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Noise masking of near-surface scattering (heterogeneities) on subsurface seismic reflectivity

  • Hussein M. Harbi EMAIL logo and Ali H. Atef
Published/Copyright: December 2, 2023
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Open Geosciences
From the journal Open Geosciences Volume 15 Issue 1

Abstract

Near-surface velocity variations are the main cause of seismic scattering in exploration seismology. Many studies create the near-surface heterogeneity as velocity models that have random velocity distribution, random objects, or irregular subsurface topography to study and mitigate the resultant scattering effects of the near-surface layer. Von Kármán (self-similar) method is a known method in the literatures for modeling heterogeneous earth in a statistical way. This research modifies the self-similar method, and throughout the work, it has proven that the self-similar provides a robust method for generating realistic near-surface velocity models with different spatial velocity distributions. This study creates four-velocity models with simple subsurface layering and structure, three of which include a near-surface layer in three different degrees of velocity heterogeneity. Synthetic acoustic seismic reflections are produced for the four-velocity models to investigate the resultant scattering effects of the near-surface velocity heterogeneity on the quality of seismic waveform coherency. Spectacular negative observations are witnessed of the near-surface layer involvement to the quality of seismic reflection coherency that increases as velocity dramatically varies. Subtracting the scattering noise, which is modeled using an exact heterogeneous model, enhances seismic reflection coherency for the subsurface layers, but waveforms that are affected by scattering must be reconstructed for true amplitude and seismic waveform analysis.

Graphical abstract

Keywords: heterogeneity; self-similar; near-surface velocity; scattering spectrum

1 Introduction

The foremost concern in the geophysical investigation of subsurface is data coherency to cope with hidden structures beneath the ground surface leading to numerous studies to improve geophysical subsurface imaging. Most studies mainly focus on the reflection seismology field due to efforts that are needed to enhance subsurface imaging resolutions in hydrocarbon exploration [1]. Several aspects induce undesirable impacts on the quality of seismic data that vary on the nature of the physical characteristics of subsurface layering and associated structural features. Heterogeneity reflects the body of the earth. Near-surface layer, or as termed in the geophysical field as the low-velocity layer or the weathering layer [2], is characterized by large fluctuations in the physical properties causing major seismic velocity variation and increase near-surface complexity [3,4].

Subsurface heterogeneity, in velocity or any physical properties, is the main cause of seismic or electromagnetic wave scattering [5,6,7,8]. Scattering, distortion of the subsurface signals coherency, by near-surface velocity heterogeneity increases uncertainty and reduces coherency in seismic imaging and, thus, attempts appear to overcome the resultant undesirable noise [2,9,10,11,12,13]. Scattering becomes more pronounced if the subsurface heterogeneities (scatterers) are equal or close in size to the propagated wavelength [6]. In complex subsurface structures, velocity heterogeneity of the near-surface layer causes significant obstacles in static corrections where an accurate near-surface velocity is needed [14,15]. Previous studies are designated to model the near-surface seismic wave scattering caused by subsurface topography, random objects, complex structures, or scattering from fractures [16,17,18,19]. To improve our understanding of the near-surface layer effects in seismic exploration, modeling the near-surface heterogeneity needs to be improved and the focus should not only be on the seismic scattering waves caused by non-realistic random velocity distributions.

In this article, we attempt to model the near-surface velocity distributions using a statistical approach where we can control the degree of heterogeneity statistically. The near-surface velocity distribution needs to be close enough to the real earth models for better estimating scattering waves in future applications. This study takes a step forward by synthesizing 2D acoustic seismic waves for simple subsurface velocity structure models that include different degrees of near-surface velocity heterogeneity. Detailed analysis of the reflected signals and spectrum distortion due to seismic wave scattering is performed by simple comparison between non-scattering and different degrees of scattering waveforms in seismic common shot gathers.

2 Methodology

Analytical and theoretical numerical modeling of the scattered waveform has been discussed in many literatures using Gaussian, exponential, and von Kármán (self-similar) models in random velocity media (e.g. [5,7,8,20,21,22,23]). The self-similar method is originally developed for fluid turbulence by Tatarskii [24,25] and has proven as a robust methodology in describing earth heterogeneity [26]. The self-similar method was modified for modeling velocity variations in the deep crustal scattering and seismic coda [5], for modeling and studying plane seismic scattering in seismic exploration scale [27], and for modeling propagated high-frequency electromagnetic scattering in Ground Penetrating Radar [8]. In this article, we can also modify the self-similar method to model the near-surface velocity heterogeneity or the ocean bottom sediment velocity distribution. The degree of the velocity variations in the near-surface layer (or heterogeneity, resultant scattering) can be easily modified by changing the horizontal and vertical lengths of the velocity zones, namely the correlation distances. Three main steps are utilized to model the near-surface heterogeneity.

First, we start with modeling a 2D velocity model of 10 km wide (horizontal) and 3 km in depth, using 10 m grid size in both axes. To have uniform waveform propagations, the velocity in the 2D velocity model is smoothly increased with depth. We use a varying acoustic velocity of 1.8 and 3.5 km/s from the top to bottom of the velocity model (Figure 1a). This is generally the velocity variations in sedimentary rocks sequence, which is modeled here as four-layer sequence truncated by a normal fault. A large seismic impedance between layer boundaries is enhanced by using high-velocity boundary (∼5 km/s) between layers, producing clear reflections from the tops of each subsurface layer.

Figure 1 Fault models in smoothed velocity background. (a) no near-surface heterogeneous velocity layer; (b) with low, (c) intermediate, and (d) strong near-surface scattering heterogeneous velocity layers.
Figure 1

Fault models in smoothed velocity background. (a) no near-surface heterogeneous velocity layer; (b) with low, (c) intermediate, and (d) strong near-surface scattering heterogeneous velocity layers.

Second, we utilize the following steps for modeling three degrees of velocity heterogeneities:

  1. Generate a 10% normally distributed random velocity (ranging between 0.5 and 1.0 km/s) in 1,000 by 40 grid points in the horizontal distance and depth, respectively. Each grid point is 10 m long in both axes.

  2. Apply the 2D Fourier transforming to the random velocity model.

  3. Apply filtering in the wavenumber domain for the random velocity model by multiplying the two axes of the 2D wavenumber spectrum by a/(1 + a 2 k 2)1/2, where k is the wavenumber and a is the scatterer size (correlation distance, or velocity zones).

  4. Inversely transform the spectrum model into the distance domain, and then, we apply a smoothing in both axes to reduce horizontal and vertical sudden changes.

The degree of heterogeneity (scattering) can be modified by varying the value of the correlation distance (a) in the equation above for both axes (horizontal and depth). We use 2, 1, and 0.5 km correlation distances in the horizontal axis, for the low, intermediate, and strong heterogeneity models, respectively, and 0.1 km in depth axis for all three models.

Third, the three heterogeneous layers from the second step are impeded at the top of the 2D velocity model in the first step. The interface between the near-surface layer and the lower structure (the unconformity surface) is modeled as an irregular topography surface varying between 50 and 400 m depth. Four different velocity models are generated as a 2D velocity model with a smoothed velocity background; one is with no impeded near-surface heterogeneity layer (Figure 1a), and the rest are the 2D velocity models with smoothed velocity background including low, intermediate, and strong heterogeneous near-surface layers in the top 400 m of the models (Figure 1b–d, respectively).

Synthetic acoustic seismic data for the four-velocity models are simulated using a Ricker source wavelet at 2 grid points (20 m depth) and receiver points at the surface with 5 grid points (50 m) increment. The modeling is performed by solving the acoustic wave equation using the Finite-Differences method of fourth-order spatial accuracy and second-order temporal accuracy [6]. Synthetic seismic gathers of 3 s two-way-traveltime (TWT) are produced using a 1.0 ms sampling rate in time for the used grid size (10 m) to prevent the modeling grid dispersion. For each of the three heterogeneity models, 100 shots (each 100 m) recorded in 200 receivers along the surface (each 50 m) in the velocity models are performed to analyze and correlate the resultant scattering waveforms from the three heterogeneity models.

3 Results and discussion

Figure 1b–d illustrates three different near-surface velocity distributions using the self-similar statistical variations. These velocity models are in good agreement with the real velocity models that are inverted for real near-surface seismic waveforms by a study [28]. For studying scattering influence in seismic reflection, four common shot gather reflections are analyzed in Figure 2 as resultants of synthetic reflections in the free-scattering velocity model in Figure 1a. Yalow line reflection is from the L1 to L2 interface, which also interferes with the direct arrivals at large source-receiver offsets (Figure 2). Reflection from the fault hanging wall for layer 2 and 3 interfaces is recognized at 1.25 s TWT at 5 km horizontal distance (orange line). Reflection from the fault plane interface is remarkable at around 6.0 km distance and about 1.35 s TWT (blue line), which interferes with reflection from the foot wall of L2 to L3 at 7.5 km horizontal distance and 1.4 s TWT. The fourth reflection is from the foot wall of layer 3 and 4 interfaces recognized at 1.6 s TWT at a 5 km horizontal distance (red line). Weak reflections and multiples can be recognized at different traveltimes but will not be discussed here as they cannot be recognized in the scattering models.

Figure 2 Synthetic acoustic seismic common shot gather at 5.0 km for model (a) in Figure 1; L1–L2, L2–L3, and L3–L4 refer to reflections for interfaces between layers’ number in the velocity model.
Figure 2

Synthetic acoustic seismic common shot gather at 5.0 km for model (a) in Figure 1; L1–L2, L2–L3, and L3–L4 refer to reflections for interfaces between layers’ number in the velocity model.

Figure 3a illustrates a common shot gather for the low-scattering velocity model in Figure 1b. The first arrival in the seismic gather represents the direct and refracted waves from the near-surface layer. Different slopes of the direct wave are from the velocity variation along the near-surface heterogeneity layer. Figure 3b is the subtraction of the shot gather in the structure-free (scattering layer only) velocity model of Figure 1b from the shot gather in Figure 3a. This process is used mainly to study the near-surface scattering layer influence in the reflections coherency from the subsurface structures, which was initially used by a study [29] in studying the scattering effects of near-surface objects.

Figure 3 (a) Synthetic acoustic seismic shot gather at 5.0 km for model (b) in Figure 1; (b) difference between shot gather in (3a) and reflections from near-surface heterogeneous layer only in model (1b). Colored lines refer to reflections in Figure 2.
Figure 3

(a) Synthetic acoustic seismic shot gather at 5.0 km for model (b) in Figure 1; (b) difference between shot gather in (3a) and reflections from near-surface heterogeneous layer only in model (1b). Colored lines refer to reflections in Figure 2.

Yalow, orange, blue, and red lines in Figure 3b demonstrate the subsurface structure reflections of the free-scattering model as shown in Figure 2. A clear delay in the arrival times of all analyzed reflections in Figure 3b compared to colored lines that represent reflections in Figure 2, especially at zones of low near-surface velocities (0–2 km horizontal distance). The influence of scattering from the near-surface heterogeneous layer is more pronounced in the large aperture reflections compared to the small source-receiver aperture. The low-velocity distribution in the near-surface layer causes a delayed arrival time for all reflections illustrated in Figure 3b, variations in the delay time due to the variations in the velocity values in the near-surface layer model.

Figure 4a illustrates a common shot gather for the intermediate scattering model in Figure 1c. Direct and refracted waveforms are influenced by the velocity variation of the near-surface layer showing irregular slopes. Reflections amplitude from deep structure is very weak in the small aperture zone and completely disappears in the large aperture due to the scattering effect of the near-surface heterogeneity layer. This is due to the large energy of the reflected waves lost in the scattering signals, scattering attenuation. Figure 4b is the difference between the shot gather in a structure free of the velocity model in Figure 1c and the shot gather in Figure 4a, colored lines represent free heterogeneity model reflections in Figure 2. Even with removing the scattering signal due to the near-surface heterogeneity, reflections of small aperture are still weak, especially for deep reflectors. At large apertures, large distortions of deep reflections are pronounced and new artifacts are produced (black arrows in Figure 4b), similar artifacts concluded by [30]. In such cases, the stacking process can greatly enhance coherency [31].

Figure 4 (a) Synthetic acoustic seismic shot gather at 5.0 km for model (c) in Figure 1; (b) difference between shot gather in (4a) and reflections from heterogeneous layer only in model (1c). Colored lines refer to reflections in Figure 2.
Figure 4

(a) Synthetic acoustic seismic shot gather at 5.0 km for model (c) in Figure 1; (b) difference between shot gather in (4a) and reflections from heterogeneous layer only in model (1c). Colored lines refer to reflections in Figure 2.

Figure 5a illustrates a common shot gather for the large near-surface heterogeneity (strong scattering) model in Figure 1d. Refracted waveforms are highly influenced by the high-velocity variations in the near-surface layer showing irregular first arrival waveforms. No reflections can be recognized in this shot gather due to strong scattering waveforms. Figure 5b shows the result of subtracting the seismic waveforms in the structure-free of the velocity model in Figure 1d (strong heterogeneity) and the shot-gather in 5a, only reflections from the first interface (L1–L2) can be recognized. Scattering signals completely destroy and alter all reflections from underneath structures in the velocity model, and cause a large and irregular delay time for the topmost interface.

Figure 5 (a) Synthetic acoustic seismic shot gather at 5.0 km for model (d) in Figure 1; (b) difference between shot gather in (5a) and reflections from heterogeneous layer only in model (1d). Colored lines refer to reflections in Figure 2.
Figure 5

(a) Synthetic acoustic seismic shot gather at 5.0 km for model (d) in Figure 1; (b) difference between shot gather in (5a) and reflections from heterogeneous layer only in model (1d). Colored lines refer to reflections in Figure 2.

Pursuing a specific analysis of scattering effects, this study creates the zero-offset acoustic seismic sections for all scattering models (Figures 6–8). Subsurface structures are better defined by the instantaneous phase for the zero-offset seismic sections. For the low-scattering model, reflection coherency for the deep structure (layers stratigraphy and the fault model) is well defined with some scattering effects near the two edges (Figure 6). For the intermediate scattering, the deep structure reflections coherency is distorted except for a portion in the middle of the section (Figure 7). Careful analysis with filtering can enhance the subsurface reflection coherency in Figure 7 and increase resolutions. For better enhancements, good modeling of the scattering signal for the expected near-surface velocity distribution is a crucial step in choosing and designing the filtering methods and parameters [32]. Such work presented here is a step forward to this target. In Figure 8, all reflections coherency is highly distorted, or there might be no reflected energy at all due to the scattering effects. In the first two zero-offset sections (Figures 6 and 7), reflections coherency may be enhanced using advanced seismic processing in case of using a good velocity model for the near-surface layer. In the strong scattering data, neither near-surface nor deep structure can be defined due to the low signal-to-noise ratio that is affected by the strong scattering.

Figure 6 Instantaneous phase of the zero-offset seismic section of the low-scattering model in Figure 1b.
Figure 6

Instantaneous phase of the zero-offset seismic section of the low-scattering model in Figure 1b.

Figure 7 Instantaneous phase of the zero-offset seismic section of the intermediate-scattering model in Figure 1c.
Figure 7

Instantaneous phase of the zero-offset seismic section of the intermediate-scattering model in Figure 1c.

Figure 8 Instantaneous phase of the zero-offset seismic section of the strong-scattering model in Figure 1d.
Figure 8

Instantaneous phase of the zero-offset seismic section of the strong-scattering model in Figure 1d.

Figure 9 shows the amplitude spectrum of the four synthetic common shot gather seismic waveforms for the four-velocity models in Figure 1. The dominant frequencies and the frequency ranges in the four spectrums are equal. However, spectrum amplitude variation increases with increasing the degree of scattering. This may be the starting point for de-scattering seismic data in future work.

Figure 9 Frequency spectrum of common shot gather in (a) free scattering model; (b) low-scattering model; (c) intermediate-scattering model; and (d) strong-scattering model.
Figure 9

Frequency spectrum of common shot gather in (a) free scattering model; (b) low-scattering model; (c) intermediate-scattering model; and (d) strong-scattering model.

Figure 10a and b illustrates an example of traces deduced from the synthetic seismic zero-offset sections in the intermediate scattering models for receivers located at 1.5 and 6.5 km. In both figures, trace 1 is from synthetic seismic in the velocity model with subsurface structure and near-surface heterogeneity layer; trace 2 is from the velocity model with the heterogeneity layer only; trace 3 is the result of subtraction trace 2 from trace 1 after correcting the former for the delay time due to the near-surface layer; and trace 4 is taken from the free heterogeneity velocity model. Correlating traces 3 and 4 shows that the distortion is still dominated in the seismic waveforms due to the scattering effect even though for accurate scattering estimation and removal. A good estimate for the near-surface velocity heterogeneity model and subtraction of its resultant scattering signals can enhance seismic quality but cannot reconstruct the seismic waveforms. To better avoid near-surface scattering effects in seismic exploration, source and receivers’ bandwidth and survey geometries need to be corrected based on the dominant velocity distribution [33]. Moreover, we strongly recommend modeling near-surface scattering using the dominant velocity distribution (correlation distance) using different seismic parameters to better validate the seismic survey quality.

Figure 10 Traces deduced from the zero-offset intermediate scattering models: (a) at 1.5 km and (b) at 6.5 km horizontal distance.
Figure 10

Traces deduced from the zero-offset intermediate scattering models: (a) at 1.5 km and (b) at 6.5 km horizontal distance.

4 Conclusions

Scattering waveforms are produced by media heterogeneity. The near-surface layer is characterized by complex velocity variation. Yet, there are no common studies in the literatures that deal with robust methods for the near-surface velocity heterogeneity modeling, which can be used for further analysis of the near-surface effect on seismic reflections. The current work modifies the self-similar, which is known as a statistical method, to model different degrees of near-surface velocity variations that produce different degrees of scattering effect in seismic reflection waveforms. Common shot gathers, zero-offsets seismic sections for different degrees of near-surface heterogeneity velocity models are analyzed and compared. The yielded waveforms from the synthetic seismic modeling of the three proposed near-surface heterogeneous layers led to spectacular observe outcomes for subsurface structure coherency in the presence of scattering signals. Scattering signal masks greatly the subsurface reflectivity data as the near-surface heterogeneity increases.

Subtracting scattering waveforms in the synthetic seismic common shot gather and the zero-offset seismic sections enhances subsurface coherencies in the low and intermediate near-surface heterogeneity velocity models, but that is not applicable to the strong heterogeneity model. However, the seismic waveforms that are affected by scattering cannot be reconstructed by removing the scattering waveforms, and there must be proposed reconstruction methodologies using artificial intelligence and machine learning to do such a complicated task.

Acknowledgments

This work was supported by the Deanship of Scientific Research (DSR), King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, under grant No. (145-980-D1435). The authors, therefore, gratefully acknowledge the DSR technical and financial support. Authors, also, acknowledge and thank Mr. Mohammed Bin-Jahlan for his contributions to the project during his study in the Department of Geophysics and to Dr. Amr El-Shakh for his proofreading the manuscript.

  1. Author contributions: Atef A. contributed to the interpretation of seismic and in revising the manuscript.

  2. Conflict of interest: Authors state no conflict of interest.

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Received: 2023-04-03
Revised: 2023-11-02
Accepted: 2023-11-13
Published Online: 2023-12-02

© 2023 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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  47. Influence of fractures in tight sandstone oil reservoir on hydrocarbon accumulation: A case study of Yanchang Formation in southeastern Ordos Basin
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  51. Lignin analysis of sediments from around 2,000 to 1,000 years ago (Jiulong River estuary, southeast China)
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  57. Morphometry of the cold-climate Bory Stobrawskie Dune Field (SW Poland): Evidence for multi-phase Lateglacial aeolian activity within the European Sand Belt
  58. Adopting a new approach for finding missing people using GIS techniques: A case study in Saudi Arabia’s desert area
  59. Geological earthquake simulations generated by kinematic heterogeneous energy-based method: Self-arrested ruptures and asperity criterion
  60. Semi-automated classification of layered rock slopes using digital elevation model and geological map
  61. Geochemical characteristics of arc fractionated I-type granitoids of eastern Tak Batholith, Thailand
  62. Lithology classification of igneous rocks using C-band and L-band dual-polarization SAR data
  63. Analysis of artificial intelligence approaches to predict the wall deflection induced by deep excavation
  64. Evaluation of the current in situ stress in the middle Permian Maokou Formation in the Longnüsi area of the central Sichuan Basin, China
  65. Utilizing microresistivity image logs to recognize conglomeratic channel architectural elements of Baikouquan Formation in slope of Mahu Sag
  66. Resistivity cutoff of low-resistivity and low-contrast pays in sandstone reservoirs from conventional well logs: A case of Paleogene Enping Formation in A-Oilfield, Pearl River Mouth Basin, South China Sea
  67. Examining the evacuation routes of the sister village program by using the ant colony optimization algorithm
  68. Spatial objects classification using machine learning and spatial walk algorithm
  69. Study on the stabilization mechanism of aeolian sandy soil formation by adding a natural soft rock
  70. Bump feature detection of the road surface based on the Bi-LSTM
  71. The origin and evolution of the ore-forming fluids at the Manondo-Choma gold prospect, Kirk range, southern Malawi
  72. A retrieval model of surface geochemistry composition based on remotely sensed data
  73. Exploring the spatial dynamics of cultural facilities based on multi-source data: A case study of Nanjing’s art institutions
  74. Study of pore-throat structure characteristics and fluid mobility of Chang 7 tight sandstone reservoir in Jiyuan area, Ordos Basin
  75. Study of fracturing fluid re-discharge based on percolation experiments and sampling tests – An example of Fuling shale gas Jiangdong block, China
  76. Impacts of marine cloud brightening scheme on climatic extremes in the Tibetan Plateau
  77. Ecological protection on the West Coast of Taiwan Strait under economic zone construction: A case study of land use in Yueqing
  78. The time-dependent deformation and damage constitutive model of rock based on dynamic disturbance tests
  79. Evaluation of spatial form of rural ecological landscape and vulnerability of water ecological environment based on analytic hierarchy process
  80. Fingerprint of magma mixture in the leucogranites: Spectroscopic and petrochemical approach, Kalebalta-Central Anatolia, Türkiye
  81. Principles of self-calibration and visual effects for digital camera distortion
  82. UAV-based doline mapping in Brazilian karst: A cave heritage protection reconnaissance
  83. Evaluation and low carbon ecological urban–rural planning and construction based on energy planning mechanism
  84. Modified non-local means: A novel denoising approach to process gravity field data
  85. A novel travel route planning method based on an ant colony optimization algorithm
  86. Effect of time-variant NDVI on landside susceptibility: A case study in Quang Ngai province, Vietnam
  87. Regional tectonic uplift indicated by geomorphological parameters in the Bahe River Basin, central China
  88. Computer information technology-based green excavation of tunnels in complex strata and technical decision of deformation control
  89. Spatial evolution of coastal environmental enterprises: An exploration of driving factors in Jiangsu Province
  90. A comparative assessment and geospatial simulation of three hydrological models in urban basins
  91. Aquaculture industry under the blue transformation in Jiangsu, China: Structure evolution and spatial agglomeration
  92. Quantitative and qualitative interpretation of community partitions by map overlaying and calculating the distribution of related geographical features
  93. Numerical investigation of gravity-grouted soil-nail pullout capacity in sand
  94. Analysis of heavy pollution weather in Shenyang City and numerical simulation of main pollutants
  95. Road cut slope stability analysis for static and dynamic (pseudo-static analysis) loading conditions
  96. Forest biomass assessment combining field inventorying and remote sensing data
  97. Late Jurassic Haobugao granites from the southern Great Xing’an Range, NE China: Implications for postcollision extension of the Mongol–Okhotsk Ocean
  98. Petrogenesis of the Sukadana Basalt based on petrology and whole rock geochemistry, Lampung, Indonesia: Geodynamic significances
  99. Numerical study on the group wall effect of nodular diaphragm wall foundation in high-rise buildings
  100. Water resources utilization and tourism environment assessment based on water footprint
  101. Geochemical evaluation of the carbonaceous shale associated with the Permian Mikambeni Formation of the Tuli Basin for potential gas generation, South Africa
  102. Detection and characterization of lineaments using gravity data in the south-west Cameroon zone: Hydrogeological implications
  103. Study on spatial pattern of tourism landscape resources in county cities of Yangtze River Economic Belt
  104. The effect of weathering on drillability of dolomites
  105. Noise masking of near-surface scattering (heterogeneities) on subsurface seismic reflectivity
  106. Query optimization-oriented lateral expansion method of distributed geological borehole database
  107. Petrogenesis of the Morobe Granodiorite and their shoshonitic mafic microgranular enclaves in Maramuni arc, Papua New Guinea
  108. Environmental health risk assessment of urban water sources based on fuzzy set theory
  109. Spatial distribution of urban basic education resources in Shanghai: Accessibility and supply-demand matching evaluation
  110. Spatiotemporal changes in land use and residential satisfaction in the Huai River-Gaoyou Lake Rim area
  111. Walkaway vertical seismic profiling first-arrival traveltime tomography with velocity structure constraints
  112. Study on the evaluation system and risk factor traceability of receiving water body
  113. Predicting copper-polymetallic deposits in Kalatag using the weight of evidence model and novel data sources
  114. Temporal dynamics of green urban areas in Romania. A comparison between spatial and statistical data
  115. Passenger flow forecast of tourist attraction based on MACBL in LBS big data environment
  116. Varying particle size selectivity of soil erosion along a cultivated catena
  117. Relationship between annual soil erosion and surface runoff in Wadi Hanifa sub-basins
  118. Influence of nappe structure on the Carboniferous volcanic reservoir in the middle of the Hongche Fault Zone, Junggar Basin, China
  119. Dynamic analysis of MSE wall subjected to surface vibration loading
  120. Pre-collisional architecture of the European distal margin: Inferences from the high-pressure continental units of central Corsica (France)
  121. The interrelation of natural diversity with tourism in Kosovo
  122. Assessment of geosites as a basis for geotourism development: A case study of the Toplica District, Serbia
  123. IG-YOLOv5-based underwater biological recognition and detection for marine protection
  124. Monitoring drought dynamics using remote sensing-based combined drought index in Ergene Basin, Türkiye
  125. Review Articles
  126. The actual state of the geodetic and cartographic resources and legislation in Poland
  127. Evaluation studies of the new mining projects
  128. Comparison and significance of grain size parameters of the Menyuan loess calculated using different methods
  129. Scientometric analysis of flood forecasting for Asia region and discussion on machine learning methods
  130. Rainfall-induced transportation embankment failure: A review
  131. Rapid Communication
  132. Branch fault discovered in Tangshan fault zone on the Kaiping-Guye boundary, North China
  133. Technical Note
  134. Introducing an intelligent multi-level retrieval method for mineral resource potential evaluation result data
  135. Erratum
  136. Erratum to “Forest cover assessment using remote-sensing techniques in Crete Island, Greece”
  137. Addendum
  138. The relationship between heat flow and seismicity in global tectonically active zones
  139. Commentary
  140. Improved entropy weight methods and their comparisons in evaluating the high-quality development of Qinghai, China
  141. Special Issue: Geoethics 2022 - Part II
  142. Loess and geotourism potential of the Braničevo District (NE Serbia): From overexploitation to paleoclimate interpretation
https://doi.org/10.1515/geo-2022-0581
Keywords for this article
heterogeneity; self-similar; near-surface velocity; scattering spectrum
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

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  5. Structural deformation and its implication for hydrocarbon accumulation in the Wuxia fault belt, northwestern Junggar basin, China
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  23. Performance audit evaluation of marine development projects based on SPA and BP neural network model
  24. Study on the Early Cretaceous fluvial-desert sedimentary paleogeography in the Northwest of Ordos Basin
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  29. Research on pore structures of fine-grained carbonate reservoirs and their influence on waterflood development
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  31. Multifractal analysis of temporal and spatial characteristics of earthquakes in Eurasian seismic belt
  32. Surface deformation and damage of 2022 (M 6.8) Luding earthquake in China and its tectonic implications
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  34. DEM-based analysis of tectonic geomorphologic characteristics and tectonic activity intensity of the Dabanghe River Basin in South China Karst
  35. Distribution, pollution levels, and health risk assessment of heavy metals in groundwater in the main pepper production area of China
  36. Study on soil quality effect of reconstructing by Pisha sandstone and sand soil
  37. Understanding the characteristics of loess strata and quaternary climate changes in Luochuan, Shaanxi Province, China, through core analysis
  38. Dynamic variation of groundwater level and its influencing factors in typical oasis irrigated areas in Northwest China
  39. Creating digital maps for geotechnical characteristics of soil based on GIS technology and remote sensing
  40. Changes in the course of constant loading consolidation in soil with modeled granulometric composition contaminated with petroleum substances
  41. Correlation between the deformation of mineral crystal structures and fault activity: A case study of the Yingxiu-Beichuan fault and the Milin fault
  42. Cognitive characteristics of the Qiang religious culture and its influencing factors in Southwest China
  43. Spatiotemporal variation characteristics analysis of infrastructure iron stock in China based on nighttime light data
  44. Interpretation of aeromagnetic and remote sensing data of Auchi and Idah sheets of the Benin-arm Anambra basin: Implication of mineral resources
  45. Building element recognition with MTL-AINet considering view perspectives
  46. Characteristics of the present crustal deformation in the Tibetan Plateau and its relationship with strong earthquakes
  47. Influence of fractures in tight sandstone oil reservoir on hydrocarbon accumulation: A case study of Yanchang Formation in southeastern Ordos Basin
  48. Nutrient assessment and land reclamation in the Loess hills and Gulch region in the context of gully control
  49. Handling imbalanced data in supervised machine learning for lithological mapping using remote sensing and airborne geophysical data
  50. Spatial variation of soil nutrients and evaluation of cultivated land quality based on field scale
  51. Lignin analysis of sediments from around 2,000 to 1,000 years ago (Jiulong River estuary, southeast China)
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  58. Adopting a new approach for finding missing people using GIS techniques: A case study in Saudi Arabia’s desert area
  59. Geological earthquake simulations generated by kinematic heterogeneous energy-based method: Self-arrested ruptures and asperity criterion
  60. Semi-automated classification of layered rock slopes using digital elevation model and geological map
  61. Geochemical characteristics of arc fractionated I-type granitoids of eastern Tak Batholith, Thailand
  62. Lithology classification of igneous rocks using C-band and L-band dual-polarization SAR data
  63. Analysis of artificial intelligence approaches to predict the wall deflection induced by deep excavation
  64. Evaluation of the current in situ stress in the middle Permian Maokou Formation in the Longnüsi area of the central Sichuan Basin, China
  65. Utilizing microresistivity image logs to recognize conglomeratic channel architectural elements of Baikouquan Formation in slope of Mahu Sag
  66. Resistivity cutoff of low-resistivity and low-contrast pays in sandstone reservoirs from conventional well logs: A case of Paleogene Enping Formation in A-Oilfield, Pearl River Mouth Basin, South China Sea
  67. Examining the evacuation routes of the sister village program by using the ant colony optimization algorithm
  68. Spatial objects classification using machine learning and spatial walk algorithm
  69. Study on the stabilization mechanism of aeolian sandy soil formation by adding a natural soft rock
  70. Bump feature detection of the road surface based on the Bi-LSTM
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  73. Exploring the spatial dynamics of cultural facilities based on multi-source data: A case study of Nanjing’s art institutions
  74. Study of pore-throat structure characteristics and fluid mobility of Chang 7 tight sandstone reservoir in Jiyuan area, Ordos Basin
  75. Study of fracturing fluid re-discharge based on percolation experiments and sampling tests – An example of Fuling shale gas Jiangdong block, China
  76. Impacts of marine cloud brightening scheme on climatic extremes in the Tibetan Plateau
  77. Ecological protection on the West Coast of Taiwan Strait under economic zone construction: A case study of land use in Yueqing
  78. The time-dependent deformation and damage constitutive model of rock based on dynamic disturbance tests
  79. Evaluation of spatial form of rural ecological landscape and vulnerability of water ecological environment based on analytic hierarchy process
  80. Fingerprint of magma mixture in the leucogranites: Spectroscopic and petrochemical approach, Kalebalta-Central Anatolia, Türkiye
  81. Principles of self-calibration and visual effects for digital camera distortion
  82. UAV-based doline mapping in Brazilian karst: A cave heritage protection reconnaissance
  83. Evaluation and low carbon ecological urban–rural planning and construction based on energy planning mechanism
  84. Modified non-local means: A novel denoising approach to process gravity field data
  85. A novel travel route planning method based on an ant colony optimization algorithm
  86. Effect of time-variant NDVI on landside susceptibility: A case study in Quang Ngai province, Vietnam
  87. Regional tectonic uplift indicated by geomorphological parameters in the Bahe River Basin, central China
  88. Computer information technology-based green excavation of tunnels in complex strata and technical decision of deformation control
  89. Spatial evolution of coastal environmental enterprises: An exploration of driving factors in Jiangsu Province
  90. A comparative assessment and geospatial simulation of three hydrological models in urban basins
  91. Aquaculture industry under the blue transformation in Jiangsu, China: Structure evolution and spatial agglomeration
  92. Quantitative and qualitative interpretation of community partitions by map overlaying and calculating the distribution of related geographical features
  93. Numerical investigation of gravity-grouted soil-nail pullout capacity in sand
  94. Analysis of heavy pollution weather in Shenyang City and numerical simulation of main pollutants
  95. Road cut slope stability analysis for static and dynamic (pseudo-static analysis) loading conditions
  96. Forest biomass assessment combining field inventorying and remote sensing data
  97. Late Jurassic Haobugao granites from the southern Great Xing’an Range, NE China: Implications for postcollision extension of the Mongol–Okhotsk Ocean
  98. Petrogenesis of the Sukadana Basalt based on petrology and whole rock geochemistry, Lampung, Indonesia: Geodynamic significances
  99. Numerical study on the group wall effect of nodular diaphragm wall foundation in high-rise buildings
  100. Water resources utilization and tourism environment assessment based on water footprint
  101. Geochemical evaluation of the carbonaceous shale associated with the Permian Mikambeni Formation of the Tuli Basin for potential gas generation, South Africa
  102. Detection and characterization of lineaments using gravity data in the south-west Cameroon zone: Hydrogeological implications
  103. Study on spatial pattern of tourism landscape resources in county cities of Yangtze River Economic Belt
  104. The effect of weathering on drillability of dolomites
  105. Noise masking of near-surface scattering (heterogeneities) on subsurface seismic reflectivity
  106. Query optimization-oriented lateral expansion method of distributed geological borehole database
  107. Petrogenesis of the Morobe Granodiorite and their shoshonitic mafic microgranular enclaves in Maramuni arc, Papua New Guinea
  108. Environmental health risk assessment of urban water sources based on fuzzy set theory
  109. Spatial distribution of urban basic education resources in Shanghai: Accessibility and supply-demand matching evaluation
  110. Spatiotemporal changes in land use and residential satisfaction in the Huai River-Gaoyou Lake Rim area
  111. Walkaway vertical seismic profiling first-arrival traveltime tomography with velocity structure constraints
  112. Study on the evaluation system and risk factor traceability of receiving water body
  113. Predicting copper-polymetallic deposits in Kalatag using the weight of evidence model and novel data sources
  114. Temporal dynamics of green urban areas in Romania. A comparison between spatial and statistical data
  115. Passenger flow forecast of tourist attraction based on MACBL in LBS big data environment
  116. Varying particle size selectivity of soil erosion along a cultivated catena
  117. Relationship between annual soil erosion and surface runoff in Wadi Hanifa sub-basins
  118. Influence of nappe structure on the Carboniferous volcanic reservoir in the middle of the Hongche Fault Zone, Junggar Basin, China
  119. Dynamic analysis of MSE wall subjected to surface vibration loading
  120. Pre-collisional architecture of the European distal margin: Inferences from the high-pressure continental units of central Corsica (France)
  121. The interrelation of natural diversity with tourism in Kosovo
  122. Assessment of geosites as a basis for geotourism development: A case study of the Toplica District, Serbia
  123. IG-YOLOv5-based underwater biological recognition and detection for marine protection
  124. Monitoring drought dynamics using remote sensing-based combined drought index in Ergene Basin, Türkiye
  125. Review Articles
  126. The actual state of the geodetic and cartographic resources and legislation in Poland
  127. Evaluation studies of the new mining projects
  128. Comparison and significance of grain size parameters of the Menyuan loess calculated using different methods
  129. Scientometric analysis of flood forecasting for Asia region and discussion on machine learning methods
  130. Rainfall-induced transportation embankment failure: A review
  131. Rapid Communication
  132. Branch fault discovered in Tangshan fault zone on the Kaiping-Guye boundary, North China
  133. Technical Note
  134. Introducing an intelligent multi-level retrieval method for mineral resource potential evaluation result data
  135. Erratum
  136. Erratum to “Forest cover assessment using remote-sensing techniques in Crete Island, Greece”
  137. Addendum
  138. The relationship between heat flow and seismicity in global tectonically active zones
  139. Commentary
  140. Improved entropy weight methods and their comparisons in evaluating the high-quality development of Qinghai, China
  141. Special Issue: Geoethics 2022 - Part II
  142. Loess and geotourism potential of the Braničevo District (NE Serbia): From overexploitation to paleoclimate interpretation
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