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Geochemical characteristics of arc fractionated I-type granitoids of eastern Tak Batholith, Thailand

  • Vimoltip Singtuen , Burapha Phajuy EMAIL logo and Kittisak Wichaiya
Published/Copyright: August 28, 2023
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Open Geosciences
From the journal Open Geosciences Volume 15 Issue 1

Abstract

The Tak Batholith is located in the western part of Thailand’s eastern granitoid belt. To better understand the geochemical characteristics of granitoid and identify their occurrence, rock samples collected from the eastern part of the Tak Batholith were used for petrographical, mineralogical, and geochemical analyses. According to field investigation and lithology, petrography classifies these granitic rocks as medium-grained granodiorite and granodioritic dike. The granodiorites are composed chiefly of plagioclase, orthoclase, quartz, hornblende, and biotite, with tiny amounts of zircon, apatite, and opaque minerals. Meanwhile, the granitic dike shows a highly porphyritic texture, presenting mostly plagioclase phenocrysts, with a small amount of orthoclase and unidentified mafic phenocrysts sitting in a fine-grained groundmass comprising K-feldspar and quartz with a small amount of plagioclase and present granophyric intergrowth. Geochemical data of the amphiboles classified them as Ferro-edenite symbolizing the I-type granite. Whole-rock geochemistry indicates that these rock suites are I-type metaluminous granodiorite, and diorite fractionated from the high K calc-alkaline magma melted from the mafic crust of arc magmatism agreeable with the enrichment of large ion lithophile elements and depletion of highfield-strength elements, and rare earth element patterns.

Keywords: I-type granite; hornblende granite; high-K calc-alkaline granite; arc granite; geochemistry; granodiorite

1 Introduction

Thailand is composed of a complex assembly of continental blocks, Indochina in the east and Sibumasu in the west [1,2], separated by the Sukhothai Fold Belt and the Loei Fold Belt. This region demonstrates many kinds of structures and rocks, comprising sedimentary, metamorphic, volcanic, and intrusive rocks, especially granitoid. Thai granitoids are part of sinuous batholiths extending throughout southeast (SE) Asia [3,4,5]. These granitic rocks in the SE Asian region can be divided into three belts (Figure 1a) distributed as a north-south trend, including eastern, central, and western belts, based on geological environment, lithology, and geochronology [3,6,7,8]. The geological setting of granitoid rocks in Thailand has been studied intensively by several authors [7,8,9,10,11,12], as well as receiving attention in more regional synthesis [13,14].

Figure 1 Location of the studied area: (a) Tak Batholith is a part of the eastern belt granitoid of Thailand (map and geochronological data modified from [2,3,5,6,7,8,18,19,20,54,57]; Tak Batholith is at the blue rectangular), (b) Pong Daeng is at the eastern part of Tak province (map modified from Google earth®; studied area is at the red rectangular), and (c) geologic map of Ban Pong Daeng and sampling location (geological data modified from previous works [21,24]).
Figure 1

Location of the studied area: (a) Tak Batholith is a part of the eastern belt granitoid of Thailand (map and geochronological data modified from [2,3,5,6,7,8,18,19,20,54,57]; Tak Batholith is at the blue rectangular), (b) Pong Daeng is at the eastern part of Tak province (map modified from Google earth®; studied area is at the red rectangular), and (c) geologic map of Ban Pong Daeng and sampling location (geological data modified from previous works [21,24]).

The eastern belt contains small batholiths of I-type Triassic granites. The central belt consists of major batholiths showing S-type Triassic granites, while the western belt contained both S- and I-type Cretaceous granites [3,6,7,8]. The largest body of granitoid rocks is the Tak Batholith in Tak province, a part of the eastern belt [11,15,16]. Geochemical studies indicate that the eastern belt granitoid originates from differential crystallizations from I-type magma [3,11,17]. Granitoids from three types of localities of the eastern belt have been analyzed as the granitoid intruded during 205–248 Ma [3,6,7,8,18,57,58]. Based on the geological study, granitoids in Loei province are at an older interval (>240 Ma), whereas the average age of Phrae granitoid is 235 Ma [20]. A granitic trend from Chanthaburi to the Thai-Cambodia border was dated at approximately 210 Ma, younger than Tak province that is about 213–256 Ma [3,11,19,20].

The Tak Batholith covers numerous areas in the northern part of central Thailand, including Tak and Kamphaeng Phet provinces (Figure 1b) where granitoid and related volcanic rocks are also exposed as the Chiang Khong–Lampang–Tak volcanic belt [21,22,23]. Detailed studies of granitoid in the eastern part of the Tak Batholith have never been reported, especially granodiorite. Therefore, this study presents the results of petrography, mineralogy, and geochemistry of granitoid for characterizing amphiboles and reconstructing the tectonic model of the regions.

2 Geologic setting

The study area is located in Ban Pong Daeng, Mueang Tak District in Tak Province (Figure 1b). The rock units in this study area are made up of sedimentary strata that are associated with volcanic rocks and granitic intrusions by nonconformity as shown in Figure 1c [21,22,23,24]. The sedimentary strata consist of Carboniferous rocks (conglomerate, sandstone, shale, chert, and conglomeratic limestone), Carboniferous to Permian rocks (sandstone, argillaceous limestone, shale, and chert), and partly disconformable overlain by Quaternary sediments [24] both fluvial and terrace deposits (gravel, sand, silt, clay, and laterite). However, there are some basalt and tuff, which are mapped in the Carboniferous-Permian sedimentary rocks unit [21,22]. The granitic intrusions (biotite granite, tourmaline granite, granodiorite, muscovite-tourmaline granite, and biotite-tourmaline granite) are largely present in this area have formed in Triassic [3,11,22]. They are made up mainly of granodiorite with subordinate biotite granite and small amounts of tourmaline granite, biotite-muscovite granite, muscovite-tourmaline granite, and biotite-tourmaline granite [24]. The Cretaceous volcanic rocks are composed of porphyritic volcanic rocks in the rank of rhyolite and trachyte compositions that erupted in both arc volcano and postcollision tectonics [21,22] from Triassic to Cretaceous [23].

3 Methods

The methodology consists of geological field investigation, lithological study, petrography, and geochemical analysis. The prime method is making a geological field investigation at Ban Pong Daeng, Mueang Tak District in Tak Province, along with road number 1010, as shown in Figure 1. Both postquarry areas and roadcut outcrops present typical granitic features, especially exfoliation (Figure 2a–c). This area shows the geological structure caused by the Mae Ping Fault; joint and slickenside are preserved (Figure 2b and d).

Figure 2 Outcrops of the granitoids from Tak Batholith: (a) postquarry area, (b) joints and exfoliation in massive granite, (c) roadcut outcrop along with road number 1010, and (d) slickenside suggests the granite is affected by fault movement.
Figure 2

Outcrops of the granitoids from Tak Batholith: (a) postquarry area, (b) joints and exfoliation in massive granite, (c) roadcut outcrop along with road number 1010, and (d) slickenside suggests the granite is affected by fault movement.

The plutonic samples were prepared for 10 × 10 cm rock slabs for modal analysis by stains techniques combination using Sodium Cobaltinitrite (Na3CO(NO2)6) to stain K-feldspar to become yellow and 23 representative samples were collected to make thin sections for the primary petrographic study in both Department of Geological Sciences, Chiang Mai University and Department of Geotechnology, Khon Kaen University. The petrographic and photomicrograph analyses by ZEN core Imaging Software, linking ZEISS imaging and microscope solutions at the Department of Geotechnology, Khon Kaen University, describe the texture, mineral composition, and modal analysis with 400 points count. Loss on ignition (LOI) was analyzed by heating a crucible containing a 1.0 g sample in a furnace at 1,000°C for 12 h at the Department of Geological Sciences, Chiang Mai University. For the geochemical study, nine representatives with the least amount of alteration were chosen for the whole rock analysis using X-ray fluorescence (XRF76C) and inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP95A). The analysis of major oxides (SiO2, TiO2, Al2O3, Fe total as Fe2O3, MnO, MgO, CaO, Na2O, K2O, and P2O5) was carried out by the Axios model at SGS (Thailand) Co., Ltd (lower reporting limit: 0.01%). For low-atomic-number elements, lithium metaborate fusion is employed, while for high-atomic-number elements, pressed pellet is used. Fusion is a technique for analyzing key elements that include melting the sample with flux and casting it into a glass disc. In addition, trace elements (Rb, Sr, Zr, Y, Nb, Ni, Cr, V, Sc, Hf, Th, and Ta) and rare earth elements (REEs) (La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, and Yb) were analyzed by using 5300DV ICP-OES and nexion300X ICP-MS at the SGS-CSTC Standards Technical Services Co., Ltd., China. Moreover, amphiboles were diagnosed by the MiniSEM-EDS (Desktop Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) at the Faculty of Science, Khon Kaen University) to identify the physical and geochemical characteristics of 10 samples.

4 Results

4.1 Field Survey and Petrographic Description

Field investigation and lithological analysis divided the granitoid into granodiorite and granitic dike, with modal analysis 400-point count of the petrographic data (Figure 3) based on the Q-A-P ternary diagram [25]. Nineteen granodiorites show a medium-grained texture (grain sizes average 2.00 mm across) and have light gray with green colors. Some samples present brecciated texture with quartz and chlorite veins. It is made up of white and pale green minerals. This rock is nonmagnetic and does not react with cold dilute hydrochloric acid. In addition, four granodioritic dikes have a greenish color consisting of white and pale green minerals. It is a medium-grained texture with an average grain size of 2.00 mm across. The rock is nonmagnetic and does not react with cold-diluted hydrochloric acid.

Figure 3 QAP intrusive rocks classification diagram [25].
Figure 3

QAP intrusive rocks classification diagram [25].

The granodiorite shows an equigranularity medium-grained texture and is made up mainly of plagioclase (43.25–49.25 vol%) with subordinate orthoclase (6.50–9.00 vol%), quartz (16.25–28.50 vol%), hornblende (7.75–13.00 vol%), and biotite (9.75 vol%). Rarely amounts of apatite and zircon can be observed. Plagioclase is subhedral to euhedral (sizes up to 3.00 mm across) and is highly replaced by sericite, epidotes, and chlorite. Zoning plagioclase has been observed as the same as subhedral hornblende (sizes up to 2.50 mm across). The petrographic data suggest that plagioclase of the studied granitoid ranks between andesine and labradorite (An41.5–68.5) based on extinction angle (23.00–41.50°). Zoning in this amphibole is common and represented by alteration of the core by fine-grained tremolite–actinolite amphibole (Figure 4a). Plagioclase is present in hornblende crystals. Biotite is anhedral to subhedral with irregular outlines (sizes up to 1.75 mm across). It is completely altered to clay minerals, chlorite, epidotes, titanite, and muscovite (Figure 4b). The inclusion of hornblende, plagioclase, zircon, and apatite is commonly present in biotite crystals. Kink features show that deformed biotite is present in the studied rocks. Orthoclase is anhedral (sizes up to 1.50 mm across) and shows a simple twin. Some crystals are converted to microcline and slightly replaced by clay minerals. Quartz is anhedral with sizes up to 4.00 mm and has a consertal texture, occurring as intergranular crystals with orthoclase. In addition, zircon/apatite is euhedral and occurs as an inclusion in hornblende and biotite (Figure 4c). This granodiorite has an experience of fault/shear in this area, showing brecciated texture (Figure 4d). The crystals are broken into breccia, and fractures were refilled by fine-grained quartz, epidotes, chlorite, calcite, and sericite with small amounts of opaque minerals (Figure 4e).

Figure 4 Photomicrographs of the granitoids from Tak Batholith: (a) alteration of the hornblende core is fine-grained tremolite–actinolite, (b) biotite altered to chlorite and epidotes, (c) zircon inclusion in hornblende, (d) brecciated texture of granodiorite, (e) breccia fractures were refilled by epidotes and chlorite, and (f) mineral compositions and granophyric intergrowth of the granodioritic dike. Pl, plagioclase; Qtz, quartz; Kfs, k-feldspar; Hbl, hornblende; Trm-Act, tremolite–actinolite; Chl, chlorite; Epd, epidote; Apt, apatite; Zrc, zircon; Spn, titanite.
Figure 4

Photomicrographs of the granitoids from Tak Batholith: (a) alteration of the hornblende core is fine-grained tremolite–actinolite, (b) biotite altered to chlorite and epidotes, (c) zircon inclusion in hornblende, (d) brecciated texture of granodiorite, (e) breccia fractures were refilled by epidotes and chlorite, and (f) mineral compositions and granophyric intergrowth of the granodioritic dike. Pl, plagioclase; Qtz, quartz; Kfs, k-feldspar; Hbl, hornblende; Trm-Act, tremolite–actinolite; Chl, chlorite; Epd, epidote; Apt, apatite; Zrc, zircon; Spn, titanite.

The granodioritic dike shows a highly porphyritic texture under a microscope. The phenocrysts (grain sizes average 2.00 mm across) are composed mostly of plagioclase (38.00–56.00 vol%), with a small amount of orthoclase (8.00–14.00 vol%) and unidentified mafic minerals (10.50–12.25 vol%) as displayed in Figure 4f. They sit in a fine-grained groundmass (average grain size = 0.10 m across), comprising alkali feldspar and quartz with a small amount of plagioclase (27.50–36.25 vol%). The groundmass phase has a granophyric intergrowth. Secondary replacements in these rocks consist of chlorite, epidotes, calcite, quartz, and opaque minerals, especially along veins and fractures. Plagioclase phenocrysts are subhedral (sizes up to 4 mm across) and slightly moderately replaced by epidotes, sericite, and calcite. It is broken into a fragment and refilled by chlorite, epidotes, and fine-grained quartz. Plagioclase groundmass is subhedral with sizes up to 0.15 mm across), displaying an alteration product similar to phenocrysts. Orthoclase phenocrysts are euhedral to subhedral (sizes up to 0.75 mm across). The unidentified mafic mineral is subhedral (up to 1.25 mm across) and completely replaced by clay minerals and fine-grained amphibole. Alkali feldspar is fine grained and occurs as granophyric intergrowth with quartz. Quartz groundmass is fine-grained intergrowth with alkali feldspar as granophyric intergrowth.

4.2 Amphibole characterization

Amphibole is subhedral (sizes up to 3.00 mm across) under the polarized light microscope and also shows a pleochroism as X = pale yellow, Y = pale green, Z = green (Z > Y > X). In both petrography and SEM analyses, hornblende presents perfect cleavage on {110} – intersect at 56 and 124° and also shows partings on {100} and {001} crystal forms (Figure 5a and b). Based on EDS analysis, the hornblende in granodiorites were classified as calcic amphiboles in the exhibit of a small compositional range of XMg ((Mg/Mg + Fe) = 0.26–0.29), (Na + K) (0.17–3.34), and Si (6.14–7.84). These calcic amphiboles mostly fall within the field of Ferro-edenite (based on the nomenclature [26]) in Figure 5c.

Figure 5 SEM images of selected hornblendes: (a) one-direction cleavage and (b) perfect cleavages on {110}. Red rectangular presents the area measured geochemical composition by EDS, and (c) plots of mineral chemistry for calcic amphibole [26].
Figure 5

SEM images of selected hornblendes: (a) one-direction cleavage and (b) perfect cleavages on {110}. Red rectangular presents the area measured geochemical composition by EDS, and (c) plots of mineral chemistry for calcic amphibole [26].

4.3 Whole-rocks analysis

Major and minor compositions of the representative granodiorite in the Pong Daeng area, Tak province, Thailand, are shown in Table 1. These granitoid show slightly different major and minor compositions including 60.63–64.40 wt% SiO2, 0.55–0.68 wt% TiO2, 15.10–16.48 wt% Al2O3, 4.40–5.75 wt% Fe2O3t, 2.78–4.16 wt% MgO, 2.31–5.73 wt% CaO, 2.30–4.06 wt% Na2O, 2.42–3.76 wt% K2O, 0.06–0.25 wt% MnO, and 0.11–0.13 P2O5. In addition, LOI demonstrates between 1.55 and 2.54 wt% according to highly composed of altered secondary minerals (hydrous minerals, i.e., chlorite, tremolite–actinolite, epidote, sericite, calcite, and clays) in petrographic analysis.

Table 1

Whole-rocks analysis for major oxides, trace elements, and REEs of granodiorite in Tak Batholith, Thailand

Analysis no. PD-3 PD-7 PD-8 PD-10 PD-11 PD-12 PD-13 PD-14 PD-15
Major oxides (wt%)
SiO2 62.82 62.56 61.54 60.84 62.26 62.31 64.40 63.60 60.63
TiO2 0.62 0.55 0.66 0.68 0.64 0.61 0.58 0.57 0.63
Al2O3 15.58 16.48 15.49 15.54 15.83 16.06 15.10 15.41 15.79
Fe2O3t 5.06 4.40 5.49 5.75 5.14 4.95 4.43 4.88 5.42
MnO 0.08 0.06 0.08 0.09 0.08 0.08 0.25 0.06 0.08
MgO 3.34 2.78 3.79 4.16 3.29 3.31 3.04 2.84 3.64
CaO 4.89 4.94 5.09 4.97 4.84 3.19 2.31 3.00 5.73
Na2O 2.70 2.77 2.60 2.42 2.30 2.64 3.38 4.06 2.52
K2O 2.82 2.65 2.56 2.80 3.12 3.76 3.15 3.19 2.42
P2O5 0.12 0.11 0.12 0.13 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12
LOI 1.73 2.13 1.81 2.41 1.86 2.54 2.09 1.55 1.90
Trace elements REEs (ppm)
La 33.30 27.10 30.30 30.30 38.90 32.50 42.50 32.40 24.20
Pr 4.56 4.48 5.82 5.25 5.75 5.17 5.86 5.65 4.39
Nd 16.90 18.30 21.70 20.00 21.50 19.80 21.40 20.80 17.00
Eu 1.00 1.17 1.08 1.05 1.07 1.09 1.03 1.08 1.01
Gd 3.05 3.26 3.90 3.76 3.85 3.63 3.88 3.57 3.31
Tb 0.50 0.57 0.62 0.64 0.62 0.58 0.61 0.57 0.58
Dy 2.76 3.11 3.39 3.45 3.37 3.16 3.39 2.98 3.07
Ho 0.52 0.59 0.65 0.64 0.66 0.61 0.63 0.56 0.58
Er 1.57 1.76 1.94 1.94 1.96 1.82 1.87 1.68 1.76
Tm 0.24 0.26 0.29 0.29 0.30 0.28 0.29 0.26 0.27
Yb 1.50 1.60 1.80 1.80 1.80 1.70 1.80 1.60 1.60
Ce 49.40 42.90 62.40 54.70 59.30 48.80 54.90 51.60 45.60
Sm 3.40 3.70 4.40 4.10 4.50 4.30 4.20 3.90 4.00
Th 9.20 8.10 13.60 10.90 13.90 11.30 14.30 10.10 7.00
Ta 0.80 0.70 0.80 0.80 0.90 1.00 0.90 0.90 0.80
Nb 7.00 7.00 7.00 8.00 8.00 9.00 9.00 8.00 7.00
Zr 80.70 91.90 84.40 99.30 95.50 138.00 113.00 107.00 110.00
Hf 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 4.00 4.00 3.00 3.00
Y 19.70 23.00 25.10 24.10 25.20 23.40 24.20 20.40 21.00
Rb 114.00 104.00 118.00 148.00 135.00 167.00 72.10 107.00 87.50
Sr 356.00 349.00 361.00 348.00 343.00 247.00 225.00 236.00 320.00
Ga 19.00 20.00 19.00 18.00 18.00 17.00 16.00 16.00 17.00
Lu 0.21 0.23 0.26 0.26 0.25 0.24 0.25 0.22 0.23

Major oxides plotted in the total alkali-silica (TAS) diagram [27] suggest that the plutonic rocks mostly rank in granodiorite and two samples are plotted in diorite (PD-10 and PD-15), as shown in Figure 6.

Figure 6 The total alkali-silica (TAS) diagram of the granitoids from Tak Batholith [27].
Figure 6

The total alkali-silica (TAS) diagram of the granitoids from Tak Batholith [27].

The relationship between Al3+, Na+, K+, and Ca2+ [28] suggests that the studied rocks are metaluminous granitoid (Figure 7a); however, alterations may cause the results of the study inaccurate, especially mobile elements or large ion lithophile elements (LILEs). According to low ratio Nb/Y (0.28–0.39) and low Zr/Ti (0.02–0.03), these granitoid were classified as high-K calc-alkaline similar to the classification by a ratio of K2O and SiO2 diagram [29] as shown in Figure 7b.

Figure 7 Chemical classification diagrams of the granitoids from Tak Batholith: (a) A/NK versus A/CNK diagram [28] and (b) K2O versus SiO2 diagram [26]. Dark gray shaded area present Eastern belt granite from reported data [12,57] and LFB in light gray shaded area from reported data [37,38,58].
Figure 7

Chemical classification diagrams of the granitoids from Tak Batholith: (a) A/NK versus A/CNK diagram [28] and (b) K2O versus SiO2 diagram [26]. Dark gray shaded area present Eastern belt granite from reported data [12,57] and LFB in light gray shaded area from reported data [37,38,58].

According to Zr versus 10,000 Ga/Al and K2O + Na2O/CaO versus Zr + Nb + Ce + Y discriminant diagrams [30] in Figure 8, the granitoid from Tak Batholith is plotted in the I-type fractionated granite field, suggesting that these granitoids are related to crystal fractionation.

Figure 8 Chemical classification diagrams of the granitoids from Tak Batholith: (a) Zr versus 10,000 Ga/Al and (b) Na2O + K2O/CaO versus Zr + Nb + Ce + Y discriminant diagram of the granitoids from Tak Batholith [30].
Figure 8

Chemical classification diagrams of the granitoids from Tak Batholith: (a) Zr versus 10,000 Ga/Al and (b) Na2O + K2O/CaO versus Zr + Nb + Ce + Y discriminant diagram of the granitoids from Tak Batholith [30].

Harker variation diagrams [31] show the negative correlation of SiO2 against Al2O3, TiO2, MgO, CaO, and Fe2O3t, and slightly positive correlations of SiO2 versus K2O and Na2O (Figure 9). These chemical charters are compatible with their mineral assemblages, especially increasing proportions of plagioclase and hornblende. The linear correlations indicate that these rocks are related through a single magmatic differentiation.

Figure 9 Variation diagrams [31] of SiO2 against other major and Eu of the granitoids from Tak Batholith.
Figure 9

Variation diagrams [31] of SiO2 against other major and Eu of the granitoids from Tak Batholith.

Chondrite normalized REE patterns of the granitoid from Tak Batholith are very high in light REE (LREE) when data of chondrite from Sun and McDonough [32] were used for normalization (Figure 10). Chondrite-normalized La/Yb, (La/Yb)N ratios of granitoids are 15.13–23.61, and meanwhile, (La/Sm)N ratios are 6.05–10.12. Moreover, (Sm/Yb)N ratios of granitoids are 2.27–2.53, and (Ho/Yb)N ratios rank in 0.35–0.37. Furthermore, the chondrite-normalized REE patterns of these granodiorite present high slope LREE and gentle slope to flat heavy rare earth elements or HREE (Figure 10), comparable with the modern typical arc volcanic granite from southeast Peru [33,34].

Figure 10 Chondrites-normalized map of REE patterns of the granitoids from Tak Batholith (standardized values according to Sun and Mcdonough [32]). The light gray field represents data for the least altered San Rafael megacrystic granite compiled (southeast Peru) [33,34,35] present in the dark gray field.
Figure 10

Chondrites-normalized map of REE patterns of the granitoids from Tak Batholith (standardized values according to Sun and Mcdonough [32]). The light gray field represents data for the least altered San Rafael megacrystic granite compiled (southeast Peru) [33,34,35] present in the dark gray field.

5 Discussion

5.1 Petrogenesis

Based on the texture and crystal relationship, the granodiorite equigranularity is a part of magma fractionation. Petrographic analysis suggests that the crystallization order is plagioclase, zircon–apatite, hornblende, biotite, fluorite, orthoclase, and quartz. Some granodiorite samples were affected by fault movement that preserves a cataclastic texture. Mineral composition and characteristics classify the granodiorite breccia as a part of intrusive, and its order of crystallization is as follows: zircon, hornblende-plagioclase, biotite, allanite, orthoclase, and quartz. Textures and mineral composition indicated the granodioritic dikes as late-stage crystallization of shallow intrusion, presenting the order of crystallization as plagioclase-unidentified mafic mineral, orthoclase, and quartz. Thus, hornblende could be determined by both granodiorites as I-type granitoid, which originate from igneous sources.

Based on petrochemistry, the studied granitoids are classified as I-type fractionated granodiorite and diorite similar to petrographic data. Harker variation diagrams (Figure 9) present close relation between these rock types, which reflect the same magmatic differentiation presenting plagioclase and hornblende crystal fractionation. The enrichment of LILE and depletion of highfield-strength elements presented in Table 1 suggest an arc-derived magmatic affinity in a subduction zone [34,35,36,37,38,39,40,41,42,43]. In addition, REE patterns of these rock samples (Figure 10) also reflect the fractionated pattern of arc magmatism derived from the high K calk alkaline magmatic affinity related to continental arc margin during the Triassic (213–256 Ma) and are grouped in the eastern granite belt [19,20].

5.2 Granite magma source and evolution

The I-type granites result from the partial melting of intermediate-base igneous rocks or metamorphic rocks in the crust [17] and also result from a mantle source during the bark melting process [44]. The geochemical interpretations in the Al2O3 + MgO + FeOt + TiO2 versus Al2O3/MgO + FeOt + TiO2 diagram [45] and CaO/MgO + FeOt versus Al2O3/MgO + FeOt diagram [46] as shown in Figure 11 suggest that the studied I-type granitoids result from the partial melting of intermediate-basic igneous rocks and amphibolite.

Figure 11 Distinguishing diagram of the original rock type of the granitoids from Tak Batholith: (a) CaO/(MgO + FeOt) versus Al2O3/(MgO + FeOt) diagram [45] and (b) Al2O3 + MgO + FeOt + TiO2 versus Al2O3/(MgO + FeOt + TiO2) diagram [44].
Figure 11

Distinguishing diagram of the original rock type of the granitoids from Tak Batholith: (a) CaO/(MgO + FeOt) versus Al2O3/(MgO + FeOt) diagram [45] and (b) Al2O3 + MgO + FeOt + TiO2 versus Al2O3/(MgO + FeOt + TiO2) diagram [44].

According to the MgO and FeO/(FeO + MgO) diagram [47], Nb/Th versus Nb and Th/Y versus Nb/Y [48] suggest that magma of these granodiorites generated in the lower crust (Figure 12a–c) is similar to that of the I-type granites study [17]. Meanwhile, the discriminant diagrams of the tectonic setting (Figure 12d–f), including the Rb/30 versus Hf and 3Ta [49], Y versus Nb [49], and Rb versus Y + Yb [50] suggest that this I-type granitoids are arc volcanic granites related to arc magmatism.

Figure 12 Distinguishing diagram of the sources of the granitoids from Tak Batholith: (a) plots of MgO and FeO/(FeO + MgO) diagram [46], (b) Nb versus Nb/Th, (c) and Nb/Y versus Th/Y diagrams [47], (d) Rb/30 versus Hf and 3Ta diagram [48], (e) Y + Yb versus Rb diagram [49], and (f) Y versus Nb discrimination diagram [48].
Figure 12

Distinguishing diagram of the sources of the granitoids from Tak Batholith: (a) plots of MgO and FeO/(FeO + MgO) diagram [46], (b) Nb versus Nb/Th, (c) and Nb/Y versus Th/Y diagrams [47], (d) Rb/30 versus Hf and 3Ta diagram [48], (e) Y + Yb versus Rb diagram [49], and (f) Y versus Nb discrimination diagram [48].

According to the regional context and petrological characteristics, the granodiorite and diorite are derived from the partial melting of mafic and/or metamorphic rocks of the Earth’s crust clearly comparable with the study of arc volcanic granite (at Andes Mountain) [51,52,53].

5.3 Tectonic implication

The geological data with the previous tectonic models in Thailand and SE Asia [1,2,3,4,21,22,23,54] were presented, i.e., the tectonic model indicating magmatism of the Tak Batholith related to the volcanic sequence. The geological data have confirmed that the arc magmatism along the Chiang Khong–Lampang–Tak volcanic belt may have resulted from the Paleo-Tethys subduction beneath Indochina Terrane in several episodes from Permo-Triassic, Late Triassic, and Early Jurassic [21,22]. Meanwhile, in the Middle Triassic, the arc magmatism related to the subduction of Palaeo-Tethys of the SIBUMASU, and Indochina Terrane (Figure 13a) still proceeded along with the formation of volcanic arc and resulted in lower crust melting [55,56]. The Tak granitic rocks that occurred in the Sukhothai arc were mainly derived from the partial melting of basaltic juvenile lower crust with potentially chemically weathered ancient crustal residues and basaltic mantle melt, which was induced by hot intruding mantle basaltic magma at the bottom of the Sukhothai continental arc similar to the granites in the Central Asian Orogenic Belt presented a high δ18O feature from the chemical weathered ancient crustal residues that occurred in the Baogutu continental arc [57].

Figure 13 Schematic tectonic model and arc magmatism in Tak Province, Thailand: (a) Paleo-Tethys subduction and Arc Fractionated Granitoids crystallization during the Triassic period [21] and (b) structural complex effect on Tak Batholith during Cenozoic Era [59,60,61].
Figure 13

Schematic tectonic model and arc magmatism in Tak Province, Thailand: (a) Paleo-Tethys subduction and Arc Fractionated Granitoids crystallization during the Triassic period [21] and (b) structural complex effect on Tak Batholith during Cenozoic Era [59,60,61].

Subsequently, high K calc-alkaline magma rose to the surface and fractionated minerals, including hornblende and plagioclase, to form a granitic batholith during 213–256 Ma [19,20]. In addition, in the Cenozoic Era, Mae Ping strike-slip faults directly affect the texture and mineral structure of both Chiang Khong–Lampang–Tak volcanic rocks and Tak granitic rocks [58,59,60], presenting as fault evidence in field observation and brecciated texture in granodiorite (Figure 13b).

This work conducts petrographic and geochemical analysis of the Thailand eastern Tak Batholith, an area that is less well studied. However, the results of this study based on the relatively small dataset and geochemistry remain inconclusive. Thus, additional electron probe microanalyses for minerals and isotopes are required for additional resolution. Although the age of the batholith formation is speculated in this article, the exact age of the batholith formation is not specified (which is important).

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to acknowledge the Department of Geotechnology, Faculty of Technology, Khon Kaen University and the Department of Geological Sciences, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai University for laboratory study.

  1. Funding information: Thanks also to the Research Administration Division (RAD) of Khon Kean University and the Research Affairs, Faculty of Technology, Khon Kaen University, for financial support in publication.

  2. Author contributions: V.S.: software, validation. V.S. and B.P.: conceptualization, methodology, resources, data curation, writing – original draft preparation, writing – review and editing, and visualization. V.S., B.P., and K.W.: formal analysis and investigation. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

  3. Conflict of interest: Authors state no conflict of interest.

  4. Data availability statement: The data that support the current study are available in the article.

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Received: 2023-02-14
Revised: 2023-06-22
Accepted: 2023-08-08
Published Online: 2023-08-28

© 2023 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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  107. Petrogenesis of the Morobe Granodiorite and their shoshonitic mafic microgranular enclaves in Maramuni arc, Papua New Guinea
  108. Environmental health risk assessment of urban water sources based on fuzzy set theory
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  122. Assessment of geosites as a basis for geotourism development: A case study of the Toplica District, Serbia
  123. IG-YOLOv5-based underwater biological recognition and detection for marine protection
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  125. Review Articles
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  128. Comparison and significance of grain size parameters of the Menyuan loess calculated using different methods
  129. Scientometric analysis of flood forecasting for Asia region and discussion on machine learning methods
  130. Rainfall-induced transportation embankment failure: A review
  131. Rapid Communication
  132. Branch fault discovered in Tangshan fault zone on the Kaiping-Guye boundary, North China
  133. Technical Note
  134. Introducing an intelligent multi-level retrieval method for mineral resource potential evaluation result data
  135. Erratum
  136. Erratum to “Forest cover assessment using remote-sensing techniques in Crete Island, Greece”
  137. Addendum
  138. The relationship between heat flow and seismicity in global tectonically active zones
  139. Commentary
  140. Improved entropy weight methods and their comparisons in evaluating the high-quality development of Qinghai, China
  141. Special Issue: Geoethics 2022 - Part II
  142. Loess and geotourism potential of the Braničevo District (NE Serbia): From overexploitation to paleoclimate interpretation
https://doi.org/10.1515/geo-2022-0528
Keywords for this article
I-type granite; hornblende granite; high-K calc-alkaline granite; arc granite; geochemistry; granodiorite
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

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