Startseite Lebenswissenschaften Design and fabrication of a fish feed mixing cum pelleting machine for small-medium scale aquaculture industry
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Design and fabrication of a fish feed mixing cum pelleting machine for small-medium scale aquaculture industry

  • Clinton E. Okonkwo , Moses O. Isaac , Elijah A. Alhassan EMAIL logo , Marvel Ogbevire , Adewumi S. Alake , Faith O. Ajao und Adeniyi T. Olayanju
Veröffentlicht/Copyright: 22. August 2023
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Open Agriculture
Aus der Zeitschrift Open Agriculture Band 8 Heft 1

Abstract

The study developed a compact, single unit of fish feed mixing and pelleting machine. In this work, a compact fish feed mixing and pelleting machine was designed, fabricated, and evaluated for its performance efficiency. The basic units of the machine are the processing unit, structural support, and the prime mover. The major component of the feed substrates used were maize, fish meal, soya bean cake, blood, and bone meal in their varied proportions blended with wet cassava starch to establish the machine performance and efficiency. The results showed that the varied proportions of starch inclusion in the blended substrate have influence on the investigated machine performance parameters. The performance outputs from the machine revealed the highest pelleting efficiency of 80.36%, pellet durability of 98.74%, throughput capacity of 4.16 kg/h, and the least labour requirement of 0.23 man-hour per kg at a starch inclusion of 0.125 kg, while the highest pellet bulk density of 0.302 g/cm3 was recorded at 0.20 and 0.125 kg starch addition. Machine economic analysis revealed that it can be of benefit for small- to medium-scale fish feed farmers.

Keywords: aquaculture; fish feed; cassava starch; pellet quality; economic analysis

1 Introduction

Fish farming, which is an integral of animal husbandry, has gained increasing popularity because of the high demand for fish, fish protein, and oil that have a wide array of applications in the cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries. The aquaculture industries have played significant roles in the emancipation of most developing economies and the actualisation of the Sustainable Development Goals 1–3: No poverty, zero hunger, and good health and well-being. It has provided employment, enhanced income, and supplemented the nutritional needs of the populace [1]. Fish farming due to technological advancement has been recognised as one of the fastest-growing sectors of food production chains in the world [2]. Over the years, the quest for fish consumption in Nigeria has resulted in an annual importation amounting to about 90 billion Naira which is equivalent to 3 million tonnes in national demand [3]. Factors responsible for these are mainly related to the overall high cost of fish production in terms of their feeds and the crude or less developed fish feed production technologies. Therefore, proper fish feed development and management practices will play a vital role in the growth and expansion of this important sector of the economy, especially at the small- to medium-scale level [4]. Feed formulation and processing have been regarded as the two most important challenges faced by aquaculture industries’ feed processors [5]. This is due to the high technical know-how required for producing the exact feed mix, the high cost of raw materials which increases the overall feed cost, and the lack of technological tools which are not available to the small-scale farmers. Fish feed accounts for about 60% of fish production costs, therefore for the profitability of such a venture, the need to examine how these input costs can be reduced significantly becomes imperative [4]. Fish feed production processes involve milling of the substrates, mixing, pelleting, and drying. How these processes are handled has notable impacts on the overall production costs and output.

Mixing as a unit operation in feed processing helps in the uniform distribution of the feed ingredients to ensure each piece of the pellet contains an equal proportion of the feed composition. Pelleting is a mechanical process used in the production of agglomerated feeds, by compacting and passing the feed mix through a die. It involves compacting and forcing individual or mixed ingredients through a die orifice or opening [6,7,8]. Pelleting of feed improves fish feeding, produces feeds of high durability, reduces wastage, and improves the ease of handling by fish farmers [8]. Fish feed development in sub-Saharan Africa has not influenced aquaculture development significantly as expected due to the low mechanisation of this important sector [4]. Many research efforts have been tailored towards the improvement of the traditional technology of feed processing. These research include the following: Ugoamadi [6] who developed a horizontal type cassava pelleting machine with pelleting efficiency (PE) of 80.30% at 250 rpm; Burmamu et al. [9] developed a horizontal type manually operated fish feed pelleting machine with PE of 88.30%; Ojediran et al. [4] developed a horizontal type fish feed pelleting cum batch dryer with PE of 72.35% at 18% moisture content; Olusegun et al. [3] developed a vertical type fish feed pelleting machine with PE of 94.20% at 400 rpm; Okewole and Igbeka [8] evaluated a vertical pelleting press having a PE of 95.79% at 25% moisture content, feed rate of 499.99 kg/h, at speed of 250 rpm.

To achieve proper mixing in feed production, intensive labour is needed especially when done manually. For a mechanised feed process, most of the time, the mixing and pelleting units are separated, which might be a burden on the budget of small-scale fish farmers, due to the high cost of production. From literature, it was observed that a fish feed processing machine incorporating both mixing and pelleting as a single unit has not been developed. The labour requirement (LR), which explains the man-hour required per kg, has also not been established by previous research for the pelleting machine, as this suggests to the processors how much labour is required for a smooth running of the production process. Also, the effect of different weights of wet starch (WS) in the mixing stage on the performance efficiency of a pelleting unit has not been studied. Therefore, the aims of the work were to (a) design and fabricate a fish feed mixing cum pelleting machine, (b) investigate the effect of different weights of WS inclusion in the mix on the performance efficiency of the machine, and (c) study the economic analysis of the developed machine.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Materials

Fish feed substrates used were bought from a local market in Omu-Aran (Latitude 8.1239oN, Longitude 5.0834oE), Kwara State, Nigeria. It was used in evaluating the performance of the developed fish feed mixing cum pelleting machine (Table 1).

Table 1

Feed substrates used in the feed formulation per batch

Raw material Quantity (kg)
Maize 9.00
Fish meal 1.00
Soya bean cake 6.00
Blood meal 0.50
Bone meal 0.50
F/premix 0.08
Lysine 0.02
Methine 0.02
Vitamin C 0.02
Salt 0.04
Dicalcium phosphate 0.20
Cassava starch 0.1, 0.125, 0.150, 0.175, and 0.200

2.2 Methodology

2.2.1 Machine design considerations

In designing the fish feed mixing cum pelleting machine, some important factors [10] were considered. These are the cost of machine production, ease of construction, assembling and dismantling, strength and durability, safety, construction materials availability, and mechanical properties.

2.2.2 Machine design analysis and computation

The design analysis was carried out to evaluate the design parameters needed in the selection of the various machine parts for its optimum performance during usage, and to avoid incessant failure during the required working life of the machine.

2.2.3 Determination of the mixing/hopper capacity

The average bulk density of the fish feed composition was taken into cognizance in determining the mixing/hopper capacity of the machine. The average bulk density of the fish feed composition used was determined to be 300 kg/m³.

2.2.4 Mixer capacity

(1) The volume of the mixer = volume of rectangular unit + volume of half a cylinder ,

Volume of the mixer = lwh + π r 2 h 2 = ( 0 . 2 × 0 . 25 × 0 . 265 ) + π × 0 . 1 2 × 0 . 265 2 = 0 . 01741 m 3 ,

Bulk density = mass volume ,

Mass = 5 . 223 kg .

The mixer capacity was 5.223 kg, but during the operation of the machine, only half of this capacity was used (2.5 kg). This is to give allowance for the proper mixing of the feed substrates used.

2.2.5 Pelleting hopper capacity

This was designed bearing in mind the mass of properly mixed feed coming from the mixing unit since the allowable mass per time is 2.50 kg.

The volume of the hopper was determined using equation (2).

(2) Volume of hopper = volume of a cube + volume of a square pyramid ,

Volume of hopper = lwh + a 2 h 3 = ( 0 . 13 × 0 . 23 × 0 . 23 ) + 0 . 23 2 × 0 . 1 3 = 8 . 6403 × 10 − 3 m 3 ,

Hopper capacity = 2 . 59 kg .

2.2.6 Mixer/pelleting shaft design

The shaft size for the mixer and pelletiser unit was calculated using the equation below [11,12].

Weight of the fish feed substrates = mg = 2 . 5 × 9 . 81 = 24 . 525 N = 0 . 0245 kN .

The mass of the mixing shaft and pulley were determined using a weighing scale to be 2 and 0.5 kg, respectively.

Weight of the mixing shaft = mg = 3 × 9 . 81 = 29 . 43 N ,

Weight of the pulley = mg = 0 . 5 × 9 . 81 = 4 . 905 N ,

(3) Torsional moment ( N t ) = 9 , 550 × W 60 ,

Torsional moment ( N t ) = 9 , 550 × ( 29 . 43 + 4 . 905 ) 60 = 5464 . 99 Nm .

The bending moment was obtained using equation (4) as follows:

(4) M b = WL 4 ,

where W is the weight (kg), and L is the length of the shaft (m).

(5) d 3 = 16 π s s ( K b M b ) 2 + ( K t M t ) 2 ,

m 1 g 1 = 3 × 9 . 81 = 29 . 43 N , m 2 g 2 = 0 . 5 × 9 . 81 = 4 . 905 N ,

M b = w × L 4 = ( 4 . 5 × 9 . 81 ) × 0 . 315 4 = 3 . 476 Nm ,

d 3 = 16 π × 4 × ( 1 . 5 × 3 . 476 ) 2 + ( 1 × 5464 . 99 ) 2 ,

d 3 = 695 . 73399 , d = 8 . 86 mm = 0 . 886 cm ≅ 1 cm .

Since the closest shaft size is 2 cm, this was chosen for the mixer.

2.2.6.1 Pelleting shaft design

Length of pelleting shaft = 40 cm , Volume of the pelletising unit is V pu , and Length of the pelleting unit = 21 . 50 cm .

M t = 9550 × ( 0 . 99 + 4 . 905 + 34 . 335 ) 60 = 6403 . 28 N ,

Bending moment ( M b ) = wL 4 = ( 3 . 6 × 9 . 81 ) × 0 . 4 4 = 0 . 36 ,

d 3 = 16 π × 40 ( 1 . 5 × 3 . 5316 ) 2 + ( 1 × 6403 . 275 ) 2 ,

d = 9 . 34 mm ≅ 10 mm .

A shaft of 20 mm was used for the pelleting unit since it was the closest.

2.2.7 Determination of pelleting barrel thickness

The barrel thickness was calculated using the formula stated by Ndirika and Onwualu [13].

(6) σ h = P × d 2 t ,

where σ h is the circumferential or hoop stress of the material used (MPa), P is the intensity of internal pressure (N/mm2), t is the thickness of the barrel (m), and d is the internal diameter of the barrel (mm). The σ h for ductile material (mild steel) was 42 MPa, the intensity of pressure was 0.99 N/mm2, and the diameter of the pelleting unit was 100 mm.

(7) t = P × d 2 σ h = 0 . 99 × 100 2 × 42 = 1 . 18 mm .

But 2 mm thick steel pipe was used.

2.2.8 Pressure on the pelleting barrel

The limiting pressure ( P b ) that the pelleting barrel can withstand was calculated using equation (8) as given by [13].

(8) P b = t δ a D i ,

(9) δ a = 0 . 27 δ o ,

where δ a is the allowable stress, δ o (N/mm2) is the yield stress of the pelleting barrel material (170 N/mm2) for mild steel material, and D i is the internal diameter of barrel (mm).

δ a = 0 . 27 × 170 = 45 . 9 N / mm 2 , P b = 2 × 45.9 100 = 0 . 9 2 N / mm 2 .

2.2.9 Pelleting screw shaft design

The pelleting screw shaft was acted upon by the weight of the feed substrates and the pulley. A screw shaft with decreasing pitch was used. The pitch at the entrance of the feed gate was maximum to increase the feed capacity at the inlet and decreased towards the exit unit to increase the pressure on the exit point.

2.2.10 Volume of material transfer per revolution

This was determined by calculating the material volume within a unit groove for a complete circle. The effective diameter ( D E ) of the circle was calculated using equation (10) given by Ndirika and Onwualu [13].

(10) D E = D − 2 H 3 ,

D E = 0 . 09 − 2 0 . 03 3 = 0 . 07 m .

For material transferred by the screw shaft, it required one revolution of the screw shaft.

(11) V = π D E A ,

(12) A = ( L + M ) H 2 ,

A = ( 0.04 + 0.03 ) 0.03 2 = 0 . 0011 m 2 , V = π × 0 . 07 × 0 . 0011 = 0 . 00023 m 3 ,

where V is the material transfer per revolution in m3, A is the cross-sectional area (m2), H is the height of the groove (m), L is the upper width of the groove (m), M is the lower width of the groove (m), and D is the maximum external diameter of the screw (m).

2.2.11 Power requirement

The power required (P) to operate the mixing and pelleting unit was determined using the formula given by Ndirika and Onwualu [13].

(13) P = Q L s ρ gF ,

where Q is the volumetric capacity, L s is the length of the pelleting shaft (m), g is the acceleration due to gravity (m/s2), and F is the material factor.

P = 2 . 58 × 0 . 4 × 300 × 9 . 81 × 0 . 4 = 1 , 216 W ,

(14) P m = P η ,

where P m is the motor horsepower, and η is the motor efficiency.

P m = 1 . 216 0 . 8 = 1 . 52 kW or 2 hp .

2.3 Machine description

The fish feed mixing cum pelleting machine was operated by a single-phase electric motor. The power was transmitted through the belt coupled on the sheave of the electric motor, which is small and the bigger sheave on the shafts as shown in Figures 1–3. The machine consists of the pelleting auger, auger housing, frame, mixing unit, mixing shaft, 5 hp electric motor, and belt and pulley system. The drive from the motor is transmitted to the driving mechanism which connects both the mixer and pelleting auger. The feed substrates were introduced into the mixing unit where they were thoroughly mixed and discharged to the pelleting unit for pellet production. The diameter of the holes in the pressure plate determines the diameter of the pellets.

Figure 1 Orthographic view of the designed mixing cum pelleting machine.
Figure 1

Orthographic view of the designed mixing cum pelleting machine.

Figure 2 Schematic view of the developed mixing cum pelleting machine.
Figure 2

Schematic view of the developed mixing cum pelleting machine.

Figure 3 The developed mixing cum pelleting machine.
Figure 3

The developed mixing cum pelleting machine.

2.4 Samples preparation

The fish feed substrates used were first dried with an electric oven (Memmert UF 75 models 30-750) to a moisture content of 10% (dry weight basis) and then milled to a uniform size of 11 µm using a laboratory hammer mill (Armfield FT2-A Hammer mill, 230 V, 50 Hz). The cassava starch was used as a binder, and it was prepared by dissolving the starch granules in boiled water and stirred vigorously to form a paste, which was subsequently weighed into the fish feed substrates in the mixing component of the developed machine for the different batches. The weight of the starch added for each batch was varied as shown in Table 2.

Table 2

Performance of the developed mixing cum pelleting machine as affected by the weight of starch used

Weight of WS (g) Treatment replicates PE (%) TC (kg/h) LR man-hour required/kg PD (%) PBD (g/cm3)
100 T1 71.00 3.87 0.26 98.45 0.27
T2 71.05 3.87 0.26 98.44 0.27
T3 71.03 3.88 0.262 98.46 0.27
Mean value ± SD 71.03 ± 0.03a 3.87 ± 0.002a 0.26 ± 0.004a 98.40 ± 0.008a 0.27 ± 0.001a
125 T1 80.32 4.18 0.24 98.73 0.28
T2 80.35 4.12 0.22 98.74 0.28
T3 80.40 4.18 0.24 98.73 0.28
Mean value ± SD 80.36 ± 0.04b 4.16 ± 0.03a 0.23 ± 0.01a 98.74 ± 0.003ab 0.28 ± 0.001a
150 T1 61.54 3.13 0.32 98.38 0.28
T2 61.34 3.12 0.32 98.38 0.28
T3 61.56 3.12 0.32 98.38 0.28
Mean value ± SD 61.48 ± 0.120c 3.12 ± 0.010b 0.32 ± 0.002b 98.38 ± 0.004a 0.28 ± 0.004a
175 T1 75.85 3.79 0.26 98.55 0.30
T2 75.83 3.75 0.262 98.58 0.30
T3 75.80 3.78 0.265 98.56 0.30
Mean value ± SD 75.83 ± 0.03d 3.78 ± 0.02ac 0.26 ± 0.001a 98.562 ± 0.016ac 0.30 ± 0.001ab
200 T1 71.14 3.32 0.30 97.10 0.30
T2 71.11 3.31 0.30 97.11 0.30
T3 71.56 3.32 0.31 97.11 0.30
Mean value ± SD 71.27 ± 0.25a 3.32 ± 0.01d 0.31 ± 0.008b 97.11 ± 0.006d 0.30 ± 0.001ab

*SD denotes standard deviation, letters a–d represent the mean significant relationship among treatments, and different letters along the same column signify significant differences (p < 0.05).

2.5 Performance evaluation

The developed mixing cum pelleting machine was evaluated using equations (15)–(19) as given by Okewole and Igbeka [8] and Okonkwo et al. [10].

2.6 PE

(15) PE = W p W m × 100 ,

where W p is the weight of the actual pelletised feed (kg), and W m is the weight of the total feed input (kg).

2.7 Throughput capacity (TC)

(16) TC = W p T ,

where W p is the weight of pellets (kg), and T is the time taken (h).

2.8 LR

(17) LR = 1 TC ,

where LR is the man-hour required per kg.

2.9 Pellet durability (PD)

This was evaluated with a vibratory sieve shaking machine (Mechanical Jinling Shaker AC 220 V, 150 W, 50 Hz), 100 g fish feed pellets for each batch were introduced into the sieve shaking machine and vibrated for 30 min at 50 Hz and 150 W. The pellet remaining after shaking was then used to calculate the PD as in the equation below.

(18) PD = W a W b × 100 ,

where W a is the pellet mass after shaker treatment (kg), and W b is the pellet mass before shaker treatment (kg).

2.10 Pellet bulk density (PBD)

(19) PBD = W d V d ,

where W d is the pelleting mass (g), and V d is the pellet sample volume ( cm 3 )

2.11 Economic analysis

The economic analysis of the developed fish feed mixing cum pelleting machine was determined using cost and return analysis which includes break-even point (BEP), payable period (PBP), and benefit-cost ratio (BCR). Equations (20)–(22) as given by Okonkwo [10] defined the economic viability of the machine as follows:

(20) BEP = TFC MPF − TVC H × MPC ,

where TFC = total fixed cost (N/h), MPF = mixing/pelleting fee (N/kg), TVC = total variable cost (N/h), H = annual working hours, and MPC = mixing/pelleting capacity (kg/h).

(21) PBP = IC × H ANI ,

where IC = initial cost (N), and ANI = annual net income (N).

(22) BCR = TB MPC × DC ,

where TB = total benefit (N), and MPC = mixing/pelleting cost (N/kg).

2.12 Statistical analysis

The experimental design was a one factorial design. Each measurement was replicated three times and the data obtained were evaluated for its mean values and standard deviation using SPSS version 23. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to check the significant differences (p < 0.05), and Duncan’s multiple range test was further used to compare mean values.

3 Results and discussion

3.1 TC

The mean TC of the developed mixing cum pelleting machine under different quantities of starch used ranged from 3.12 to 4.16 kg/h as shown in Table 2 at 373 rpm. The highest TC of 4.16 kg/h was recorded with the inclusion of 125 g of wet cassava starch, while the lowest TC of 3.12 kg/h was recorded with the inclusion of 150 g wet cassava starch. The various starch weight inclusions used showed different fluctuating TC. These observed phenomena might be due to the fact that the more the quantity of starch used, the sticker it will be to the mixing and pelletising barrel. The maximum TC recorded at 373 rpm was lower as compared to the TC (350–500 kg/h) reported by Okewole and Igbeka [8] for a vertical type pelleting machine at 200 and 250 rpm at different feed rates. Ugoamadi [6] reported a maximum TC of 80.40 kg/h for 250 rpm in a horizontal type cassava pelleting machine. These large differences observed are due to the volume of the pelleting barrel, feed rate, and the speed of operation.

3.2 PE

The PE describes the ability of the pelleting machine to produce whole pellets from the feed introduced through the hopper of the pelleting machine. From Table 2, it was observed that the mean PE of the developed mixing cum pelleting machine under different quantities of starch used ranged from 61.48 to 80.36% at 373 rpm. The highest PE of 80.36% was recorded with the inclusion of 125 g of wet cassava starch, while the lowest PE of 61.48% was recorded with the inclusion of 150 g of wet cassava starch. The various starch weight inclusions used showed different fluctuating PE. The result showed that inclusion of 125 g WS performed better with the developed mixing cum pelleting machine. The efficiency recorded was lower than that reported by Okewole and Igbeka [8] with maximum PE of 95% for a vertical fish feed pelletiser at 25% moisture content wet basis, 500 kg/h feed rate, and 250 rpm shaft speed, but within the same range with what was reported by Ugoamadi [6] with a maximum PE of 80.31% for 250 rpm in horizontal type cassava pelleting machine. A linear relationship was established between PE and moisture content as studied by Ojomo et al. [14].

3.3 LR

The LR describes the man-hour required per kg of the pelleting material. From Table 2, it can be seen that the different starch weights used in the operation required one man labour to be able to manage the whole operations during production.

3.4 PD

PD describes the ability of pellets to withstand destructive loads, and frictional and abrasive forces during handling and transport. From Table 2, it was observed that the mean PD of the developed mixing cum pelleting machine under the different quantities of starch used ranged from 97.11 to 98.74%. The highest PD of 98.74% was recorded with the inclusion of 125 g of wet cassava starch, while the lowest PD of 97.11% was recorded with the inclusion of 200 g of wet cassava starch. The various starch weight inclusions used showed different fluctuating PD. The maximum PD estimated (98.74%) was slightly higher than the maximum PD (96.30%) reported by Okewole and Igbeka [8] for a vertical-type pelleting machine.

3.5 PBD

The PBD depicts the degree of compaction of the pellets per unit volume. From Table 2, it was observed that the mean PBD of the developed mixing cum pelleting machine under different quantities of starch used ranged from 0.268 to 0.302 g/cm3 as shown in Table 2. The highest PBD of 0.302 g/cm3 was recorded with the inclusion of 200 g wet cassava starch, while the lowest PBD of 0.268 g/cm3 was recorded with the inclusion of 100 g wet cassava starch. The various starch weight inclusions used showed that as the weight of the starch increased, the bulk density increased. The result was in agreement with the result reported by Fallahi et al. [15] and Okewole and Igbeka [8] where the PBD increased with moisture content.

3.6 Economic analysis of the developed fish feed mixing cum pelleting machine

The cost analysis in Table 3 gives the estimate for the development of the prototype of the mixing cum pelleting machine. The materials used for the fabrication of the machine were estimated to be $238.110. The economic analysis parameters which include PBP, BEP, and BCR were used to evaluate the viability of the investment. A BCR greater than 1 signifies that the machine is theoretically beneficial. BCR of 2.81 was obtained for the developed mixing cum pelletising machine, indicating that the machine is highly beneficial. This value was slightly higher than the BCR reported by Okonkwo et al. [10]. BEP shows the level at which the machine has to be used to generate profit. BEP of 224 kg was estimated for the machine. This signifies that to break even with the developed machine, it would have to produce about 224 kg of pellet. The estimated BEP was lower compared to the BEP of 1,744 kg reported by Okonkwo et al. [10]. PBP is the time required to recover the capital invested. PBP of 53.80 h. (0.28 months) was estimated for the machine. This analysis, therefore, shows that the developed machine can be suitably adopted for small- to medium-scale fish feed producers and it is economically viable.

Table 3

Materials for fabrication of components and projected cost

Materials Components used Amount in Naira ($)
2 mm mild steel (1 no.) Mixing unit and pelleting hopper 38.10
1.5 inch thick angle iron (2 nos.) For framework and mixer cover 47.62
Iron pulley (15 and 30 cm) For both the mixer and pelleting unit 16.67
Mild steel shaft (2 and 2.5 cm) For mixing shaft and pelleting auger 17.86
Bearing (204 and 205) For holding the mixing and pelting auger during operation 23.81
Cutter rod (1 length) For the construction of the auger 7.14
5 mm thick flat bar (100 cm length) For the mixing paddle 11.90
A-belt For connecting the pulleys 2.38
Bolt and nuts (10) For firmness during operation 1.20
5 hp electric motor For the prime mover 71.43
Total 238.11

4 Conclusion

A mixing cum pelleting machine was designed and developed to reduce the drudgery associated with manual mixing and pelleting of fish feed among small-scale fish farmers who directly utilise the fish feed. The mixing cum pelletiser was evaluated using different weights of WS (0.100, 0.125, 0.150, 0.175, and 0.200 kg). The following key observations were inferred from the investigation:

  1. Mixing and pelleting using 0.125 kg WS inclusion showed the highest PE (80.36%), TC (4.16 kg/h), PD (98.74%), and least LR (0.23 man-hour required per kg), whereas, the inclusion of WS of 0.15 kg had the least PE (61.48%) and TC (3.12 kg/h).

  2. The PBD increased (from 0.268 to 0.302 g/cm3) with the increased inclusion of WS.

  3. The economic analysis and evaluation of the results showed that the developed mixing cum pelleting machine is highly beneficial, economical, and can be used by small- to medium-scale fish farmers and feed producers.

In conclusion, we found that the developed pelleting machine can produce pellets with high PE, and is economically viable if adopted by small- to medium-scale farmers.

Acknowledgments

We the authors sincerely appreciate the Management of Landmark University for the conducive ambience for research and the payment of the Article Processing Fee. The Editorial team of this Journal and our anonymous reviewers are highly acknowledged.

  1. Funding information: The authors state no funding involved.

  2. Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.

  3. Data availability statement: The datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Received: 2021-06-22
Revised: 2022-07-06
Accepted: 2022-07-07
Published Online: 2023-08-22

© 2023 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Artikel in diesem Heft

  1. Regular Articles
  2. The impact of COVID-19 pandemic on business risks and potato commercial model
  3. Effects of potato (Solanum tuberosum L.)–Mucuna pruriens intercropping pattern on the agronomic performances of potato and the soil physicochemical properties of the western highlands of Cameroon
  4. Machine learning-based prediction of total phenolic and flavonoid in horticultural products
  5. Revamping agricultural sector and its implications on output and employment generation: Evidence from Nigeria
  6. Does product certification matter? A review of mechanism to influence customer loyalty in the poultry feed industry
  7. Farmer regeneration and knowledge co-creation in the sustainability of coconut agribusiness in Gorontalo, Indonesia
  8. Lablab purpureus: Analysis of landraces cultivation and distribution, farming systems, and some climatic trends in production areas in Tanzania
  9. The effects of carrot (Daucus carota L.) waste juice on the performances of native chicken in North Sulawesi, Indonesia
  10. Properties of potassium dihydrogen phosphate and its effects on plants and soil
  11. Factors influencing the role and performance of independent agricultural extension workers in supporting agricultural extension
  12. The fate of probiotic species applied in intensive grow-out ponds in rearing water and intestinal tracts of white shrimp, Litopenaeus vannamei
  13. Yield stability and agronomic performances of provitamin A maize (Zea mays L.) genotypes in South-East of DR Congo
  14. Diallel analysis of length and shape of rice using Hayman and Griffing method
  15. Physicochemical and microbiological characteristics of various stem bark extracts of Hopea beccariana Burck potential as natural preservatives of coconut sap
  16. Correlation between descriptive and group type traits in the system of cow’s linear classification of Ukrainian Brown dairy breed
  17. Meta-analysis of the influence of the substitution of maize with cassava on performance indices of broiler chickens
  18. Bacteriocin-like inhibitory substance (BLIS) produced by Enterococcus faecium MA115 and its potential use as a seafood biopreservative
  19. Meta-analysis of the benefits of dietary Saccharomyces cerevisiae intervention on milk yield and component characteristics in lactating small ruminants
  20. Growth promotion potential of Bacillus spp. isolates on two tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) varieties in the West region of Cameroon
  21. Prioritizing IoT adoption strategies in millennial farming: An analytical network process approach
  22. Soil fertility and pomelo yield influenced by soil conservation practices
  23. Soil macrofauna under laying hens’ grazed fields in two different agroecosystems in Portugal
  24. Factors affecting household carbohydrate food consumption in Central Java: Before and during the COVID-19 pandemic
  25. Properties of paper coated with Prunus serotina (Ehrh.) extract formulation
  26. Fertiliser cost prediction in European Union farms: Machine-learning approaches through artificial neural networks
  27. Molecular and phenotypic markers for pyramiding multiple traits in rice
  28. Natural product nanofibers derived from Trichoderma hamatum K01 to control citrus anthracnose caused by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides
  29. Role of actors in promoting sustainable peatland management in Kubu Raya Regency, West Kalimantan, Indonesia
  30. Small-scale coffee farmers’ perception of climate-adapted attributes in participatory coffee breeding: A case study of Gayo Highland, Aceh, Indonesia
  31. Optimization of extraction using surface response methodology and quantification of cannabinoids in female inflorescences of marijuana (Cannabis sativa L.) at three altitudinal floors of Peru
  32. Production factors, technical, and economic efficiency of soybean (Glycine max L. Merr.) farming in Indonesia
  33. Economic performance of smallholder soya bean production in Kwara State, Nigeria
  34. Indonesian rice farmers’ perceptions of different sources of information and their effect on farmer capability
  35. Feed preference, body condition scoring, and growth performance of Dohne Merino ram fed varying levels of fossil shell flour
  36. Assessing the determinant factors of risk strategy adoption to mitigate various risks: An experience from smallholder rubber farmers in West Kalimantan Province, Indonesia
  37. Analysis of trade potential and factors influencing chili export in Indonesia
  38. Grade-C kenaf fiber (poor quality) as an alternative material for textile crafts
  39. Technical efficiency changes of rice farming in the favorable irrigated areas of Indonesia
  40. Palm oil cluster resilience to enhance indigenous welfare by innovative ability to address land conflicts: Evidence of disaster hierarchy
  41. Factors determining cassava farmers’ accessibility to loan sources: Evidence from Lampung, Indonesia
  42. Tailoring business models for small-medium food enterprises in Eastern Africa can drive the commercialization and utilization of vitamin A rich orange-fleshed sweet potato puree
  43. Revitalizing sub-optimal drylands: Exploring the role of biofertilizers
  44. Effects of salt stress on growth of Quercus ilex L. seedlings
  45. Design and fabrication of a fish feed mixing cum pelleting machine for small-medium scale aquaculture industry
  46. Indicators of swamp buffalo business sustainability using partial least squares structural equation modelling
  47. Effect of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi on early growth, root colonization, and chlorophyll content of North Maluku nutmeg cultivars
  48. How intergenerational farmers negotiate their identity in the era of Agriculture 4.0: A multiple-case study in Indonesia
  49. Responses of broiler chickens to incremental levels of water deprivation: Growth performance, carcass characteristics, and relative organ weights
  50. The improvement of horticultural villages sustainability in Central Java Province, Indonesia
  51. Effect of short-term grazing exclusion on herbage species composition, dry matter productivity, and chemical composition of subtropical grasslands
  52. Analysis of beef market integration between consumer and producer regions in Indonesia
  53. Analysing the sustainability of swamp buffalo (Bubalus bubalis carabauesis) farming as a protein source and germplasm
  54. Toxicity of Calophyllum soulattri, Piper aduncum, Sesamum indicum and their potential mixture for control Spodoptera frugiperda
  55. Consumption profile of organic fruits and vegetables by a Portuguese consumer’s sample
  56. Phenotypic characterisation of indigenous chicken in the central zone of Tanzania
  57. Diversity and structure of bacterial communities in saline and non-saline rice fields in Cilacap Regency, Indonesia
  58. Isolation and screening of lactic acid bacteria producing anti-Edwardsiella from the gastrointestinal tract of wild catfish (Clarias gariepinus) for probiotic candidates
  59. Effects of land use and slope position on selected soil physicochemical properties in Tekorsh Sub-Watershed, East Gojjam Zone, Ethiopia
  60. Design of smart farming communication and web interface using MQTT and Node.js
  61. Assessment of bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) seed quality accessed through different seed sources in northwest Ethiopia
  62. Estimation of water consumption and productivity for wheat using remote sensing and SEBAL model: A case study from central clay plain Ecosystem in Sudan
  63. Agronomic performance, seed chemical composition, and bioactive components of selected Indonesian soybean genotypes (Glycine max [L.] Merr.)
  64. The role of halal requirements, health-environmental factors, and domestic interest in food miles of apple fruit
  65. Subsidized fertilizer management in the rice production centers of South Sulawesi, Indonesia: Bridging the gap between policy and practice
  66. Factors affecting consumers’ loyalty and purchase decisions on honey products: An emerging market perspective
  67. Inclusive rice seed business: Performance and sustainability
  68. Design guidelines for sustainable utilization of agricultural appropriate technology: Enhancing human factors and user experience
  69. Effect of integrate water shortage and soil conditioners on water productivity, growth, and yield of Red Globe grapevines grown in sandy soil
  70. Synergic effect of Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and potassium fertilizer improves biomass-related characteristics of cocoa seedlings to enhance their drought resilience and field survival
  71. Control measure of sweet potato weevil (Cylas formicarius Fab.) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) in endemic land of entisol type using mulch and entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana
  72. In vitro and in silico study for plant growth promotion potential of indigenous Ochrobactrum ciceri and Bacillus australimaris
  73. Effects of repeated replanting on yield, dry matter, starch, and protein content in different potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) genotypes
  74. Review Articles
  75. Nutritional and chemical composition of black velvet tamarind (Dialium guineense Willd) and its influence on animal production: A review
  76. Black pepper (Piper nigrum Lam) as a natural feed additive and source of beneficial nutrients and phytochemicals in chicken nutrition
  77. The long-crowing chickens in Indonesia: A review
  78. A transformative poultry feed system: The impact of insects as an alternative and transformative poultry-based diet in sub-Saharan Africa
  79. Short Communication
  80. Profiling of carbonyl compounds in fresh cabbage with chemometric analysis for the development of freshness assessment method
  81. Special Issue of The 4th International Conference on Food Science and Engineering (ICFSE) 2022 - Part I
  82. Non-destructive evaluation of soluble solid content in fruits with various skin thicknesses using visible–shortwave near-infrared spectroscopy
  83. Special Issue on FCEM - International Web Conference on Food Choice & Eating Motivation - Part I
  84. Traditional agri-food products and sustainability – A fruitful relationship for the development of rural areas in Portugal
  85. Consumers’ attitudes toward refrigerated ready-to-eat meat and dairy foods
  86. Breakfast habits and knowledge: Study involving participants from Brazil and Portugal
  87. Food determinants and motivation factors impact on consumer behavior in Lebanon
  88. Comparison of three wine routes’ realities in Central Portugal
  89. Special Issue on Agriculture, Climate Change, Information Technology, Food and Animal (ACIFAS 2020)
  90. Environmentally friendly bioameliorant to increase soil fertility and rice (Oryza sativa) production
  91. Enhancing the ability of rice to adapt and grow under saline stress using selected halotolerant rhizobacterial nitrogen fixer
https://doi.org/10.1515/opag-2022-0124
Schlagwörter für diesen Artikel
aquaculture; fish feed; cassava starch; pellet quality; economic analysis
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Artikel in diesem Heft

  1. Regular Articles
  2. The impact of COVID-19 pandemic on business risks and potato commercial model
  3. Effects of potato (Solanum tuberosum L.)–Mucuna pruriens intercropping pattern on the agronomic performances of potato and the soil physicochemical properties of the western highlands of Cameroon
  4. Machine learning-based prediction of total phenolic and flavonoid in horticultural products
  5. Revamping agricultural sector and its implications on output and employment generation: Evidence from Nigeria
  6. Does product certification matter? A review of mechanism to influence customer loyalty in the poultry feed industry
  7. Farmer regeneration and knowledge co-creation in the sustainability of coconut agribusiness in Gorontalo, Indonesia
  8. Lablab purpureus: Analysis of landraces cultivation and distribution, farming systems, and some climatic trends in production areas in Tanzania
  9. The effects of carrot (Daucus carota L.) waste juice on the performances of native chicken in North Sulawesi, Indonesia
  10. Properties of potassium dihydrogen phosphate and its effects on plants and soil
  11. Factors influencing the role and performance of independent agricultural extension workers in supporting agricultural extension
  12. The fate of probiotic species applied in intensive grow-out ponds in rearing water and intestinal tracts of white shrimp, Litopenaeus vannamei
  13. Yield stability and agronomic performances of provitamin A maize (Zea mays L.) genotypes in South-East of DR Congo
  14. Diallel analysis of length and shape of rice using Hayman and Griffing method
  15. Physicochemical and microbiological characteristics of various stem bark extracts of Hopea beccariana Burck potential as natural preservatives of coconut sap
  16. Correlation between descriptive and group type traits in the system of cow’s linear classification of Ukrainian Brown dairy breed
  17. Meta-analysis of the influence of the substitution of maize with cassava on performance indices of broiler chickens
  18. Bacteriocin-like inhibitory substance (BLIS) produced by Enterococcus faecium MA115 and its potential use as a seafood biopreservative
  19. Meta-analysis of the benefits of dietary Saccharomyces cerevisiae intervention on milk yield and component characteristics in lactating small ruminants
  20. Growth promotion potential of Bacillus spp. isolates on two tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) varieties in the West region of Cameroon
  21. Prioritizing IoT adoption strategies in millennial farming: An analytical network process approach
  22. Soil fertility and pomelo yield influenced by soil conservation practices
  23. Soil macrofauna under laying hens’ grazed fields in two different agroecosystems in Portugal
  24. Factors affecting household carbohydrate food consumption in Central Java: Before and during the COVID-19 pandemic
  25. Properties of paper coated with Prunus serotina (Ehrh.) extract formulation
  26. Fertiliser cost prediction in European Union farms: Machine-learning approaches through artificial neural networks
  27. Molecular and phenotypic markers for pyramiding multiple traits in rice
  28. Natural product nanofibers derived from Trichoderma hamatum K01 to control citrus anthracnose caused by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides
  29. Role of actors in promoting sustainable peatland management in Kubu Raya Regency, West Kalimantan, Indonesia
  30. Small-scale coffee farmers’ perception of climate-adapted attributes in participatory coffee breeding: A case study of Gayo Highland, Aceh, Indonesia
  31. Optimization of extraction using surface response methodology and quantification of cannabinoids in female inflorescences of marijuana (Cannabis sativa L.) at three altitudinal floors of Peru
  32. Production factors, technical, and economic efficiency of soybean (Glycine max L. Merr.) farming in Indonesia
  33. Economic performance of smallholder soya bean production in Kwara State, Nigeria
  34. Indonesian rice farmers’ perceptions of different sources of information and their effect on farmer capability
  35. Feed preference, body condition scoring, and growth performance of Dohne Merino ram fed varying levels of fossil shell flour
  36. Assessing the determinant factors of risk strategy adoption to mitigate various risks: An experience from smallholder rubber farmers in West Kalimantan Province, Indonesia
  37. Analysis of trade potential and factors influencing chili export in Indonesia
  38. Grade-C kenaf fiber (poor quality) as an alternative material for textile crafts
  39. Technical efficiency changes of rice farming in the favorable irrigated areas of Indonesia
  40. Palm oil cluster resilience to enhance indigenous welfare by innovative ability to address land conflicts: Evidence of disaster hierarchy
  41. Factors determining cassava farmers’ accessibility to loan sources: Evidence from Lampung, Indonesia
  42. Tailoring business models for small-medium food enterprises in Eastern Africa can drive the commercialization and utilization of vitamin A rich orange-fleshed sweet potato puree
  43. Revitalizing sub-optimal drylands: Exploring the role of biofertilizers
  44. Effects of salt stress on growth of Quercus ilex L. seedlings
  45. Design and fabrication of a fish feed mixing cum pelleting machine for small-medium scale aquaculture industry
  46. Indicators of swamp buffalo business sustainability using partial least squares structural equation modelling
  47. Effect of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi on early growth, root colonization, and chlorophyll content of North Maluku nutmeg cultivars
  48. How intergenerational farmers negotiate their identity in the era of Agriculture 4.0: A multiple-case study in Indonesia
  49. Responses of broiler chickens to incremental levels of water deprivation: Growth performance, carcass characteristics, and relative organ weights
  50. The improvement of horticultural villages sustainability in Central Java Province, Indonesia
  51. Effect of short-term grazing exclusion on herbage species composition, dry matter productivity, and chemical composition of subtropical grasslands
  52. Analysis of beef market integration between consumer and producer regions in Indonesia
  53. Analysing the sustainability of swamp buffalo (Bubalus bubalis carabauesis) farming as a protein source and germplasm
  54. Toxicity of Calophyllum soulattri, Piper aduncum, Sesamum indicum and their potential mixture for control Spodoptera frugiperda
  55. Consumption profile of organic fruits and vegetables by a Portuguese consumer’s sample
  56. Phenotypic characterisation of indigenous chicken in the central zone of Tanzania
  57. Diversity and structure of bacterial communities in saline and non-saline rice fields in Cilacap Regency, Indonesia
  58. Isolation and screening of lactic acid bacteria producing anti-Edwardsiella from the gastrointestinal tract of wild catfish (Clarias gariepinus) for probiotic candidates
  59. Effects of land use and slope position on selected soil physicochemical properties in Tekorsh Sub-Watershed, East Gojjam Zone, Ethiopia
  60. Design of smart farming communication and web interface using MQTT and Node.js
  61. Assessment of bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) seed quality accessed through different seed sources in northwest Ethiopia
  62. Estimation of water consumption and productivity for wheat using remote sensing and SEBAL model: A case study from central clay plain Ecosystem in Sudan
  63. Agronomic performance, seed chemical composition, and bioactive components of selected Indonesian soybean genotypes (Glycine max [L.] Merr.)
  64. The role of halal requirements, health-environmental factors, and domestic interest in food miles of apple fruit
  65. Subsidized fertilizer management in the rice production centers of South Sulawesi, Indonesia: Bridging the gap between policy and practice
  66. Factors affecting consumers’ loyalty and purchase decisions on honey products: An emerging market perspective
  67. Inclusive rice seed business: Performance and sustainability
  68. Design guidelines for sustainable utilization of agricultural appropriate technology: Enhancing human factors and user experience
  69. Effect of integrate water shortage and soil conditioners on water productivity, growth, and yield of Red Globe grapevines grown in sandy soil
  70. Synergic effect of Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and potassium fertilizer improves biomass-related characteristics of cocoa seedlings to enhance their drought resilience and field survival
  71. Control measure of sweet potato weevil (Cylas formicarius Fab.) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) in endemic land of entisol type using mulch and entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana
  72. In vitro and in silico study for plant growth promotion potential of indigenous Ochrobactrum ciceri and Bacillus australimaris
  73. Effects of repeated replanting on yield, dry matter, starch, and protein content in different potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) genotypes
  74. Review Articles
  75. Nutritional and chemical composition of black velvet tamarind (Dialium guineense Willd) and its influence on animal production: A review
  76. Black pepper (Piper nigrum Lam) as a natural feed additive and source of beneficial nutrients and phytochemicals in chicken nutrition
  77. The long-crowing chickens in Indonesia: A review
  78. A transformative poultry feed system: The impact of insects as an alternative and transformative poultry-based diet in sub-Saharan Africa
  79. Short Communication
  80. Profiling of carbonyl compounds in fresh cabbage with chemometric analysis for the development of freshness assessment method
  81. Special Issue of The 4th International Conference on Food Science and Engineering (ICFSE) 2022 - Part I
  82. Non-destructive evaluation of soluble solid content in fruits with various skin thicknesses using visible–shortwave near-infrared spectroscopy
  83. Special Issue on FCEM - International Web Conference on Food Choice & Eating Motivation - Part I
  84. Traditional agri-food products and sustainability – A fruitful relationship for the development of rural areas in Portugal
  85. Consumers’ attitudes toward refrigerated ready-to-eat meat and dairy foods
  86. Breakfast habits and knowledge: Study involving participants from Brazil and Portugal
  87. Food determinants and motivation factors impact on consumer behavior in Lebanon
  88. Comparison of three wine routes’ realities in Central Portugal
  89. Special Issue on Agriculture, Climate Change, Information Technology, Food and Animal (ACIFAS 2020)
  90. Environmentally friendly bioameliorant to increase soil fertility and rice (Oryza sativa) production
  91. Enhancing the ability of rice to adapt and grow under saline stress using selected halotolerant rhizobacterial nitrogen fixer
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