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Cognitive characteristics of the Qiang religious culture and its influencing factors in Southwest China

  • Weipo Yan , Yalin Guo EMAIL logo , Qing Wang , Yunwei Han and Yida An
Published/Copyright: July 10, 2023
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Open Geosciences
From the journal Open Geosciences Volume 15 Issue 1

Abstract

Qiang religious culture is the result of its adaptation to the natural environment and socio–economic development. The Upper Reaches of Min River has been the main inhabiting district of the Qiang ethnic group in China. Based on the construction of the resource system for Qiang religious culture, this study quantitatively illustrated the cognitive characteristics of this culture in the basin and the main factors influencing its regional differentiation using statistical methods, Moran’s I method, Getis-Ord Gi* method, and the Geo-detector model. The results suggested that the respondents’ cognitive degree (RCD) in relation to the religious culture in the study area was 0.258 ± 0.031, and the cognitive degrees for religious buildings, supplies, literature, and beliefs were as follows: religious literature (0.332) > religious supplies (0.287 ± 0.076) > religious buildings (0.222 ± 0.037) > religious beliefs (0.193 ± 0.023). This result was mainly related to the dissemination methods of religious cultural elements, the status of their preservation, and changes in the production and lifestyle of the people. Furthermore, the respondents’ cognition presented significant regional differentiation characteristics. Two natural factors, namely, humidity and elevation, were the major ones that influenced cognitive regional differentiation with influences values of 0.293 and 0.280, respectively. Elevation and average night light index exhibited significant correlations with cognition (p < 0.05). Meanwhile, the influence was enhanced when various factors interacted with one another. This study contributes to the quantitative research on the sustainable development of the Qiang religious culture and national culture inheritance.

Keywords: cognitive degree; regional differentiation; natural factors; population density; average night light index; Geo-detector method

1 Introduction

Qiang is an ethnicity in China with a long history and splendid culture. The Qiang religious culture, as the collective wisdom of the Qiang people, has an extensive range of contents. This culture contains a large number of valuable ideas and is an important part of the cultural heritage of China. The basic characteristics of the Qiang religious culture encompass animism as its keynote, Shibi culture as its core, and white stone faith as its manifestation [1]. On the one hand, taking natural objects as direct objects and worshipping them by endowing them with spiritual powers constitute the most basic features of Qiang’s primitive beliefs. On the other hand, the grand rituals strengthen ancestral consciousness, filial piety, benevolence, and social responsibility while laying a foundation for socially adaptive transformations in Qiang’s primitive religious culture. Meanwhile, Shibi, possessing a profound understanding of national history, religious taboos, myths and legends, calendar customs, extensive social experience, and certain medical expertise, was entrusted with the responsibility of overseeing all the religious rituals of the Qiang people as well as their daily production and life celebrations.

The unique and diverse forms and connotations of the Qiang religious culture have attracted the attention of the government, society, and scholars. At the beginning of the 20th century, Chinese and Western scholars began to focus on the religious culture of the Qiang ethnic group, which provided abundant materials for the study of their religious culture and its changes. Scholars have examined the influence of Han and Tibetan cultures on the Qiang religion and whether it was based on monotheism or polytheism [2,3,4,5]. Since the 1980s, research regarding the Qiang religious culture has gradually become comprehensive and systematic and has displayed a diversified trend of development with a large number of interpretations focusing on the overview of the religious situation, nature worship, and Shibi culture. By organizing religious beliefs and customs, Qian has elaborated on the influence of Han and Tibetan cultures on the Qiang religion [6]. By using theories of ethnic memory and margins, Wang has examined the changing process of the Qiang religion and pointed out local and intergenerational differences [7]. Moreover, Deng demonstrated the polytheism belief system characterized by the white stone worship of the Qiang people and clarified the influence of Taoism, Buddhism, Christianity, and modern civilization on the Qiang religion [8]. Zhang and Qin have focused on the inheritance of the Shibi culture of Qiang and put forward a combination of solid and living inheritance of nonmaterial cultural heritage [9]. Li has analyzed the current situation and characteristics of the integration of the Bon and Qiang religions from the perspective of anthropology [10]. Furthermore, scholars have noted the religious elements in Qiang costumes [11,12,13,14].

Religious culture is an indispensable component of the spiritual life of the Qiang ethnicity, which has been continuously enriched and developed along with changes in the natural environment, production, living, education, technology, and culture. However, the religious culture also accompanied by the risk of loss. Under the impact of climate change and natural disasters, the foundation of the livelihood of mountain people who relied on natural resources is shaken. Therefore, mountain residents have diversified their lifestyles to reduce the increased burden on their livelihoods [15]. Meanwhile, in the contexts of globalization, urbanization, industrialization, and rural exodus, the original cultural habitat of the Qiang people is dramatically changing with the modernization of the country [16]. Changes in society inevitably lead to changes in the ideology or spiritual culture of the people. For example, numerous buildings in the traditional Qiang villages, such as ancient dwellings and temples, were damaged in the Wenchuan earthquake and its secondary disasters in 2008, which resulted in the loss of the religious belief information attached to those buildings [17]. Furthermore, the ancient ceremony of mountain sacrifice tended to decrease as a result of changes in the traditional lifestyle of the Qiang, the number of clergy Shibi has sharply decreased, and some of the Shibi chanting scriptures are also gradually dissipating [18,19]. Besides the loss of certain religious elements, the influence of religious culture on local people has weakened. At present, research on the development status, protection, and inheritance of the Qiang religious culture is a popular topic in society and academia. The study of the cognition of Qiang culture and its influencing factors can provide an important reference for the preservation of religious culture, which also constitute an essential part of the beautiful countryside construction and other national strategic requirements in China.

Currently, research on the inheritance and preservation of culture is more often conducted through case studies on cultural heritage. They usually pertain to specific cultural heritage objects or specific regions [20,21]. The research usually develops by interviewing local community members, leaders, or representatives [22,23]. Moreover, the comprehensive exploration of cultural heritage requires an interdisciplinary approach, such as anthropology, archaeology, ethnography, geography, or sociology [24]. Many studies apply geographic methods such as spatial autocorrelation, hot spot clustering, location entropy, and kernel density estimation based on multi-source data to quantitatively analyze the spatial distribution of cultural heritage at different scales [25,26]. At the same time, the distribution of cultural heritage is influenced by the geographic environment, as well as human life and production. Factors such as economic development level, urbanization, ethnic minorities, transportation, population size, topography, and water constitute important influences on the spatial distribution of intangible cultural heritage [27,28,29,30]. Animation, the Internet of things, and the method of linked data offer approaches for the effective organization and dissemination of intangible cultural heritage [31,32,33]. However, there are fewer studies on the quantitative analysis of Qiang religious culture transmission and conservation.

The cognitive level is the degree of people’s knowledge and understanding of something. A systematic elaboration and investigation of the cognitive status of the Qiang religion imply an important practical significance for the further conservation Qiang religious culture. This work can also provide support for maintaining the diversity of national cultural heritage and promoting social harmony and progress. The development of geographic methods and techniques has provided new tools for ethnic cultural research. Moran’s I (index) method and Getis-Ord Gi* method can help to analyze the spatial distribution characteristics of the elements. The Geo-detector model is a tool used for identifying the spatial heterogeneity of data and for revealing the influencing factors [34]. The methods have been applied widely to analyze the spatial distribution patterns and environmental impact of diseases, urban expansion, cultural tourism, and so on [35,36,37]. In this study, we constructed the resource system of Qiang religious culture and applied Moran’s I (index) method, Getis-Ord Gi* method, and Geographical Information System (GIS) technology to clarify the regional distribution of respondents’ cognition of Qiang religious culture. Meanwhile, this study revealed the influence mechanism of regional differentiation of the cognitive level through quantitative analysis using the Geo-detector model. This study could provide a solid basis for the protection and exploitation of the Qiang religious culture.

2 Study area

The Upper Reaches of the Min River has been the main inhabiting district of the Qiang ethnic group in China. Approximately 49.8% of the Qiang population distributes in this region [38]. The basin is located in a transitional zone that ranges from the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau to the Sichuan Basin (30°45′N–33°9′N, 102°36′E–103°56′E) (Figure 1), which is a unique eco-geographical transition area in southwest China. The basin is primarily characterized by high mountain and canyon landforms with distinct V-shaped valleys. Based on the statistics and previous investigations, there are 1,667 settlements in the study area, showing the distribution characteristics of large dispersion and small gathering. The ideal places for the selection of settlement sites in mountainous areas include the regions located on the semiarid gentle slopes of the mid-alpine mountains on the upper line of arid valleys with the following vegetation types: evergreen, deciduous broad-leaved forests, and coniferous broad-leaved mixed forests [39]. Moreover, approximately 75% of the settlements are located at altitudes ranging from 2,000 m to 3,200 m.

Figure 1 Spatial distribution of ethnic groups in the Upper Reaches of Min River.
Figure 1

Spatial distribution of ethnic groups in the Upper Reaches of Min River.

The basin houses 667 Qiang settlements, 90% of which are distributed in Wenchuan, Li, and Mao Counties of Aba Tibetan and Qiang Autonomous Prefecture. The Qiang settlements are mainly distributed along arid valleys and low–mid-mountains (locally called secondary mid-mountains) and are situated at altitudes between 1,180 and 3,200 m above the sea level with favorable hydrothermal conditions. Influenced by the natural geographical conditions of the settlements, the Qiang people are mainly engaged in agriculture (e.g., maize, wheat, barley, and potato), planting of fruit forests (e.g., apple, pepper, walnut, and pear), and animal husbandry (e.g., cattle, pig, chicken, and sheep) in the vertical direction. The Qiang people in the region are integrated and coexist with the Han, Tibetan, Hui, and other ethnic groups (Figure 1). Exchanges and interactions among the various ethnic groups are frequent, thereby promoting the diverse development of the Qiang culture. In addition, communication among minorities renders the study area an important ethnic–cultural corridor in southwest China [40].

Nowadays, the Han deeply influences the production and lifestyle of the Qiang, which are increasingly converting to Han with the development of social modernization. In addition, the original cultural habitat of the Qiang in the basin has been seriously damaged due to the impact of the 2008 Wenchuan Earthquake. Therefore, preserving the inheritance and maintaining the development of the Qiang religious culture are becoming extremely urgent topics, and numerous cultural protection programs are being implemented for the Qiang religion. Analysis of the cognitive level of the Qiang religious culture can provide a reference for evaluating its inheritance status, reflect the effectiveness of the conservation projects undertaken, and point out the direction for future studies to a certain extent.

3 Methods

The largest inhabited area of Qiang people in China was selected as the study area. Based on the construction of the resource system of Qiang religious culture, this study obtained data through social surveys and conducted the analysis using statistical methods, Moran’s I (index) method, Getis-Ord Gi* method, and the Geo-detector model.

3.1 Classification of religious resources

Religion is a compound system with multiple elements and functions. In general, it includes religious thoughts, activities, organizations and institutions, morals, art, temples, and supplies. Based on a literature search of historical records and local writings, the current study extracted representative elements of the Qiang religious culture. It then classified these elements into material and nonmaterial cultural resources based on the form of their existence (Table 1).

Table 1

Resource system of Qiang religious culture

Main type i Subtype j Elements
Material cultural resources Religious buildings Temples; relics of sacrificial activities; stone statues Jade Emperor Temple, Mountain God Tower, Shrine, Chenghuang Temple, Cow God Temple, Sheep God Temple, Chuanzhu Temple, Yuwang Temple, Dongyue Temple, Land Temple, Tuzhu Temple, Wenxing tower, Guanyin Temple; relics of sacrificial activities and legend; statues of gods and animals
Religious supplies Scriptures; clergy’s clothing and hats; ritual utensils; sacrificial offerings Scriptures; sheepskin coat, hats of clergies; ritual utensils; taofu, fuzhi, incense, candles, the five kinds of cereals, wine, bacon, shaomo
Nonmaterial cultural resources Religious literature Ancestor legend; hero legend; myth legend; production legend; folk legend; animal and plant legend; place name legend; historical legend; character story —
Religious beliefs Beliefs; gods; witchcraft culture; clergies; witchcrafts; taboos; religious festivals Witch culture, Taoism, Buddhism, nature worship; Witchcraft culture, Taoism, Buddhism; Shibi type, Duangong type, Elder type; Shibi, Duangong, witch doctor; witchcrafts; taboos; Mountain Festival, Kannon Festival, Central Plains Festival, Chenghuang Festival, Jade Emperor Festival

Material cultural resources included two main types, namely, religious buildings and religious supplies. Religious buildings included three subtypes, namely, temples, relics of sacrificial activities, and stone statues. Religious supplies play an important role in the expression of religious beliefs. The present study noted approximately 35 types of supplies in the religious activities of the Qiang people [40]. Based on their type and function, the religious supplies were grouped into four subtypes – scriptures, clergy’s clothing and hats, ritual utensils, and sacrificial offerings.

Nonmaterial cultural resources included two main types, namely, religious beliefs and religious literature. Specifically, religious beliefs included beliefs (e.g., witchcraft culture, Taoism, and Buddhism), gods, types of witchcraft culture (e.g., Shibi, Duangong, and Elder culture), clergies (e.g., Shibi, Duangong, and witch doctor), witchcraft, and taboos. Religious festivals are one of the means of practicing religious beliefs. Thus, festivals such as the Mountain Festival, Kannon Festival, and Central Plains Festival were not listed separately but classified into the category of religious beliefs. Religious literature is an important means of expressing religious thoughts, strengthening religious beliefs, and expanding religious influence. The religious literature of the Qiang ethnic group mainly referred to their ancestors, heroes, myths, folk, animals and plants, places, and historical legends. Elements of religious literature were not extracted in detail in the study.

3.2 Field survey

Adolescents constitute the basic unit of society and the main body that transmits culture. As such, their cognition of national culture is related to the future of national cultural development. The universalization rate is the percentage of the population of a given age in education that has reached a certain level of school completion. The rate marks the degree of universalization of a particular level of education. According to the sixth census of China in 2010, the study area exhibited a high universalization rate of junior and senior high school education among the total population. In particular, the universalization rates in the Mao, Li, and Wenchuan Counties were 80.6, 78.7, and 74.4%, respectively. To improve the reliability of the survey results, the study recruited junior and senior high school students aged 13–18 years from different regions of the study area. The respondents came from different villages in their respective counties, giving the perspective of a wider range of people in the region [13]. Meanwhile, their responses were expected to represent the status of the people’s cognition of the Qiang religious culture, because they form part of the generation that inherits the traditional culture.

Based on the classification of religious resources of the Qiang people, the study designed a questionnaire (see Table S1 of the Supplementary Material) to investigate the respondents’ cognitive level regarding the Qiang religious culture in the basin. Respondents were informed about the type of study and study ethics and were free to participate in the study. Meanwhile, they were further assured that the details and information that they provided and their identity would never be disclosed to others and would be destroyed after the accomplishment of the study. Moreover, participants of the study were informed about the study with a PPT presentation regarding the purpose and significance of the study followed by a semi-closed questionnaire and answer session presented through a slideshow to help them clear their doubts if they had. The research methodology and survey activities of this study were known to the Southwest University of Science and Technology (China).

From September 2017 to February 2019, the research group recorded the Qiang villages through field visits, household interviews, and photographic recordings. The study area covered 3 counties and 37 townships. The field survey route ran from Mao County to Wenchuan County and then Li County. The researchers distributed 350 questionnaires, of which 293 were recovered and considered valid with an effective rate of 83.71%. Among the valid questionnaires, the number of questionnaires in Li, Wenchuan, and Mao Counties are 59, 75, and 159, respectively, and covered 37 townships in the study area.

3.3 Mathematical model

3.3.1 Statistical model

The probability or proportion of subtype j (Table 1) as selected by the respondents from a particular region can represent the cognitive level of the respondents of subtype j. Equations (1)–(3) illustrate the calculation models.

(1) X i j = x i j / R ,

(2) Y i = ∑ X i j / m ,

(3) Y = ∑ Y i j / n .

In equations (1)–(3), R denotes the number of valid questionnaires in the region; x ij denotes the number of subtype j (j = 1, 2,…, m) selected from the main type i (i = 1, 2,…, n, namely, religious buildings, supplies, literature, and beliefs) of the Qiang religious culture in the region; X ij refers to the cognitive degree of subtype j of main type i in the region; Y i stands for the cognitive degree of main type i in the region; and Y represents the comprehensive cognitive degree of the Qiang religious culture. Region refers to the town, county, or basin.

3.3.2 Spatial autocorrelation

Spatial autocorrelation in GIS helps understand the degree to which one object is similar to other nearby objects. According to the scope of the research object, spatial autocorrelation analysis can be divided into global spatial autocorrelation analysis and local spatial autocorrelation analysis. The global autocorrelation analysis is performed by Moran’s I (index) method, and the local autocorrelation analysis is performed by the Getis-Ord Gi* method [35,41]. Moran’s I is a measure of the degree to which the value at a target site is similar to values at adjacent sites and is used to test the correlation between two adjacent units in the study area. I > 0 indicates positive spatial correlation; I < 0 indicates negative spatial correlation; and I = 0 indicates no spatial correlation. Getis-Ord Gi* is used to identify areas where high (hot spot) or low (cold spot) values cluster in space. In the study, the two methods were used to analyze the spatial clustering characteristics of the Qiang religious culture.

3.3.3 Geo-detector

Geo-detector is a tool used for identifying the spatial heterogeneity of data and for revealing the influencing factors [34]. It can measure the explanatory degree of an independent variable on the dependent variable by detecting the consistency of spatial differentiation among variables through spatial heterogeneity [42]. The detector features four modules. The factor detector module of them was used to identify the main factors that significantly influence the regional differentiation of the cognitive degrees of the respondents in relation to the Qiang religious culture from potential impact factors. Equation (4) illustrates the calculation model.

(4) P D , H = 1 − ∑ n i σ i 2 / n σ 2 .

In equation (4), P D,H denotes the explanatory power of D on H, which indicates the level of influence of the influencing factors on the regional differentiation of the respondents’ cognition of the Qiang religious culture; n and n i represent the sample sizes of region and subregion i (i = 1, 2, …, L), respectively; and σ 2 and σ i 2 indicate the sample variances of region and subregion i (i = 1, 2, …, L), respectively. The value range of P D,H is [0,1]. The larger the value, the stronger is the explanatory power of D on H and the greater is the influence.

The interaction detector module of the Geo-detector revealed the modes of interaction among the factors that influence the regional differentiation of respondents’ cognitive level (Table 2). The P D,H values for single and paired factors were compared to determine whether they enhanced or weakened the explanatory power of regional differentiation on H.

Table 2

Interaction between explanatory variables

Descriptiona Interaction type
P D,H (X 1 ∩ X 2) < Min(P D,H (X 1), P D,H (X 2)) Weaken, nonlinear
Min(P D,H (X 1), P D,H (X 2)) < P D,H (X 1 ∩ X 2) < Max(P D,H (X 1), P D,H (X 2)) Weaken, univariate Nonlinear
P D,H (X 1 ∩ X 2) > Max(P D,H (X 1), P D,H (X 2)) Enhance, bi-factor
P D,H (X 1 ∩ X 2) = P D,H (X 1) + P D,H (X 2) Independent
P D,H (X 1 ∩ X 2) > P D,H (X 1) + P D,H (X 2) Enhance, nonlinear

a P D,H refers to its statistical value for factors X 1 and/or X 2 (http://geodetector.cn/).

The independent variable of the Geo-detector should be a type quantity; if the independent variable is a numerical quantity, it needs to be discretized. During data processing, the study employed natural breaks, the k-means method, and quantile characteristics to discretize the data.

3.4 Influence factors selection

The respondents’ cognition of religious culture was influenced by the geographic environment, as well as human life and production, closely related to social, economic, and natural factors. Natural, social, and economic factors were selected to explore the driving force that influences the regional differentiation of the cognitive levels of the respondents regarding the Qiang religious culture.

First, in mountainous areas, natural factors play an important role in determining the livelihood and lifestyle choices of inhabitants, whereas their variability determines cultural diversity. The Upper Min River is characterized by high mountains and valleys and is a typical distribution area of arid valleys. The topography redistributes the water and heat conditions in the vertical direction of the mountain, making the production and lifestyle of the inhabitants show vertical variation characteristics as well. A warm climate is good for human survival and socioeconomic development, as well as for the succession of religious culture [30]. Regions with more abundant water resources usually bore more elements of cultural heritage due to active cultural activity in such areas [43]. In addition to these factors of elevation, annual average temperature (AT), and annual precipitation (AP), we added annual average humidity (AH) to reflect the arid valley characteristics of the study area.

Second, population density (PD) and average night light index (ANLI) were selected as impact factors to characterize the population features and economic level of the study area. PD represents the aggregation status of the geographical distribution of the population. A sufficient population provides abundant human resources for the formation and development of the national culture. ANLI represents the level of socioeconomic development of a region. Economic growth has promoted communication and interaction across ethnic groups and further influenced the inheritance of religious culture.

Third, the factors were also selected with consideration of their representativeness, comprehensiveness, and accessibility. Therefore, we selected elevation, AT, AP, AH, PD, and ANLI as the influencing factors of the regional differentiation of the respondents’ cognitive degree (RCD).

4 Results and discussions

4.1 Cognitive degree for the Qiang religious culture

The statistical results showed that the cognitive degree of the respondents regarding the Qiang religious culture in the Upper Reaches of Min River was 0.258 ± 0.031. The cognitive degrees for the four main types of cultural resources of the Qiang religious culture were ranked as follows (Figure 2): religious literature (0.332) > religious supplies (0.287 ± 0.076) > religious buildings (0.222 ± 0.037) > religious beliefs (0.193 ± 0.023). Therefore, the cognitive level of the respondents for nonmaterial cultural resources of the Qiang religion was better than that for the material cultural resources as a whole at 0.262 ± 0.032 and 0.254 ± 0.069, respectively. Figure 3 shows the cognitive degrees for the subtypes of Qiang religious supplies, buildings, and literature.

Figure 2 Cognitive degrees of the main types of Qiang religious culture.
Figure 2

Cognitive degrees of the main types of Qiang religious culture.

Figure 3 Cognitive degrees of the subtypes of Qiang religious culture.
Figure 3

Cognitive degrees of the subtypes of Qiang religious culture.

Religious literature mainly refers to the epics and legends in the Qiang religious culture and has an understandable presentation and popular form of communication. It exhibited the highest cognitive level among the respondents at 0.332. On the one hand, as one of the oldest ethnicities in China, the Qiang culture has rich legends and myths with a long history [44]. The epics and legends reflect the life, beliefs, customs, etiquettes, cultural emotions, and historical changes of the Qiang people [45]. Being romantic, peculiar, and easy to understand, they attract considerable attention and can help stimulate a sense of national belonging and interest. On the other hand, the language spoken by the Qiang people lacks a script. Religious literature is mainly communicated in the oral form and in a relatively simple manner. This also helps make religious literature accessible to Qiang adolescents.

Religious supplies play an important role in religious activities. The cognitive degree of the respondents regarding religious supplies ranked second with a value of 0.287 ± 0.076. Religious supplies are more readily available in the lives of the residents and can be preserved for a long time due to their diversity and artistry. These materials are helpful for teenagers in understanding religious supplies. According to the field surveys, the frequency of religious activities among the Qiang people has been greatly reduced, and the participation of ordinary residents has declined. Nevertheless, certain religious supplies remain necessary for important religious festivals, family prayers, and sacrificial activities. Among them, taofu, fuzhi, incense, candles, five types of cereals, wine, bacon, and shaomo are common offerings by residents. Moreover, sheepskin coats and monkey fur hats are important costumes of Shibi and are important elements in many religious theatrical performances [46]. As shown in Figure 3, according to the subtypes of religious supplies, the cognitive degrees for sacrificial offerings and clergy’s clothing and hats were high at 0.499 and 0.418, respectively. However, the cognitive degrees regarding the scriptures and ritual utensils were low at 0.113 and 0.117, respectively.

Religious buildings are one of the main expressions of religious culture. The cognitive degree of the respondents for religious buildings was low, which ranked third with a value of 0.222 ± 0.037. The Upper Reaches of Min River is located in the Longmenshan fault zone. Certain temples, ruins, and stone statues were damaged due to frequent geological disasters and failed to be effectively restored [47]. The number of well-preserved religious buildings is also low, which resulted in the destruction and extinction of a few religious resources [48,49]. In addition, the number of newly built temples is small due to the reduction in social demand. The quantity and diversity of religious architectural elements, such as huotang and jiaojiaoshen, have decreased due to modern residential construction and traditional residential transformation [50,51]. These scenarios are closely related to the change in the production and lifestyle of residents and the influence of cultural integration [52]. Therefore, the RCDs of stone statues, relics of sacrificial activities, and temples among the subtypes of religious buildings decreased in order (Figure 3).

Religious beliefs, a vital part of the religious culture system, showed the lowest cognitive degree (0.193 ± 0.023) among the respondents. With the support of the local government, Qiang traditional festivals have been protected and developed, and religious elements have been effectively inherited [9]. Thus, beliefs and religious festivals showed high cognitive degrees among respondents with 0.261 and 0.228, respectively (Figure 3). Furthermore, Shibi is the core of the Qiang religious culture and the bridge between man and God [53]. However, the respondents displayed low levels of cognition of witchcraft and clergies, with cognitive degrees of 0.186 and 0.172, respectively. Meanwhile, many religious rituals and folk belief ceremonies have disappeared, and certain customs and taboos have gradually faded. These phenomena were reflected in the low cognitive degrees of the respondents regarding religious gods and taboos at 0.144 and 0.138, respectively.

4.2 Regional differentiation of respondents’ cognition

4.2.1 Regional distribution characteristics

Qiang settlements tend to form more independent units of economic production and social life due to limitations, such as topographical conditions, and experiences of cultural changes such as war, integration, division, and migration. Therefore, the settlements across regions feature differences in their language, culture, customs, and economy. Influenced by historical circumstances and social conditions, the respondents’ cognition of the Qiang religious culture presented certain internal differences and regional characteristics in the Upper Reaches of Min River. The order of cognitive degrees of Qiang religious culture from high to low was as follows: Mao County (0.280 ± 0.034) > Li County (0.251 ± 0.033) > Wenchuan County (0.219 ± 0.027), which was also the order of cognition for each main type of cultural resources among the counties (Figure 2). We used the natural breaks (Jenks) method to classify the cognitive degree of 37 townships into four levels: high, medium, low, and poor (Table 3). Figure 4 shows the regional distributions of cognitive degrees of religious culture and its main types, which suggested the result that the cognition of the northern region was higher than that of the southern region and higher in the upstream region of the river than in the downstream region.

Table 3

Cognitive levels of religious culture and its main types

Item Cognitive degree Cognitive levela
Religious buildings 0.033–0.124 Poor
0.125–0.208 Low
0.209–0.285 Medium
0.286–0.391 High
Religious supplies 0.095 Poor
0.096–0.251 Low
0.252–0.372 Medium
0.373–0.532 High
Religious literature 0.133–0.239 Poor
0.240–0.324 Low
0.325–0.432 Medium
0.433–0.600 High
Religious beliefs 0.085–0.122 Poor
0.123–0.170 Low
0.171–0.210 Medium
0.211–0.287 High
Religious culture 0.119–0.165 Poor
0.166–0.237 Low
0.238–0.315 Medium
0.316–0.433 High

aPoor means that respondents know little about the item, their cognitive degree of the item is the lowest, and the item carries a high risk of loss. Low means that respondents have some understanding of the item, their cognitive level of the item is low, and the item has a certain risk of loss. Medium means that the respondents have a good knowledge of the item, their cognition of the item is good, and the item has a low risk of loss. High means that the respondents are familiar with the item, their cognition of the item is the highest, and the item has the lowest risk of losing.

Figure 4 Spatial distributions of cognition levels about religious culture and its main types: (a) religious buildings; (b) religious supplies; (c) religious literature; (d) religious beliefs; and (e) religious culture.
Figure 4

Spatial distributions of cognition levels about religious culture and its main types: (a) religious buildings; (b) religious supplies; (c) religious literature; (d) religious beliefs; and (e) religious culture.

Table 4 shows the Moran’s I for religious culture and its main types. The Moran’s I for religious culture, buildings, supplies, and beliefs were all positive, ranging from 0.151 to 0.186. The z scores for religious culture and the three main types were tested to be above the cut-off value of 1.960 and were statistically significant (p < 0.05). The results suggested that religious culture, buildings, supplies, and beliefs showed a positive spatial correlation with significant spatial aggregation. However, religious literature showed a negative spatial correlation with random distribution.

Table 4

Moran’s I for religious culture and its main types

Moran’s I z p
Religious buildings 0.175 2.289 0.022*
Religious supplies 0.156 2.181 0.029*
Religious literature −0.038 −0.112 0.911
Religious beliefs 0.186 2.419 0.016*
Religious culture 0.151 2.046 0.041*

*Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level.

In addition, Getis-Ord Gi* method was applied to study the group features of the respondents’ cognition of religious culture. The hot and cold zones were areas representing higher and lower levels of respondents’ cognition, respectively. According to the value of Getis-Ord Gi and the significance level, the township-scale cognitive degrees of religious culture and its main types were classified into three categories using the Natural Breaks (Jenks) method: cold spot, hot spot, and randomly distributed area (Figure 5). The regional differentiation of cold and hot spots of religious culture and its main types was obvious. The hot spots were concentrated in the township of Diexi, Wadi, and Taiping in northern Mao County, while the cold spots were mainly in the township of Gengda, Wolong, Sanjiang, Shuimo, Xuankou, and Yingxiu in southern Wenchuan County.

Figure 5 Cold-hot spots about religious culture and its main types: (a) religious buildings; (b) religious supplies; (c) religious literature; (d) religious beliefs; and (e) religious culture.
Figure 5

Cold-hot spots about religious culture and its main types: (a) religious buildings; (b) religious supplies; (c) religious literature; (d) religious beliefs; and (e) religious culture.

4.2.2 Analysis of influencing factors

The respondents’ cognition of religious culture is influenced by natural, social, and economic factors. In this study, the RCD of religious culture was defined as the dependent variable, while elevation, AT, AP, AH, PD, and ANLI were defined as independent variables (Figure 6). The Geo-detector was used to measure the influence of different factors on the distribution of RCD. The results showed that: different indicators presented diverse influences on the distribution of RCD.

Figure 6 Impact factors: (a) elevation; (b) AT; (c) AP; (d) AH; (e) PD; and (f) ANLI.
Figure 6

Impact factors: (a) elevation; (b) AT; (c) AP; (d) AH; (e) PD; and (f) ANLI.

Table 5 presents the results of the factor detector analysis. The P D,H values of AH (0.293), elevation (0.280), AT (0.259), AP (0.234), and ANLI (0.183) decreased, and their influences were statistically significant (p < 0.05). The social factor PD exerted the lowest influence at 0.107, which was statistically nonsignificant (p > 0.05). Among the statistically significant factors, the natural ones were found in the top four with an average P D,H value of 0.267 ± 0.013. Conversely, the P D,H value for ANLI was the lowest at only 63% of AH. Therefore, natural factors had a considerable impact on the regional differentiation of RCD regarding the Qiang religious culture, whereas economic and social factors exerted a relatively small influence.

Table 5

Influence of factors on the regional differentiation of respondents’ cognition based on factor detector analysis

Factora P D,H p Value
AH 0.293 0.021*
Elevation 0.280 0.007*
AT 0.259 0.027*
AP 0.234 0.020*
ANLI 0.183 0.009*
PD 0.107 0.158

aAT, annual average temperature; AP, annual precipitation; AH, annual average humidity; ANLI, average night light index; PD, population density. *Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level.

Table 6 depicts the interactive influence between factors. Among them, PD was not considered due to its nonsignificance influence. The results showed that the influence of natural and economic factors on RCD distribution was not independent, but two factors enhanced the way. The interactive effect of any two factors was greater than that of a single one. The interactions between economic and natural factors were more capable of explaining the difference in RCD distribution. Moreover, the average increase in the explanatory power of each factor reached approximately 57%. The ranking of the explanatory power of the larger interactions was as follows: (AH ∩ AT) > (AH ∩ AP) > (AH ∩ elevation) > (AH ∩ ANLI). When interacting with AH, the P D,H values of the other factors increased by more than 96%. Although the P D,H value of the economic factor ANLI was the lowest by itself, its influence increased by 90% when interacting with natural factors. In this case, the P D,H value for (AH ∩ ANLI) was 2.4 times higher than that of ANLI alone.

Table 6

Interactive influence of factors on the regional differentiation of respondents’ cognition

Factorsa Elevation AT AP AH ANLI
Elevation 0.280
AT 0.329 0.259
AP 0.326 0.322 0.234
AH 0.469 0.542 0.492 0.293
ANLI 0.353 0.304 0.294 0.443 0.183

aAT, annual average temperature; AP, annual precipitation; AH, annual average humidity; ANLI, average night light index; PD, population density.

Correlation analysis can be used to measure the depth of the relationship between each factor and the respondents’ cognitive levels. Due to the strong co-linearity between elevation and meteorological factors, we selected elevation, ANLI, and PD for correlation analysis. As determined from the normality test, the distributions of the three factors were nonnormal, whereas the RCD displayed a normal distribution. Therefore, Spearman’s correlation coefficient was used for the correlation analysis between the RCD and influence factors in the study. Table 7 presented the results. In particular, elevation was significantly positively correlated with RCD, whereas ANLI was significantly negatively correlated with RCD. Moreover, no significant correlation was observed between PD and RCD. In other words, the RCD of the Qiang religious culture was low in areas with low altitudes and high economic levels.

Table 7

Correlation characteristics between the respondents’ cognition and factors

Factors Elevation ANLI PD
RCD Correlation coefficient 0.492** −0.365* −0.024
Significant 0.002 0.026 0.890
Number 37 37 37

**Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level; *correlation is significant at the 0.05 level.

4.2.3 Discussions on spatial distribution characteristics

Natural factors dominantly influence the regional differentiation of RCD regarding the religious culture in the Upper Reaches of Min River. This result is similar to that of the study on the driving force of the heritage of Qiang ethnic costumes [13]. In mountainous areas, natural factors play an important role in determining the livelihood and lifestyle choices of inhabitants, whereas their variability determines cultural diversity [1]. The Upper Reaches of Min River is characterized by high mountains and valleys and presents a unique natural ecological landscape that ranges from the bottom of the valley to the mountain top [39]. The Qiang settlements are mainly concentrated in the arid valley (from 1,180 to 3,200 m) and the gentle slopes above this valley. The mountains provide nearly all means of livelihood for residents. At the same time, severe climate and mountain disasters seriously affect the living, production, and travel of the residents. Therefore, nature is the object of worship according to the religious belief of the Qiang people. The residents are grateful to and in awe of the mountains on which they reside. The natural environment of the mountains creates a mysterious image and sacred status of the Mountain God in the minds of the Qiang people, giving rise to a belief culture with the holy mountain at its center [54]. Historical legends, production taboos, and living customs according to the religious culture of the Qiang people are closely related to the natural environment. For these reasons, the regional differentiation of the natural variables may have subconsciously influenced the regional differentiation of the cognitive levels of the respondents about the Qiang religion. Meanwhile, the influence of modernization and cultural integration on the production and life of residents in high-altitude settlements may be attributed to the limitation of geographical conditions [55,56]. This limitation has contributed to the preservation and identification of their religious culture, as reflected by the positive correlation between elevation and RCD.

ANLI represents the level of socioeconomic development of a region. The culture is founded based on higher spiritual demands that come after the economic demands have been satisfied [57]. The developed economy provides the necessary technology and material basis for culture transmission. Economic growth has promoted communication and interaction across ethnic groups and has further influenced the inheritance of national culture. Although ANLI is not a dominant factor for the regional differentiation of RCD, its interaction with natural factors mainly enhances its influence. On the one hand, low-altitude valleys along the mainstream form the center of regional economic development in the Upper Reaches of Min River, where tourism is the most rapidly developing sphere. In the development of regional tourism resources, several religious activities (e.g., Shibi chanting and sheepskin drum dancing) are presented in the form of cultural performances. The literary activities play a positive role in the inheritance of the Qiang religious culture and stimulate the outside world, especially the young people belonging to the Qiang ethnic groups, to understand their religious culture. However, the religious–cultural significance and faith connotations contained in the culture have gradually disappeared with the increase in the entertainment perspective of these activities [58]. On the other hand, economic development in high-altitude areas is relatively slow, such that the income of the residents is mainly dependent on agricultural and forestry activities. In the process of migration, a large number of people from the Qiang population in high-altitude areas move to the valley or urban areas, which have high ANLI, and the residents obtain better access to nonfarming opportunities and additional financial capital [16]. Furthermore, it is the general rule of social development to transition from etiquette and custom society to legal society, and the traditional religious culture of the Qiang people has faced scientific challenges during this process [59]. For example, witch doctors or witchcraft, which are considered as a means of relieving pain during the early days of the Qiang people, have been replaced by modern medical technology. This has also influenced the respondents’ cognition of the elements of religious culture. In summary, these social changes may contribute to the significant negative correlation between ANLI and RCD to a certain extent. Therefore, balancing the relationship between economic development and cultural inheritance is an essential part of the research on national culture.

PD represents the aggregation status of the geographical distribution of population. Its influence on the regional differentiation of RCD was statistically nonsignificant, and no statistical correlation was observed between PD and RCD. Therefore, the cognitive status of the respondents in relation to their religious culture cannot be judged by PD characteristics. However, the influence of demographic factors on religious culture cannot be ignored. People are the carriers of religious culture. A sufficient population provides abundant human resources for the formation and development of the national culture. In the Upper Reaches of Min River, PD exhibits a vertical differentiation, which decreases with the increase in altitude [39,60]. With the acceleration of urbanization and migration for education and due to disasters and the ecology, population loss is frequent in high mountainous areas. The population outflow has led to the abandonment of large amounts of land resources and has led to a decrease in the number of participants in religious festivals. To a certain extent, this scenario has restricted the spread of the traditional religious culture in the region. Meanwhile, the Qiang language lacks a written form, whereas the clergy Shibi is the embodiment and inheritor of Qiang religious culture. The population loss renders the search for suitable candidates as the successor of Shibi due to the strict selection criteria. Thus, the influence of PD on the cognitive differentiation of religious culture is dependent on physical geography and economic development to a certain extent [61,62].

4.3 Suggestions for sustainable development of Qiang religious culture

Effectively inheriting national culture and setting it on the path of sustainable development is a vital element of national cultural inheritance and preservation. Product characteristics are one of the root cause elements affecting the inheritance of intangible cultural heritage [63]. Based on the results, religious beliefs are a key part of the inheritance of the Qiang religious culture due to the respondents’ poor cognitive status in this regard. Religious literature reflects the life, beliefs, customs, etiquettes, cultural emotions, and historical changes of the Qiang people and exhibited the highest cognitive level among the respondents. The disseminative character of Qiang religious literature can be used to improve young people’s understanding of religious beliefs. With the continuous innovation and progress of Internet technology, diversified literary communication paths and richer forms of literary communication will further improve people’s knowledge of Qiang religious culture. Meanwhile, since religious supplies are necessary for important religious festivals, family prayers, and ceremonies, the interpretation and innovative development of sacrificial offerings and clergy’s clothing and hats can be enhanced to raise respondents’ cognition of religious beliefs. It also strengthens the collection, organization and display of folk classical scriptures and ritual utensils, and so on. In addition, to strengthen the inheritance of religious architectural elements, besides the need to strengthen the protection of ancient religious architecture, it is also necessary to combine traditional religious culture with modern elements to meet the aesthetic needs of modern culture.

The policy is another root cause element affecting the inheritance of intangible cultural heritage transmission. Education is an important means of inheriting human culture [64,65]. Through policy guidance, the construction of an effective school, social, and family cultural education system can help promote young people’s cognition of their religious beliefs. Also, opportunities are provided for young people to participate in various ways in the preservation of the religious culture, such as participating in family rituals and celebrating religious holidays. Meanwhile, given the significant influence of natural factors on the cognitive differentiation of the Qiang religious culture, a localized in situ strategy in different geographical regions for culture inheritance is crucial. Furthermore, the cognition of the Qiang religious culture is closely related to economic development. Therefore, the key to developing the religious culture amid the modernization process is to address the relationship between culture and economy and reveal the connotation of religious culture in economic construction [66,67]. The government should set up an evaluation and protection system to guarantee the sustainable development of religious culture in the hot-spot area and the effective transmission of religious culture in cold spots. For example, in the northern areas with low altitude and better economic development, the dissemination and development of religious cultural resources can be the main direction of cultural construction, strengthening the modern integration of excellent traditional religious elements, adopting VR and other methods to restore cultural relics and scenes, to show the charm of traditional religious culture; in the southern areas with high altitude and poor economic conditions, cultural construction should focus on the collection and protection of excellent history and culture, using modern science and technology to establish an information database and implement resource management for religious culture. Moreover, attention must be paid to maintaining the original religious–cultural characteristics to preserve the sacredness of the religion to the greatest extent possible. In this study, other factors, such as transportation, settlement size, farmland area, and economic industry structure, were not considered. In a future study, factors such as time factor, all-age population, and comprehensiveness of evaluation criteria should also be involved in the analysis to obtain a more comprehensive understanding.

5 Conclusions

Religious culture is an essential part of the Qiang ethnicity, which provides support in terms of spiritual value to the survival and development of the Qiang people. This study constructed the resource system of the Qiang religious culture from material and nonmaterial aspects, including religious buildings, supplies, literature, and beliefs. It then revealed the cognitive characteristics of the respondents from the study area regarding the Qiang religious culture. In addition, the study conducted a quantitative analysis of the factors influencing the regional differentiation of cognitive levels and their influencing characteristics.

The respondents’ cognition of the Qiang religious culture in the Upper Reaches of Min River was 0.258 ± 0.031, whereas those for the main types of Qiang religious cultural resources were religious literature > religious supplies > religious buildings > religious beliefs. Meanwhile, the respondents’ cognition presented significant regional differentiation characteristics: the cognitive degrees in the northern region were higher than that in the southern region; religious culture, buildings, supplies, and beliefs showed a positive spatial correlation with significant spatial aggregation. Natural factors had a considerable impact on the regional differentiation of respondents’ cognition, whereas the influence of economic and social factors was relatively low. Although the influence of factors such as AH, elevation, AT, AP, and ANLI on the regional differentiation of respondents’ cognition decreased, their influence was enhanced when they interact with one another. Furthermore, elevation and ANLI exhibited significant correlations with the cognitive degree of the Qiang religious culture.

The regional differentiation mechanism of cognition for the Qiang religious culture is complex, and close relationships are observed among various factors. However, the study was unable to cover all influencing factors due to the limitations in data acquisition. Moreover, the results still need to be improved in terms of guiding practice. For example, this study focused on the cognition of religious culture among adolescents aged 13–18 years without considering the influence of demographic characteristics such as the age structure and occupation of the regional population. In conclusion, this study provides a basic framework for quantitatively studying the inheritance characteristics of national religious culture using geographic methods. By revealing the cognitive status of cultural elements and their regional differentiations in ethnic minority regions, the results can serve as a reference for examining the adaptation of human culture to the natural environment and can contribute to the efficient inheritance of ethnic cultures in minority areas.

Abbreviations

AH

annual average humidity

ANLI

average night light index

AP

annual precipitation

AT

annual average temperature

PD

population density

RCD

the respondents’ cognitive degree

Acknowledgments

We thank the participants for their support of the survey. Thanks to all members of the research group for their support during the field investigation.

  1. Funding information: This work was funded by the Natural Science Foundation of Southwest University of Science and Technology (grant number 18zx7117) and the Science Press (China) project “Research on Settlement Ecosystem and Cultural Heritage in the Upper Reaches of the Yangtze River.”

  2. Author contributions: Y.-W.P.: data curation, investigation, methodology, visualization, writing – original draft; G.-Y.L.: conceptualization and writing – review and editing; W.-Q.: conceptualization and writing – review & editing; H.-Y.W.: investigation; A.-Y.D.: data curation and investigation. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest regarding the publication of this manuscript.

  4. Data availability statement: The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors.

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Received: 2022-07-14
Revised: 2023-05-15
Accepted: 2023-05-15
Published Online: 2023-07-10

© 2023 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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  41. Correlation between the deformation of mineral crystal structures and fault activity: A case study of the Yingxiu-Beichuan fault and the Milin fault
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  47. Influence of fractures in tight sandstone oil reservoir on hydrocarbon accumulation: A case study of Yanchang Formation in southeastern Ordos Basin
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  51. Lignin analysis of sediments from around 2,000 to 1,000 years ago (Jiulong River estuary, southeast China)
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  59. Geological earthquake simulations generated by kinematic heterogeneous energy-based method: Self-arrested ruptures and asperity criterion
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  61. Geochemical characteristics of arc fractionated I-type granitoids of eastern Tak Batholith, Thailand
  62. Lithology classification of igneous rocks using C-band and L-band dual-polarization SAR data
  63. Analysis of artificial intelligence approaches to predict the wall deflection induced by deep excavation
  64. Evaluation of the current in situ stress in the middle Permian Maokou Formation in the Longnüsi area of the central Sichuan Basin, China
  65. Utilizing microresistivity image logs to recognize conglomeratic channel architectural elements of Baikouquan Formation in slope of Mahu Sag
  66. Resistivity cutoff of low-resistivity and low-contrast pays in sandstone reservoirs from conventional well logs: A case of Paleogene Enping Formation in A-Oilfield, Pearl River Mouth Basin, South China Sea
  67. Examining the evacuation routes of the sister village program by using the ant colony optimization algorithm
  68. Spatial objects classification using machine learning and spatial walk algorithm
  69. Study on the stabilization mechanism of aeolian sandy soil formation by adding a natural soft rock
  70. Bump feature detection of the road surface based on the Bi-LSTM
  71. The origin and evolution of the ore-forming fluids at the Manondo-Choma gold prospect, Kirk range, southern Malawi
  72. A retrieval model of surface geochemistry composition based on remotely sensed data
  73. Exploring the spatial dynamics of cultural facilities based on multi-source data: A case study of Nanjing’s art institutions
  74. Study of pore-throat structure characteristics and fluid mobility of Chang 7 tight sandstone reservoir in Jiyuan area, Ordos Basin
  75. Study of fracturing fluid re-discharge based on percolation experiments and sampling tests – An example of Fuling shale gas Jiangdong block, China
  76. Impacts of marine cloud brightening scheme on climatic extremes in the Tibetan Plateau
  77. Ecological protection on the West Coast of Taiwan Strait under economic zone construction: A case study of land use in Yueqing
  78. The time-dependent deformation and damage constitutive model of rock based on dynamic disturbance tests
  79. Evaluation of spatial form of rural ecological landscape and vulnerability of water ecological environment based on analytic hierarchy process
  80. Fingerprint of magma mixture in the leucogranites: Spectroscopic and petrochemical approach, Kalebalta-Central Anatolia, Türkiye
  81. Principles of self-calibration and visual effects for digital camera distortion
  82. UAV-based doline mapping in Brazilian karst: A cave heritage protection reconnaissance
  83. Evaluation and low carbon ecological urban–rural planning and construction based on energy planning mechanism
  84. Modified non-local means: A novel denoising approach to process gravity field data
  85. A novel travel route planning method based on an ant colony optimization algorithm
  86. Effect of time-variant NDVI on landside susceptibility: A case study in Quang Ngai province, Vietnam
  87. Regional tectonic uplift indicated by geomorphological parameters in the Bahe River Basin, central China
  88. Computer information technology-based green excavation of tunnels in complex strata and technical decision of deformation control
  89. Spatial evolution of coastal environmental enterprises: An exploration of driving factors in Jiangsu Province
  90. A comparative assessment and geospatial simulation of three hydrological models in urban basins
  91. Aquaculture industry under the blue transformation in Jiangsu, China: Structure evolution and spatial agglomeration
  92. Quantitative and qualitative interpretation of community partitions by map overlaying and calculating the distribution of related geographical features
  93. Numerical investigation of gravity-grouted soil-nail pullout capacity in sand
  94. Analysis of heavy pollution weather in Shenyang City and numerical simulation of main pollutants
  95. Road cut slope stability analysis for static and dynamic (pseudo-static analysis) loading conditions
  96. Forest biomass assessment combining field inventorying and remote sensing data
  97. Late Jurassic Haobugao granites from the southern Great Xing’an Range, NE China: Implications for postcollision extension of the Mongol–Okhotsk Ocean
  98. Petrogenesis of the Sukadana Basalt based on petrology and whole rock geochemistry, Lampung, Indonesia: Geodynamic significances
  99. Numerical study on the group wall effect of nodular diaphragm wall foundation in high-rise buildings
  100. Water resources utilization and tourism environment assessment based on water footprint
  101. Geochemical evaluation of the carbonaceous shale associated with the Permian Mikambeni Formation of the Tuli Basin for potential gas generation, South Africa
  102. Detection and characterization of lineaments using gravity data in the south-west Cameroon zone: Hydrogeological implications
  103. Study on spatial pattern of tourism landscape resources in county cities of Yangtze River Economic Belt
  104. The effect of weathering on drillability of dolomites
  105. Noise masking of near-surface scattering (heterogeneities) on subsurface seismic reflectivity
  106. Query optimization-oriented lateral expansion method of distributed geological borehole database
  107. Petrogenesis of the Morobe Granodiorite and their shoshonitic mafic microgranular enclaves in Maramuni arc, Papua New Guinea
  108. Environmental health risk assessment of urban water sources based on fuzzy set theory
  109. Spatial distribution of urban basic education resources in Shanghai: Accessibility and supply-demand matching evaluation
  110. Spatiotemporal changes in land use and residential satisfaction in the Huai River-Gaoyou Lake Rim area
  111. Walkaway vertical seismic profiling first-arrival traveltime tomography with velocity structure constraints
  112. Study on the evaluation system and risk factor traceability of receiving water body
  113. Predicting copper-polymetallic deposits in Kalatag using the weight of evidence model and novel data sources
  114. Temporal dynamics of green urban areas in Romania. A comparison between spatial and statistical data
  115. Passenger flow forecast of tourist attraction based on MACBL in LBS big data environment
  116. Varying particle size selectivity of soil erosion along a cultivated catena
  117. Relationship between annual soil erosion and surface runoff in Wadi Hanifa sub-basins
  118. Influence of nappe structure on the Carboniferous volcanic reservoir in the middle of the Hongche Fault Zone, Junggar Basin, China
  119. Dynamic analysis of MSE wall subjected to surface vibration loading
  120. Pre-collisional architecture of the European distal margin: Inferences from the high-pressure continental units of central Corsica (France)
  121. The interrelation of natural diversity with tourism in Kosovo
  122. Assessment of geosites as a basis for geotourism development: A case study of the Toplica District, Serbia
  123. IG-YOLOv5-based underwater biological recognition and detection for marine protection
  124. Monitoring drought dynamics using remote sensing-based combined drought index in Ergene Basin, Türkiye
  125. Review Articles
  126. The actual state of the geodetic and cartographic resources and legislation in Poland
  127. Evaluation studies of the new mining projects
  128. Comparison and significance of grain size parameters of the Menyuan loess calculated using different methods
  129. Scientometric analysis of flood forecasting for Asia region and discussion on machine learning methods
  130. Rainfall-induced transportation embankment failure: A review
  131. Rapid Communication
  132. Branch fault discovered in Tangshan fault zone on the Kaiping-Guye boundary, North China
  133. Technical Note
  134. Introducing an intelligent multi-level retrieval method for mineral resource potential evaluation result data
  135. Erratum
  136. Erratum to “Forest cover assessment using remote-sensing techniques in Crete Island, Greece”
  137. Addendum
  138. The relationship between heat flow and seismicity in global tectonically active zones
  139. Commentary
  140. Improved entropy weight methods and their comparisons in evaluating the high-quality development of Qinghai, China
  141. Special Issue: Geoethics 2022 - Part II
  142. Loess and geotourism potential of the Braničevo District (NE Serbia): From overexploitation to paleoclimate interpretation
https://doi.org/10.1515/geo-2022-0498
Keywords for this article
cognitive degree; regional differentiation; natural factors; population density; average night light index; Geo-detector method
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

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  4. Biostratigraphy of the Late Campanian–Maastrichtian of the Duwi Basin, Red Sea, Egypt
  5. Structural deformation and its implication for hydrocarbon accumulation in the Wuxia fault belt, northwestern Junggar basin, China
  6. Carbonate texture identification using multi-layer perceptron neural network
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  32. Surface deformation and damage of 2022 (M 6.8) Luding earthquake in China and its tectonic implications
  33. Differential analysis of landscape patterns of land cover products in tropical marine climate zones – A case study in Malaysia
  34. DEM-based analysis of tectonic geomorphologic characteristics and tectonic activity intensity of the Dabanghe River Basin in South China Karst
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  36. Study on soil quality effect of reconstructing by Pisha sandstone and sand soil
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  38. Dynamic variation of groundwater level and its influencing factors in typical oasis irrigated areas in Northwest China
  39. Creating digital maps for geotechnical characteristics of soil based on GIS technology and remote sensing
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  41. Correlation between the deformation of mineral crystal structures and fault activity: A case study of the Yingxiu-Beichuan fault and the Milin fault
  42. Cognitive characteristics of the Qiang religious culture and its influencing factors in Southwest China
  43. Spatiotemporal variation characteristics analysis of infrastructure iron stock in China based on nighttime light data
  44. Interpretation of aeromagnetic and remote sensing data of Auchi and Idah sheets of the Benin-arm Anambra basin: Implication of mineral resources
  45. Building element recognition with MTL-AINet considering view perspectives
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  47. Influence of fractures in tight sandstone oil reservoir on hydrocarbon accumulation: A case study of Yanchang Formation in southeastern Ordos Basin
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  50. Spatial variation of soil nutrients and evaluation of cultivated land quality based on field scale
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  54. A symmetrical exponential model of soil temperature in temperate steppe regions of China
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  56. Numerical simulation analysis of ecological monitoring of small reservoir dam based on maximum entropy algorithm
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  58. Adopting a new approach for finding missing people using GIS techniques: A case study in Saudi Arabia’s desert area
  59. Geological earthquake simulations generated by kinematic heterogeneous energy-based method: Self-arrested ruptures and asperity criterion
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  61. Geochemical characteristics of arc fractionated I-type granitoids of eastern Tak Batholith, Thailand
  62. Lithology classification of igneous rocks using C-band and L-band dual-polarization SAR data
  63. Analysis of artificial intelligence approaches to predict the wall deflection induced by deep excavation
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  65. Utilizing microresistivity image logs to recognize conglomeratic channel architectural elements of Baikouquan Formation in slope of Mahu Sag
  66. Resistivity cutoff of low-resistivity and low-contrast pays in sandstone reservoirs from conventional well logs: A case of Paleogene Enping Formation in A-Oilfield, Pearl River Mouth Basin, South China Sea
  67. Examining the evacuation routes of the sister village program by using the ant colony optimization algorithm
  68. Spatial objects classification using machine learning and spatial walk algorithm
  69. Study on the stabilization mechanism of aeolian sandy soil formation by adding a natural soft rock
  70. Bump feature detection of the road surface based on the Bi-LSTM
  71. The origin and evolution of the ore-forming fluids at the Manondo-Choma gold prospect, Kirk range, southern Malawi
  72. A retrieval model of surface geochemistry composition based on remotely sensed data
  73. Exploring the spatial dynamics of cultural facilities based on multi-source data: A case study of Nanjing’s art institutions
  74. Study of pore-throat structure characteristics and fluid mobility of Chang 7 tight sandstone reservoir in Jiyuan area, Ordos Basin
  75. Study of fracturing fluid re-discharge based on percolation experiments and sampling tests – An example of Fuling shale gas Jiangdong block, China
  76. Impacts of marine cloud brightening scheme on climatic extremes in the Tibetan Plateau
  77. Ecological protection on the West Coast of Taiwan Strait under economic zone construction: A case study of land use in Yueqing
  78. The time-dependent deformation and damage constitutive model of rock based on dynamic disturbance tests
  79. Evaluation of spatial form of rural ecological landscape and vulnerability of water ecological environment based on analytic hierarchy process
  80. Fingerprint of magma mixture in the leucogranites: Spectroscopic and petrochemical approach, Kalebalta-Central Anatolia, Türkiye
  81. Principles of self-calibration and visual effects for digital camera distortion
  82. UAV-based doline mapping in Brazilian karst: A cave heritage protection reconnaissance
  83. Evaluation and low carbon ecological urban–rural planning and construction based on energy planning mechanism
  84. Modified non-local means: A novel denoising approach to process gravity field data
  85. A novel travel route planning method based on an ant colony optimization algorithm
  86. Effect of time-variant NDVI on landside susceptibility: A case study in Quang Ngai province, Vietnam
  87. Regional tectonic uplift indicated by geomorphological parameters in the Bahe River Basin, central China
  88. Computer information technology-based green excavation of tunnels in complex strata and technical decision of deformation control
  89. Spatial evolution of coastal environmental enterprises: An exploration of driving factors in Jiangsu Province
  90. A comparative assessment and geospatial simulation of three hydrological models in urban basins
  91. Aquaculture industry under the blue transformation in Jiangsu, China: Structure evolution and spatial agglomeration
  92. Quantitative and qualitative interpretation of community partitions by map overlaying and calculating the distribution of related geographical features
  93. Numerical investigation of gravity-grouted soil-nail pullout capacity in sand
  94. Analysis of heavy pollution weather in Shenyang City and numerical simulation of main pollutants
  95. Road cut slope stability analysis for static and dynamic (pseudo-static analysis) loading conditions
  96. Forest biomass assessment combining field inventorying and remote sensing data
  97. Late Jurassic Haobugao granites from the southern Great Xing’an Range, NE China: Implications for postcollision extension of the Mongol–Okhotsk Ocean
  98. Petrogenesis of the Sukadana Basalt based on petrology and whole rock geochemistry, Lampung, Indonesia: Geodynamic significances
  99. Numerical study on the group wall effect of nodular diaphragm wall foundation in high-rise buildings
  100. Water resources utilization and tourism environment assessment based on water footprint
  101. Geochemical evaluation of the carbonaceous shale associated with the Permian Mikambeni Formation of the Tuli Basin for potential gas generation, South Africa
  102. Detection and characterization of lineaments using gravity data in the south-west Cameroon zone: Hydrogeological implications
  103. Study on spatial pattern of tourism landscape resources in county cities of Yangtze River Economic Belt
  104. The effect of weathering on drillability of dolomites
  105. Noise masking of near-surface scattering (heterogeneities) on subsurface seismic reflectivity
  106. Query optimization-oriented lateral expansion method of distributed geological borehole database
  107. Petrogenesis of the Morobe Granodiorite and their shoshonitic mafic microgranular enclaves in Maramuni arc, Papua New Guinea
  108. Environmental health risk assessment of urban water sources based on fuzzy set theory
  109. Spatial distribution of urban basic education resources in Shanghai: Accessibility and supply-demand matching evaluation
  110. Spatiotemporal changes in land use and residential satisfaction in the Huai River-Gaoyou Lake Rim area
  111. Walkaway vertical seismic profiling first-arrival traveltime tomography with velocity structure constraints
  112. Study on the evaluation system and risk factor traceability of receiving water body
  113. Predicting copper-polymetallic deposits in Kalatag using the weight of evidence model and novel data sources
  114. Temporal dynamics of green urban areas in Romania. A comparison between spatial and statistical data
  115. Passenger flow forecast of tourist attraction based on MACBL in LBS big data environment
  116. Varying particle size selectivity of soil erosion along a cultivated catena
  117. Relationship between annual soil erosion and surface runoff in Wadi Hanifa sub-basins
  118. Influence of nappe structure on the Carboniferous volcanic reservoir in the middle of the Hongche Fault Zone, Junggar Basin, China
  119. Dynamic analysis of MSE wall subjected to surface vibration loading
  120. Pre-collisional architecture of the European distal margin: Inferences from the high-pressure continental units of central Corsica (France)
  121. The interrelation of natural diversity with tourism in Kosovo
  122. Assessment of geosites as a basis for geotourism development: A case study of the Toplica District, Serbia
  123. IG-YOLOv5-based underwater biological recognition and detection for marine protection
  124. Monitoring drought dynamics using remote sensing-based combined drought index in Ergene Basin, Türkiye
  125. Review Articles
  126. The actual state of the geodetic and cartographic resources and legislation in Poland
  127. Evaluation studies of the new mining projects
  128. Comparison and significance of grain size parameters of the Menyuan loess calculated using different methods
  129. Scientometric analysis of flood forecasting for Asia region and discussion on machine learning methods
  130. Rainfall-induced transportation embankment failure: A review
  131. Rapid Communication
  132. Branch fault discovered in Tangshan fault zone on the Kaiping-Guye boundary, North China
  133. Technical Note
  134. Introducing an intelligent multi-level retrieval method for mineral resource potential evaluation result data
  135. Erratum
  136. Erratum to “Forest cover assessment using remote-sensing techniques in Crete Island, Greece”
  137. Addendum
  138. The relationship between heat flow and seismicity in global tectonically active zones
  139. Commentary
  140. Improved entropy weight methods and their comparisons in evaluating the high-quality development of Qinghai, China
  141. Special Issue: Geoethics 2022 - Part II
  142. Loess and geotourism potential of the Braničevo District (NE Serbia): From overexploitation to paleoclimate interpretation
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