31 0.64 1.64
12 21.2 20.4 0.76 0.70 0.15 1.16 0.65 1.64
13 61.6 40.8 0.75 0.67 0.40 1.03 0.72 1.64
14 34.5 20.4 0.71 0.76 0.15 0.51 0.47 1.64
15 127.5 20.4 0.70 0.80 1.00 0.42 0.92 1.64
16 39.0 46.3 0.70 0.70 0.15 0.63 0.46 1.64
17 59.4 106.7 0.70 0.70 0.65 0.86 0.77 1.64

From Table 2, the EPM components vary between the different sub-basins of Wadi Hanifa. So, the normality test of Shapiro–Wilk was used to determine the distribution pattern of every component (Table 3). The Shapiro–Wilk test shows that only the soil erodibility coefficient (Y), the average slope of the study area (J a), and the erosion coefficient (Z) are normally distributed with p-values of 0.233, 0.075, and 0.362, respectively, at a degree of freedom of 17. On the other hand, the normality test of Shapiro–Wilk was applied to determine the distribution pattern of the morphometric variables required to use the EPM model (Table 3).

Table 3

The morphometric variables used in the EPM model

Sub-basin W p (m3/year) O (km) H mean (m) D R I p (km) L i (km) G y (m3/year)
1 81.9 156.4 647.7 0.18 34.8 122.6 14.7
2 76.7 110.6 710.3 0.21 20.1 95.0 16.3
3 29.2 64.2 753.8 0.22 19.4 36.3 6.5
4 38.4 86.2 792.0 0.24 26.8 63.8 9.1
5 17.5 68.0 769.6 0.20 20.6 26.1 3.6
6 12.3 35.6 717.7 0.26 10.6 15.4 3.2
7 42.9 95.2 734.0 0.20 26.5 68.6 8.6
8 5.6 48.1 734.8 0.25 14.7 17.5 1.4
9 43.4 67.7 799.4 0.19 19.8 57.4 8.3
10 13.3 43.6 758.3 0.25 11.0 26.3 3.3
11 0.9 28.1 625.4 0.21 7.4 6.3 0.2
12 1.2 45.6 642.5 0.24 12.0 8.5 0.3
13 7.9 66.4 652.2 0.23 18.2 42.5 1.8
14 1.2 42.1 547.1 0.16 9.0 13.4 0.2
15 12.0 84.6 572.9 0.20 14.5 72.9 2.3
16 3.0 43.7 600.0 0.20 8.9 19.8 0.6
17 22.3 60.9 617.6 0.16 13.4 23.9 3.7

This statistical test revealed that only the mean elevation (H mean), the sediment delivery ratio (D R), and the main channel length (I p) are normally distributed with p-values of 0.371, 0.489, and 0.202, respectively at a degree of freedom of 17. The normal distribution of these parameters can be related to the homogeneity of the elevation, rock formations (limestone), and the similarity of the main channels (Table 3).

3.2 Analysis of soil erosion distribution

The total annual volume of detached soil and the actual sediment yield show similar spatial distributions in the sub-basins of the Wadi Hanifa watershed (Figures 5 and 6).

Figure 5 The total annual volume of detached soil.
Figure 5

The total annual volume of detached soil.

Figure 6 The actual sediment yield.
Figure 6

The actual sediment yield.

From Figure 5, the spatial distribution of erosion rates and the sediment yield for hydrographical units are presented in four levels, using the standard values of (ϕ) as follows:

  1. The very high erosion intensity in two sub-basins 1 and 2 with an annual average of the total annual volume of detached soil is higher than 45,000 m3/year and an actual sediment yield is higher than 10,000 m3/year. The total drainage of these two sub-basins is 356.4 km2 and 22.0% of the total drainage area of Wadi Hanifa.

  2. The moderate erosion intensity in four sub-basins 3, 4, 7, and 9 with an annual average of the total annual volume of detached soil ranged from 20,000 to 45,000 m3/year and an actual sediment yield ranged from 4,000 to 10,000 m3/year. The total drainage of these sub-basins is 353.4 km2 and 21.8% of the total drainage area of Wadi Hanifa.

  3. The low erosion intensity in four sub-basins with an annual average of total annual volume of detached soil ranged from 10,000 to 20,000 m3/year and an actual sediment yield ranged from 2,000 to 4,000 m3/year. The total drainage of these sub-basins is 247.4 km2 and 15.3% of the total drainage area of Wadi Hanifa.

  4. The very low erosion intensity in six sub-basins with an annual average of the total annual volume of detached soil is less than 10,000 m3/year and an actual sediment yield is less than 2,000 m3/year. The total drainage of these sub-basins is 203.6 km2 and 12.6% of the total drainage area of Wadi Hanifa.

3.3 Analysis of the relationship between soil erosion and rainfall

Soil erosion, sediment transport, and deposition processes are principally determined by the distribution of rainfall intensity, while it can be exacerbated by human activities such as agricultural practices, deforestation, etc. [23]. The assessment of soil erosion and average annual rainfall in hydrological catchments are shown in Figure 7.

Figure 7 The spatial distribution of W p (m3/year) and P a (mm).
Figure 7

The spatial distribution of W p (m3/year) and P a (mm).

From Figure 7, it is evident that the soil erosion and the average annual rainfall increase in the eastern sub-basins of Wadi Hanifa. The highest average of annual rainfall recorded is 83.2 mm in sub-basin (2) and 89.4 mm in sub-basin 1. So, the annual volume of soil erosion increases to 76.7 × 103 m3 and 81.9 × 103 m3, respectively. Despite the spatial variation of the rainfall and the soil erosion in the studied sub-basins, the coefficient of determination R 2 between the annual average rainfall and the annual volume of soil erosion is 0.6615 (Figure 8a). In addition, the coefficient of determination between the annual average rainfall and the actual detached sediments in 17 sub-basins is 0.6799 at a significance level of 0.000 (Figure 8b). Consequently, the coefficient of determination indicates that rainfall can be considered as the main factor in the spatial distribution of soil erosion in the Wadi Hanifa basin.

Figure 8 (a) The correlation between W p (m3/year) and P a (mm). (b) The correlation between G y (m3/year) and P a (mm).
Figure 8

(a) The correlation between W p (m3/year) and P a (mm). (b) The correlation between G y (m3/year) and P a (mm).

3.4 Analysis of the relationship between soil erosion and runoff

The analysis of the relationship between the runoff and the soil erosion is based on the use of the maximum daily volume of the runoff computed by the NRCS-CN model and the annual volume of soil erosion in every sub-basin (Table 4). The relationship between the annual volume of soil erosion and the annual volume of runoff shows a good correlation coefficient (R 2: 0.7703) (Figure 9). The extreme value of the runoff and the moderate ratio of soil erosion in sub-basin 17 led to the existence of the quadratic model of the regression.

Table 4

Volume of NRCS-CN components

Sub-basin I a (mm) S (mm) Q (mm) P max (mm) t c (h)
1 14.0 70.0 1.7 24.3 31.1
2 8.1 40.7 2.6 21.7 11.1
3 8.1 40.6 1.9 20.0 9.0
4 7.3 36.7 2.4 20.0 12.2
5 7.0 35.0 2.6 20.0 9.6
6 7.7 38.6 2.1 20.0 5.5
7 7.1 35.3 2.5 20.0 12.9
8 6.9 34.6 2.0 31.0 7.2
9 7.0 34.9 2.3 22.2 4.2
10 7.9 39.6 1.5 21.6 3.1
11 9.0 44.9 0.3 51.5 8.3
12 9.2 45.8 0.3 51.5 12.3
13 8.2 40.8 0.8 42.3 3.9
14 13.1 65.3 0.0 51.5 17.7
15 18.8 93.9 0.4 51.5 8.9
16 9.0 44.8 5.8 48.7 11.6
17 9.0 44.8 30.0 42.0 10.0
Figure 9 The correlation between the annual rate of soil erosion and the annual volume of runoff (mm).
Figure 9

The correlation between the annual rate of soil erosion and the annual volume of runoff (mm).

Consequently, the studied sub-basins can be divided in three categories related to the relationship between the annual volume of soil erosion and the annual volume of runoff (Figure 10):

  1. Eight sub-basins comprise the first group with an annual volume of runoff ranging from 5.5 × 103 m3 (5,500 m3) in sub-basin 11 and 62.8 × 103 m3 (62,800 m3) in sub-basin 10. The related annual volume of soil erosion varies from 0.9 × 103 m3 (900 m3) to 13.3 × 103 m3 (13,300 m3), respectively. The total drainage of these sub-basins is 358.2 km2 (22.1% of the Wadi Hanifa drainage area).

  2. Five sub-basins comprise the second group with an annual volume runoff ranging from 113.1 × 103 m3 (113,100 m3) in sub-basin 3 and 226.1 × 103 m3 (226,100 m3) in sub-basin 16. The related annual volume of soil erosion varies from 3.0 × 103 m3 (3,000 m3) in sub-basin 16 and 43.4 × 103 m3 (43,400 m3) in sub-basin 9. The total drainage of these sub-basins is 337.6 km2 (20.8% of the Wadi Hanifa drainage area).

  3. Four sub-basins comprise the third group with the highest amount of annual volume of runoff and soil erosion. The annual volume of runoff ranges from 276.6 × 103 m3 (276,600 m3) in sub-basin 7 and 1781.7.1 × 103 m3 (1,781,700 m3) in sub-basin 17. The total annual volume of soil erosion varies from 42.9 × 103 m3 (42,900 m3) in sub-basin 17 and 81.9 × 103 m3 (81,900 m3) in sub-basin 1. The total drainage of these sub-basins is 524.4 km2 (32.3% of the Wadi Hanifa drainage area).

Figure 10 The spatial distribution of the annual rate of the soil erosion/ha.
Figure 10

The spatial distribution of the annual rate of the soil erosion/ha.

This study concludes that all studied sub-basins of Wadi Hanifa are under water erosion with different rates, where erosion is greater in sub-basins 1, 2, 7, and 17. In contrast, erosion rates decrease gradually with the annual volume of rainfall and runoff. The northern half of the Wadi Hanifa basin is under considerable erosion and about 33% of the drainage area is in very erosive states, with an annual rate of water erosion estimated to be 1781.7 × 103 m3 in sub-basin 17. About 21% of the Wadi Hanifa drainage area is affected by water erosion and can increase under actual climatic conditions. Water erosion shows good correlations with the annual volume of rainfall and the best correlation with the annual volume of runoff.

The EPM method and the NRCS-CN model can be further refined by developing more local factors for the rainfall intensity and the runoff pattern and their spatial variability in different drainage basins of Saudi Arabia. Following Gavrilović’s proposals, the used coefficients in the EPM model can be developed in a hydrography unit (sub-basin) under the arid conditions of Saudi Arabia.

  1. Funding information: This study was funded by the Researchers Supporting Project number (RSP2024R425), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

  2. Conflict of interest: Author states no conflict of interest.

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Received: 2022-11-10
Revised: 2023-04-17
Accepted: 2023-06-08
Published Online: 2023-12-26

© 2023 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Regular Articles
  2. Diagenesis and evolution of deep tight reservoirs: A case study of the fourth member of Shahejie Formation (cg: 50.4-42 Ma) in Bozhong Sag
  3. Petrography and mineralogy of the Oligocene flysch in Ionian Zone, Albania: Implications for the evolution of sediment provenance and paleoenvironment
  4. Biostratigraphy of the Late Campanian–Maastrichtian of the Duwi Basin, Red Sea, Egypt
  5. Structural deformation and its implication for hydrocarbon accumulation in the Wuxia fault belt, northwestern Junggar basin, China
  6. Carbonate texture identification using multi-layer perceptron neural network
  7. Metallogenic model of the Hongqiling Cu–Ni sulfide intrusions, Central Asian Orogenic Belt: Insight from long-period magnetotellurics
  8. Assessments of recent Global Geopotential Models based on GPS/levelling and gravity data along coastal zones of Egypt
  9. Accuracy assessment and improvement of SRTM, ASTER, FABDEM, and MERIT DEMs by polynomial and optimization algorithm: A case study (Khuzestan Province, Iran)
  10. Uncertainty assessment of 3D geological models based on spatial diffusion and merging model
  11. Evaluation of dynamic behavior of varved clays from the Warsaw ice-dammed lake, Poland
  12. Impact of AMSU-A and MHS radiances assimilation on Typhoon Megi (2016) forecasting
  13. Contribution to the building of a weather information service for solar panel cleaning operations at Diass plant (Senegal, Western Sahel)
  14. Measuring spatiotemporal accessibility to healthcare with multimodal transport modes in the dynamic traffic environment
  15. Mathematical model for conversion of groundwater flow from confined to unconfined aquifers with power law processes
  16. NSP variation on SWAT with high-resolution data: A case study
  17. Reconstruction of paleoglacial equilibrium-line altitudes during the Last Glacial Maximum in the Diancang Massif, Northwest Yunnan Province, China
  18. A prediction model for Xiangyang Neolithic sites based on a random forest algorithm
  19. Determining the long-term impact area of coastal thermal discharge based on a harmonic model of sea surface temperature
  20. Origin of block accumulations based on the near-surface geophysics
  21. Investigating the limestone quarries as geoheritage sites: Case of Mardin ancient quarry
  22. Population genetics and pedigree geography of Trionychia japonica in the four mountains of Henan Province and the Taihang Mountains
  23. Performance audit evaluation of marine development projects based on SPA and BP neural network model
  24. Study on the Early Cretaceous fluvial-desert sedimentary paleogeography in the Northwest of Ordos Basin
  25. Detecting window line using an improved stacked hourglass network based on new real-world building façade dataset
  26. Automated identification and mapping of geological folds in cross sections
  27. Silicate and carbonate mixed shelf formation and its controlling factors, a case study from the Cambrian Canglangpu formation in Sichuan basin, China
  28. Ground penetrating radar and magnetic gradient distribution approach for subsurface investigation of solution pipes in post-glacial settings
  29. Research on pore structures of fine-grained carbonate reservoirs and their influence on waterflood development
  30. Risk assessment of rain-induced debris flow in the lower reaches of Yajiang River based on GIS and CF coupling models
  31. Multifractal analysis of temporal and spatial characteristics of earthquakes in Eurasian seismic belt
  32. Surface deformation and damage of 2022 (M 6.8) Luding earthquake in China and its tectonic implications
  33. Differential analysis of landscape patterns of land cover products in tropical marine climate zones – A case study in Malaysia
  34. DEM-based analysis of tectonic geomorphologic characteristics and tectonic activity intensity of the Dabanghe River Basin in South China Karst
  35. Distribution, pollution levels, and health risk assessment of heavy metals in groundwater in the main pepper production area of China
  36. Study on soil quality effect of reconstructing by Pisha sandstone and sand soil
  37. Understanding the characteristics of loess strata and quaternary climate changes in Luochuan, Shaanxi Province, China, through core analysis
  38. Dynamic variation of groundwater level and its influencing factors in typical oasis irrigated areas in Northwest China
  39. Creating digital maps for geotechnical characteristics of soil based on GIS technology and remote sensing
  40. Changes in the course of constant loading consolidation in soil with modeled granulometric composition contaminated with petroleum substances
  41. Correlation between the deformation of mineral crystal structures and fault activity: A case study of the Yingxiu-Beichuan fault and the Milin fault
  42. Cognitive characteristics of the Qiang religious culture and its influencing factors in Southwest China
  43. Spatiotemporal variation characteristics analysis of infrastructure iron stock in China based on nighttime light data
  44. Interpretation of aeromagnetic and remote sensing data of Auchi and Idah sheets of the Benin-arm Anambra basin: Implication of mineral resources
  45. Building element recognition with MTL-AINet considering view perspectives
  46. Characteristics of the present crustal deformation in the Tibetan Plateau and its relationship with strong earthquakes
  47. Influence of fractures in tight sandstone oil reservoir on hydrocarbon accumulation: A case study of Yanchang Formation in southeastern Ordos Basin
  48. Nutrient assessment and land reclamation in the Loess hills and Gulch region in the context of gully control
  49. Handling imbalanced data in supervised machine learning for lithological mapping using remote sensing and airborne geophysical data
  50. Spatial variation of soil nutrients and evaluation of cultivated land quality based on field scale
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  55. A landslide susceptibility assessment method based on auto-encoder improved deep belief network
  56. Numerical simulation analysis of ecological monitoring of small reservoir dam based on maximum entropy algorithm
  57. Morphometry of the cold-climate Bory Stobrawskie Dune Field (SW Poland): Evidence for multi-phase Lateglacial aeolian activity within the European Sand Belt
  58. Adopting a new approach for finding missing people using GIS techniques: A case study in Saudi Arabia’s desert area
  59. Geological earthquake simulations generated by kinematic heterogeneous energy-based method: Self-arrested ruptures and asperity criterion
  60. Semi-automated classification of layered rock slopes using digital elevation model and geological map
  61. Geochemical characteristics of arc fractionated I-type granitoids of eastern Tak Batholith, Thailand
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  63. Analysis of artificial intelligence approaches to predict the wall deflection induced by deep excavation
  64. Evaluation of the current in situ stress in the middle Permian Maokou Formation in the Longnüsi area of the central Sichuan Basin, China
  65. Utilizing microresistivity image logs to recognize conglomeratic channel architectural elements of Baikouquan Formation in slope of Mahu Sag
  66. Resistivity cutoff of low-resistivity and low-contrast pays in sandstone reservoirs from conventional well logs: A case of Paleogene Enping Formation in A-Oilfield, Pearl River Mouth Basin, South China Sea
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  74. Study of pore-throat structure characteristics and fluid mobility of Chang 7 tight sandstone reservoir in Jiyuan area, Ordos Basin
  75. Study of fracturing fluid re-discharge based on percolation experiments and sampling tests – An example of Fuling shale gas Jiangdong block, China
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  81. Principles of self-calibration and visual effects for digital camera distortion
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  87. Regional tectonic uplift indicated by geomorphological parameters in the Bahe River Basin, central China
  88. Computer information technology-based green excavation of tunnels in complex strata and technical decision of deformation control
  89. Spatial evolution of coastal environmental enterprises: An exploration of driving factors in Jiangsu Province
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  98. Petrogenesis of the Sukadana Basalt based on petrology and whole rock geochemistry, Lampung, Indonesia: Geodynamic significances
  99. Numerical study on the group wall effect of nodular diaphragm wall foundation in high-rise buildings
  100. Water resources utilization and tourism environment assessment based on water footprint
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  102. Detection and characterization of lineaments using gravity data in the south-west Cameroon zone: Hydrogeological implications
  103. Study on spatial pattern of tourism landscape resources in county cities of Yangtze River Economic Belt
  104. The effect of weathering on drillability of dolomites
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  108. Environmental health risk assessment of urban water sources based on fuzzy set theory
  109. Spatial distribution of urban basic education resources in Shanghai: Accessibility and supply-demand matching evaluation
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  114. Temporal dynamics of green urban areas in Romania. A comparison between spatial and statistical data
  115. Passenger flow forecast of tourist attraction based on MACBL in LBS big data environment
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  118. Influence of nappe structure on the Carboniferous volcanic reservoir in the middle of the Hongche Fault Zone, Junggar Basin, China
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  123. IG-YOLOv5-based underwater biological recognition and detection for marine protection
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  125. Review Articles
  126. The actual state of the geodetic and cartographic resources and legislation in Poland
  127. Evaluation studies of the new mining projects
  128. Comparison and significance of grain size parameters of the Menyuan loess calculated using different methods
  129. Scientometric analysis of flood forecasting for Asia region and discussion on machine learning methods
  130. Rainfall-induced transportation embankment failure: A review
  131. Rapid Communication
  132. Branch fault discovered in Tangshan fault zone on the Kaiping-Guye boundary, North China
  133. Technical Note
  134. Introducing an intelligent multi-level retrieval method for mineral resource potential evaluation result data
  135. Erratum
  136. Erratum to “Forest cover assessment using remote-sensing techniques in Crete Island, Greece”
  137. Addendum
  138. The relationship between heat flow and seismicity in global tectonically active zones
  139. Commentary
  140. Improved entropy weight methods and their comparisons in evaluating the high-quality development of Qinghai, China
  141. Special Issue: Geoethics 2022 - Part II
  142. Loess and geotourism potential of the Braničevo District (NE Serbia): From overexploitation to paleoclimate interpretation
https://doi.org/10.1515/geo-2022-0505
Keywords for this article
soil erosion; Gavrilović model; NRCS-CN method; sub-basins; Wadi Hanifa
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Regular Articles
  2. Diagenesis and evolution of deep tight reservoirs: A case study of the fourth member of Shahejie Formation (cg: 50.4-42 Ma) in Bozhong Sag
  3. Petrography and mineralogy of the Oligocene flysch in Ionian Zone, Albania: Implications for the evolution of sediment provenance and paleoenvironment
  4. Biostratigraphy of the Late Campanian–Maastrichtian of the Duwi Basin, Red Sea, Egypt
  5. Structural deformation and its implication for hydrocarbon accumulation in the Wuxia fault belt, northwestern Junggar basin, China
  6. Carbonate texture identification using multi-layer perceptron neural network
  7. Metallogenic model of the Hongqiling Cu–Ni sulfide intrusions, Central Asian Orogenic Belt: Insight from long-period magnetotellurics
  8. Assessments of recent Global Geopotential Models based on GPS/levelling and gravity data along coastal zones of Egypt
  9. Accuracy assessment and improvement of SRTM, ASTER, FABDEM, and MERIT DEMs by polynomial and optimization algorithm: A case study (Khuzestan Province, Iran)
  10. Uncertainty assessment of 3D geological models based on spatial diffusion and merging model
  11. Evaluation of dynamic behavior of varved clays from the Warsaw ice-dammed lake, Poland
  12. Impact of AMSU-A and MHS radiances assimilation on Typhoon Megi (2016) forecasting
  13. Contribution to the building of a weather information service for solar panel cleaning operations at Diass plant (Senegal, Western Sahel)
  14. Measuring spatiotemporal accessibility to healthcare with multimodal transport modes in the dynamic traffic environment
  15. Mathematical model for conversion of groundwater flow from confined to unconfined aquifers with power law processes
  16. NSP variation on SWAT with high-resolution data: A case study
  17. Reconstruction of paleoglacial equilibrium-line altitudes during the Last Glacial Maximum in the Diancang Massif, Northwest Yunnan Province, China
  18. A prediction model for Xiangyang Neolithic sites based on a random forest algorithm
  19. Determining the long-term impact area of coastal thermal discharge based on a harmonic model of sea surface temperature
  20. Origin of block accumulations based on the near-surface geophysics
  21. Investigating the limestone quarries as geoheritage sites: Case of Mardin ancient quarry
  22. Population genetics and pedigree geography of Trionychia japonica in the four mountains of Henan Province and the Taihang Mountains
  23. Performance audit evaluation of marine development projects based on SPA and BP neural network model
  24. Study on the Early Cretaceous fluvial-desert sedimentary paleogeography in the Northwest of Ordos Basin
  25. Detecting window line using an improved stacked hourglass network based on new real-world building façade dataset
  26. Automated identification and mapping of geological folds in cross sections
  27. Silicate and carbonate mixed shelf formation and its controlling factors, a case study from the Cambrian Canglangpu formation in Sichuan basin, China
  28. Ground penetrating radar and magnetic gradient distribution approach for subsurface investigation of solution pipes in post-glacial settings
  29. Research on pore structures of fine-grained carbonate reservoirs and their influence on waterflood development
  30. Risk assessment of rain-induced debris flow in the lower reaches of Yajiang River based on GIS and CF coupling models
  31. Multifractal analysis of temporal and spatial characteristics of earthquakes in Eurasian seismic belt
  32. Surface deformation and damage of 2022 (M 6.8) Luding earthquake in China and its tectonic implications
  33. Differential analysis of landscape patterns of land cover products in tropical marine climate zones – A case study in Malaysia
  34. DEM-based analysis of tectonic geomorphologic characteristics and tectonic activity intensity of the Dabanghe River Basin in South China Karst
  35. Distribution, pollution levels, and health risk assessment of heavy metals in groundwater in the main pepper production area of China
  36. Study on soil quality effect of reconstructing by Pisha sandstone and sand soil
  37. Understanding the characteristics of loess strata and quaternary climate changes in Luochuan, Shaanxi Province, China, through core analysis
  38. Dynamic variation of groundwater level and its influencing factors in typical oasis irrigated areas in Northwest China
  39. Creating digital maps for geotechnical characteristics of soil based on GIS technology and remote sensing
  40. Changes in the course of constant loading consolidation in soil with modeled granulometric composition contaminated with petroleum substances
  41. Correlation between the deformation of mineral crystal structures and fault activity: A case study of the Yingxiu-Beichuan fault and the Milin fault
  42. Cognitive characteristics of the Qiang religious culture and its influencing factors in Southwest China
  43. Spatiotemporal variation characteristics analysis of infrastructure iron stock in China based on nighttime light data
  44. Interpretation of aeromagnetic and remote sensing data of Auchi and Idah sheets of the Benin-arm Anambra basin: Implication of mineral resources
  45. Building element recognition with MTL-AINet considering view perspectives
  46. Characteristics of the present crustal deformation in the Tibetan Plateau and its relationship with strong earthquakes
  47. Influence of fractures in tight sandstone oil reservoir on hydrocarbon accumulation: A case study of Yanchang Formation in southeastern Ordos Basin
  48. Nutrient assessment and land reclamation in the Loess hills and Gulch region in the context of gully control
  49. Handling imbalanced data in supervised machine learning for lithological mapping using remote sensing and airborne geophysical data
  50. Spatial variation of soil nutrients and evaluation of cultivated land quality based on field scale
  51. Lignin analysis of sediments from around 2,000 to 1,000 years ago (Jiulong River estuary, southeast China)
  52. Assessing OpenStreetMap roads fitness-for-use for disaster risk assessment in developing countries: The case of Burundi
  53. Transforming text into knowledge graph: Extracting and structuring information from spatial development plans
  54. A symmetrical exponential model of soil temperature in temperate steppe regions of China
  55. A landslide susceptibility assessment method based on auto-encoder improved deep belief network
  56. Numerical simulation analysis of ecological monitoring of small reservoir dam based on maximum entropy algorithm
  57. Morphometry of the cold-climate Bory Stobrawskie Dune Field (SW Poland): Evidence for multi-phase Lateglacial aeolian activity within the European Sand Belt
  58. Adopting a new approach for finding missing people using GIS techniques: A case study in Saudi Arabia’s desert area
  59. Geological earthquake simulations generated by kinematic heterogeneous energy-based method: Self-arrested ruptures and asperity criterion
  60. Semi-automated classification of layered rock slopes using digital elevation model and geological map
  61. Geochemical characteristics of arc fractionated I-type granitoids of eastern Tak Batholith, Thailand
  62. Lithology classification of igneous rocks using C-band and L-band dual-polarization SAR data
  63. Analysis of artificial intelligence approaches to predict the wall deflection induced by deep excavation
  64. Evaluation of the current in situ stress in the middle Permian Maokou Formation in the Longnüsi area of the central Sichuan Basin, China
  65. Utilizing microresistivity image logs to recognize conglomeratic channel architectural elements of Baikouquan Formation in slope of Mahu Sag
  66. Resistivity cutoff of low-resistivity and low-contrast pays in sandstone reservoirs from conventional well logs: A case of Paleogene Enping Formation in A-Oilfield, Pearl River Mouth Basin, South China Sea
  67. Examining the evacuation routes of the sister village program by using the ant colony optimization algorithm
  68. Spatial objects classification using machine learning and spatial walk algorithm
  69. Study on the stabilization mechanism of aeolian sandy soil formation by adding a natural soft rock
  70. Bump feature detection of the road surface based on the Bi-LSTM
  71. The origin and evolution of the ore-forming fluids at the Manondo-Choma gold prospect, Kirk range, southern Malawi
  72. A retrieval model of surface geochemistry composition based on remotely sensed data
  73. Exploring the spatial dynamics of cultural facilities based on multi-source data: A case study of Nanjing’s art institutions
  74. Study of pore-throat structure characteristics and fluid mobility of Chang 7 tight sandstone reservoir in Jiyuan area, Ordos Basin
  75. Study of fracturing fluid re-discharge based on percolation experiments and sampling tests – An example of Fuling shale gas Jiangdong block, China
  76. Impacts of marine cloud brightening scheme on climatic extremes in the Tibetan Plateau
  77. Ecological protection on the West Coast of Taiwan Strait under economic zone construction: A case study of land use in Yueqing
  78. The time-dependent deformation and damage constitutive model of rock based on dynamic disturbance tests
  79. Evaluation of spatial form of rural ecological landscape and vulnerability of water ecological environment based on analytic hierarchy process
  80. Fingerprint of magma mixture in the leucogranites: Spectroscopic and petrochemical approach, Kalebalta-Central Anatolia, Türkiye
  81. Principles of self-calibration and visual effects for digital camera distortion
  82. UAV-based doline mapping in Brazilian karst: A cave heritage protection reconnaissance
  83. Evaluation and low carbon ecological urban–rural planning and construction based on energy planning mechanism
  84. Modified non-local means: A novel denoising approach to process gravity field data
  85. A novel travel route planning method based on an ant colony optimization algorithm
  86. Effect of time-variant NDVI on landside susceptibility: A case study in Quang Ngai province, Vietnam
  87. Regional tectonic uplift indicated by geomorphological parameters in the Bahe River Basin, central China
  88. Computer information technology-based green excavation of tunnels in complex strata and technical decision of deformation control
  89. Spatial evolution of coastal environmental enterprises: An exploration of driving factors in Jiangsu Province
  90. A comparative assessment and geospatial simulation of three hydrological models in urban basins
  91. Aquaculture industry under the blue transformation in Jiangsu, China: Structure evolution and spatial agglomeration
  92. Quantitative and qualitative interpretation of community partitions by map overlaying and calculating the distribution of related geographical features
  93. Numerical investigation of gravity-grouted soil-nail pullout capacity in sand
  94. Analysis of heavy pollution weather in Shenyang City and numerical simulation of main pollutants
  95. Road cut slope stability analysis for static and dynamic (pseudo-static analysis) loading conditions
  96. Forest biomass assessment combining field inventorying and remote sensing data
  97. Late Jurassic Haobugao granites from the southern Great Xing’an Range, NE China: Implications for postcollision extension of the Mongol–Okhotsk Ocean
  98. Petrogenesis of the Sukadana Basalt based on petrology and whole rock geochemistry, Lampung, Indonesia: Geodynamic significances
  99. Numerical study on the group wall effect of nodular diaphragm wall foundation in high-rise buildings
  100. Water resources utilization and tourism environment assessment based on water footprint
  101. Geochemical evaluation of the carbonaceous shale associated with the Permian Mikambeni Formation of the Tuli Basin for potential gas generation, South Africa
  102. Detection and characterization of lineaments using gravity data in the south-west Cameroon zone: Hydrogeological implications
  103. Study on spatial pattern of tourism landscape resources in county cities of Yangtze River Economic Belt
  104. The effect of weathering on drillability of dolomites
  105. Noise masking of near-surface scattering (heterogeneities) on subsurface seismic reflectivity
  106. Query optimization-oriented lateral expansion method of distributed geological borehole database
  107. Petrogenesis of the Morobe Granodiorite and their shoshonitic mafic microgranular enclaves in Maramuni arc, Papua New Guinea
  108. Environmental health risk assessment of urban water sources based on fuzzy set theory
  109. Spatial distribution of urban basic education resources in Shanghai: Accessibility and supply-demand matching evaluation
  110. Spatiotemporal changes in land use and residential satisfaction in the Huai River-Gaoyou Lake Rim area
  111. Walkaway vertical seismic profiling first-arrival traveltime tomography with velocity structure constraints
  112. Study on the evaluation system and risk factor traceability of receiving water body
  113. Predicting copper-polymetallic deposits in Kalatag using the weight of evidence model and novel data sources
  114. Temporal dynamics of green urban areas in Romania. A comparison between spatial and statistical data
  115. Passenger flow forecast of tourist attraction based on MACBL in LBS big data environment
  116. Varying particle size selectivity of soil erosion along a cultivated catena
  117. Relationship between annual soil erosion and surface runoff in Wadi Hanifa sub-basins
  118. Influence of nappe structure on the Carboniferous volcanic reservoir in the middle of the Hongche Fault Zone, Junggar Basin, China
  119. Dynamic analysis of MSE wall subjected to surface vibration loading
  120. Pre-collisional architecture of the European distal margin: Inferences from the high-pressure continental units of central Corsica (France)
  121. The interrelation of natural diversity with tourism in Kosovo
  122. Assessment of geosites as a basis for geotourism development: A case study of the Toplica District, Serbia
  123. IG-YOLOv5-based underwater biological recognition and detection for marine protection
  124. Monitoring drought dynamics using remote sensing-based combined drought index in Ergene Basin, Türkiye
  125. Review Articles
  126. The actual state of the geodetic and cartographic resources and legislation in Poland
  127. Evaluation studies of the new mining projects
  128. Comparison and significance of grain size parameters of the Menyuan loess calculated using different methods
  129. Scientometric analysis of flood forecasting for Asia region and discussion on machine learning methods
  130. Rainfall-induced transportation embankment failure: A review
  131. Rapid Communication
  132. Branch fault discovered in Tangshan fault zone on the Kaiping-Guye boundary, North China
  133. Technical Note
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  135. Erratum
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