Startseite Effects of land use and slope position on selected soil physicochemical properties in Tekorsh Sub-Watershed, East Gojjam Zone, Ethiopia
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Effects of land use and slope position on selected soil physicochemical properties in Tekorsh Sub-Watershed, East Gojjam Zone, Ethiopia

  • Dilnesa Bayle EMAIL logo , Samuel Feyissa und Solomon Tamiru
Veröffentlicht/Copyright: 5. Oktober 2023
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Open Agriculture
Aus der Zeitschrift Open Agriculture Band 8 Heft 1

Abstract

In the Tekorsh Sub-Watershed, East Gojjam Zone, Ethiopia, researchers investigated the impact of land use patterns and slope position on selected soil physico-chemical parameters. The study area was arbitrarily divided into three slope positions (higher, middle, and lower), two land uses types (grazing and cultivated land), and two soil depths (0–20 and 20–40 cm) with three replications, based on the in situ field survey. For laboratory analysis, a total of 36 composite samples were obtained. Sand, clay, and silt fraction were highly significantly (P ≤ 0.05) affected by the interaction effect of the three factors. Clay and clay loam were the textural classes of the soil in the study area. The interaction effects of the three factors were highly significant (P ≤ 0.001) affected bulk density (D b), total porosity (TP), organic carbon (OC), available phosphorus (AP), exchangeable (Mg2+, Ca2+, and acidity), cation exchange capacity (CEC), and micronutrients (Fe, Mn, Cu, and Zn). The soils were medium to high (1.22–1.44 g/cm3) in D b, very high (45.66–63.13%) in TP, medium to high (15.72–19.56% v/v) in available water holding capacity, low to medium (1.37–2.91%) in OC, very low (1.65–7.68 mg/kg) in AP, high (4.62–5.36 cmol(+)/kg) in exchangeable Mg2+, very high in CEC (43.60–51.06 cmol(+)/kg), Fe (25.20–52.91 mg/kg), Mn (37.29–105.55 mg/kg), Cu (4.04–7.87 kg/kg), and Zn (0.83 2.53 kg/kg). In general, it was discovered that the majority of the assessed soil properties were better in grazing land than in soils utilized for cultivated land uses, and that the lower slope position was preferable to the upper and middle ones.

Keywords: physico-chemical; micronutrients; soil parameters; cultivated land; grazing land

1 Introduction

The economy of most developing countries, such as Ethiopia, is mostly focused on agricultural production [1]. Ethiopian agriculture, on the other hand, is in peril due to imprudent land usage and changes within land use types. In Ethiopia, natural forest conversion to farmland, open grazing, and homestead land all seem to be common occurrences. Such shifts in land use are prevalent, especially in the highlands, where population density is high, and natural resources are significantly affected. These policies have led to the destruction of agricultural soil quality and a fall in land productivity, resulting in poor agricultural production and food insecurity in the country. In this circumstance, agricultural soil quality degradation means a loss of soil fertility as a consequence of various human activities. These anthropogenic activities (fertilizer application, agricultural residue removal, and land plowing) are major contributors to changes in soil physico-chemical characteristics in Ethiopia [2].

Rapid population expansion, steep slope farming, vegetation destruction, and overgrazing are the primary causes of soil erosion in Ethiopia. The demand for already scarce resources rises along with the global population, and industry spreads to formerly undeveloped regions. There is also a transformation from one land use type to another, mainly commonly from natural forest to arable land. Erosion and productivity reduction are exacerbated by such activities. In order to develop and sustain the physico-chemical and productivity of soil, frequent evaluations of critical soil physico-chemical properties and their reaction to ongoing land management are essential [3].

Slope position is an important topographic feature that affects the drainage, runoff, and soil erosion processes, as well as physico-chemical qualities [4]. Because the higher slope position enables water flow and soil movement, erosion occurs considerably. It is widely established that raising the slope position promotes soil erosion by water and landslides by turning up the volume and velocity of overland flow. Lower-slope runoff moves slowly and gradually produces a water layer deep enough to act as surface mulch [5]. Increases in slope position would generally be expected to increase soil loss due to increased surface runoff and decreased infiltration rate [6].

At Tekorsh Sub-watershed Awabal district, East Gojjam, Ethiopia, different land use types and slope position are thought to affect physico-chemical qualities and crop production levels. BoWIED [7] only evaluated the cultivated soil in the research areas like soil texture, pH, organic carbon (OC) content, total nitrogen (TN) content, accessible phosphorus, and cation exchange capacity (CEC). However, this study does not evaluate the exchangeable bases (Ca, Mg, K, and Na), exchangeable acidity, or the available micronutrients (Fe, Mn, Cu, and Zn). It also does not evaluate the soil bulk density, total porosity (TP), field capacity (FC), permanent wiling point, available water holding capacity (AWHC), or exchangeable bases. The location of the slope is also not considered in this study. In this regard, there has been insufficient material accessible in the current study area pertaining to the title under consideration. Although the consequences of altering land use types from natural forest to cultivation and grazing land are well recognized, research into the effects on soil physical and chemical components in the study site is sparse. Because the study area confronts agricultural challenges such as a shortage of land for crop cultivation and livestock grazing, a decline in agricultural production, as well as rainfall variability, all of which result in low yield production, determining the soil physico-chemical properties is essential for future soil assessment and implementation. In the research region, runoff and erosion happen due to the upper slope, where water removes finer soil particles such as soil organic matter and plant nutrients, negatively influencing soil physico-chemical characteristics and crop productivity. As a result, analyzing the physical and chemical properties of soil under various land use types, soil management techniques, and slope positions is essential for tracking changes in physico-chemical properties for desired plant nutrient management and long-term land productivity. As a result, this study was conceptualized with the objective of assessing the effects of land use types and slope position on selected soil physico-chemical properties in Ethiopia’s Tekorsh Sub-Watershed.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Description of the study area

The research was carried out in the Tekorsh Sub-watershed of the Awabel district in the East Gojjam Zone of Ethiopia. Lumame, the district’s capital, is about 262 km northwest of Addis Ababa and 40 km east of Debre Markos. The district is located between 10° 00′ and 10° 30′ N and 37° 50′ and 38° 05′ E, with an elevation range of 1,100–3,000 m a.s.l [8] (Figure 1).

Figure 1 Location map of the study area and sampling sites.
Figure 1

Location map of the study area and sampling sites.

Dega (15%), Woina Dega (60%), and Kola (25%) are among the traditional names for the study region. The growing phase lasts between 160 and 220 days [9]. With a single growing period and mild (20–25°C) and cold (10–20°C) thermal zones, the district is categorized as a unimodal rainfall area. The growing season begins in May and lasts until October [10]. The typical annual rainfall is between 900 and 1,400 mm, with average maximum and lowest temperatures of 26 and 9.4°C, respectively (Figure 2).

Figure 2 The research area’s average monthly rainfall and temperature.
Figure 2

The research area’s average monthly rainfall and temperature.

The study district is thought up of 20% gently sloping to plain (0–5% slope), 72% moderately steep to sloping (5–30% slope), 4% steep (30–50% slope), and 4% very steep (>50% slope). Nitisols, Vertisols, and Cambisols that are moderately weathered are the dominant and agriculturally important soils in the Awabel district as well as the study region. The soils’ textural class varies from light clay to heavy clay [8].

Various varieties of plants and shrubs cover around Tekorsh Sub-watershed. Acacia species (Acacia abyssinica and Acacia sieberiana), large-leafed cordial (Cordia africana), Junipers (Juniperus procera), and Oliaeuropaea are some of the most prevalent trees found throughout the research region, while Eucalyptus species (Eucalyptus globules and Eucalyptus camaldulensis) are common surrounding homesteads. In the research area, mixed crop-livestock production is a prevalent farming method. The population of livestock in the area as a whole, and in the sub-watershed in particular, is diminishing year after year due to chronic feed shortages and grazing land. Teff (Eragrostis tef (Zucc.) Trotter), wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), maize (Zea mays), barley (Hordeum vulgare), faba bean (Vicia faba), and pea (Pisum sativum) are the annual crops farmed in the research region under rain-fed agriculture.

2.2 Study site selection, description, and soil sampling

Prior to soil collection, a preliminary survey was conducted using the topographic map (1:50,000) of the research region, which included field observation and a transect walk. Slope locations, land use types, and soil management strategies of the research region were among the characteristics that were expected to cause diversity in soil physico-chemical attributes. The representative soil sampling locations in the study region were chosen based on the in situ field survey, bearing in mind the land use categories and topography. As a result, the landscape was separated into three slope positions: lower, middle, and upper slopes, with each slope position comprising two major land usage kinds (grazing and cultivated land). From the cultivated lands (cereal cropland), basically tef (Eragrostis tef (Zucc.) Trotter) under rain-fed conditions, while from the grazing lands, land designated for domestic animal grazing, which is dominated by tall and short grasses species were chosen.

Three replications were used to collect 36 composite soil samples from three slope positions (upper, middle, and lower), two land use activities (grazing and cultivated land), and two soil depths (0–20 and 20–40 cm). To make one composite soil sample, augur was being used to take three sub-samples. Furthermore, to determine soil bulk density, undisturbed soil core samples of known volume were taken from each land use. The coordinates of the geographical position and the slope were recorded and used the global positioning system and clinometers, respectively.

2.3 Sample preparations and analysis

Except for TN and soil OC, which were sieved through 0.5 mm, the soil samples were air-dried and mashed to pass through a 2 mm sieve for physico-chemical investigation.

The hydrometer method was used to evaluate the texture of the soil [11]. A pressure plate extraction method is used to measure soil moisture retention at FC (at −0.33 bar) and permanent wilting point (PWP) (at −15 bar) [12]. Finally, the difference between the water content at FC and PWP was used to establish the plant’s available soil water holding capacity. After drying the soil samples to stable weights in an oven at 105°C, the bulk density of the soil was calculated from undisturbed core samples [13]. From the values of bulk density (D b in g/cm3) and particle density (D p) (assuming an average particle density of mineral soil of 2.65 g/cm3), the TP of soil samples was computed as follows:

Total porosity ( TP , % ) = 1 − D b D p × 100 .

A glass–calomel combination electrode was used to determine the pH of the soils in a 1:2.5 (soil-to-water ratio) aqueous suspension [14]. The wet digestion method of Walkley and Black [15] was designed to estimate soil OC. TN was determined using [13] Kjeldahl digestion, distillation, and titration method. An extraction process of Bray and Kurtz [16] was used to estimate the amount of available phosphorus (AP).

At pH 7, 1 N ammonium acetate was used to extract CEC and exchangeable basic cations (Ca, Mg, K, and Na) [17]. The atomic absorption spectrophotometer (AAS) was used to determine exchangeable Ca and Mg, whereas the flame photometer was used to determine exchangeable K and Na. The CEC was determined titrimetrically by distillation of ammonium from a NaCl solution that was displaced by sodium [17]. Percent base saturation (PBS) was computed by multiplying the sum of the base-forming cations (Ca, Mg, Na, and K) by the soil’s CEC and then multiplying by 100. Saturating soil samples with potassium chloride solution determined exchangeable acidity [18]. The amount of available micronutrients (Fe, Cu, Zn, and Mn) in the extract was measured by AAS, as described by Sertsu and Bekele [19].

2.4 Statistical analysis

The general linear model procedure of R software version 3.6.3 was used to illustrate the variability in soil parameters under different land use types at two soil depths and along slope positions using the analysis of variance (ANOVA) significant (P ≤ 0.05) and least significant difference (LSD) for mean separation.

3 Results

3.1 Effect of land use types, soil depth, and slope position on soil physical properties

The interaction effect of the three components had a substantial (P ≤ 0.05) effect on the sand, silt, and clay fractions. The highest sand fractions (44.15%) were observed in the surface layer of grazing land soils at the upper slope position, and the highest silt fraction (25.72%) was found in the surface layer of cultivated land soils at the same location (Table 1). Clay fractions in the subsurface layer of cultivated land soils at the lower slope position were the highest (59.62%), while the lowest (31.26%) were found in the surface layers of grazed field soils at the upper slope position (Table 1).

Table 1

On particle size distributions, the interaction effect of land use types, soil depth, and slope position

Slope Land use type Depth (cm) Sand (%) Silt (%) Clay (%) Textural class
Lower Cultivated land 0–20 29.31fg 24.45ab 46.24cd Clay
20–40 22.23i 18.15c 59.62a Clay
Grazing land 0–20 32.51de 21.49bc 46.00cde Clay
20–40 30.23f 19.52c 50.25b Clay
Middle Cultivated land 0–20 31.36ef 21.03abc 47.61cd Clay
20–40 25.23h 25.32a 49.45bc Clay
Grazing land 0–20 36.00c 25.32ab 38.68f Clay loam
20–40 33.32cd 23.54abc 43.14e Clay
Upper Cultivated land 0–20 29.20fg 25.72a 45.08de Clay
20–40 26.67gh 22.12abc 51.21b Clay
Grazing land 0–20 44.15a 24.59ab 31.26g Clay loam
20–40 39.78b 21.09bc 39.13f Clay loam
LSD (0.05) 2.97 4.20 3.73
CV (%) 5.57 11.12 4.85

LSD – least significant difference; CV – coefficient of variation. Mean values within a column followed by the same letter are not significantly different at P > 0.05.

Because of the interaction impact of land use X soil depth X slope location, the bulk densities (D b) and TP were highly significantly (P ≤ 0.001) influenced. The maximum D b (1.44 g/cm3) was found in the subsurface layer of grazing field soils at the top of the slope, while the lowest (1.20 g/cm3) was found in the surface layer of cultivated land soils at the bottom of the slope (Table 2). The surface layer of cultivated land at the lower slope position had the highest mean value of TP (54.72%), while the subsurface layer of grazing land at the upper slope position had the lowest (45.66%) (Table 2).

Table 2

Land use types, soil depth, and slope position interact to affect some physical attributes of soils in the Tekorsh sub-watershed

Slope Land use types Depth D b (g/cm3) TP (%) FC (% v/v) PWP (% v/v) AWHC (% v/v)
Lower Cultivated 0–20 1.20g 54.72a 58.26b 41.42c 16.84bcd
20–40 1.32d 50.19d 63.13a 43.57a 19.56a
Grazing 0–20 1.22f 53.96b 56.77c 39.57d 17.20bc
20–40 1.26e 52.33c 59.53b 42.81b 16.72bcd
Middle Cultivated 0–20 1.28e 51.70c 54.43e 37.60f 16.83bcd
20–40 1.39c 47.63e 56.52cd 38.62e 17.90b
Grazing 0–20 1.28e 51.70c 50.72g 34.58h 16.15cd
20–40 1.39bc 47.55ef 55.23de 39.51d 15.72d
Upper Cultivated 0–20 1.31d 50.69d 51.17g 34.69h 16.49bcd
20–40 1.41b 46.92f 53.09f 36.58g 16.51bcd
Grazing 0–20 1.38c 47.92e 46.53h 30.64i 15.88cd
20–40 1.44a 45.66g 51.10g 34.75h 16.35cd
LSD(0.05) 0.02 0.65 1.29 0.48 1.43
CV (%) 0.79 0.77 1.40 0.75 5.04

D b – bulk density; TP – total porosity; FC – field capacity; PWP – permanent wilting point; AWHC – available water holding capacity. Mean values within a column followed by the same letter are not significantly different at P > 0.05.

The interaction impact of land use X soil depth X slope position significantly influenced soil water content at FC (P ≤ 0.01), PWP (P ≤ 0.001), and AWHC (P ≤ 0.05). At the lower slope levels, the maximum FC (63.13% v/v) and PWP (43.57% v/v) were found in the subsurface layer of cultivated land soils, whereas the lowest FC (46.53% v/v) and PWP (30.64% v/v) were found in the topsoil layers under grazing land use types at the upper slope positions (Table 2).

3.2 Effect of land use types, soil depth, and slope position on soil chemical properties

The interaction effect of land use X soil depth X slope position had a significant (P ≤ 0.01) impact on soil pH. At the lower slope position, the greatest pH (6.03) was found in the subsurface layer of grazing field soils, whereas the lowest (5.22) was found in the surface layers of cultivated land soils at the upper slope position (Table 3).

Table 3

Land use types, soil depth, and slope position interact to affect pH, OC, TN, C/N ratio, and AP of soils in the Tekorsh sub-watershed

Slope Land use types Soil depth pH OC (%) TN (%) C/N ratio AP (mg/kg)
Lower Cultivated 0–20 5.71cd 2.66b 0.28c 9.16de 7.68a
20–40 5.85b 1.63f 0.24e 6.81fg 7.04b
Grazing 0–20 5.82bc 2.91a 0.43a 6.94fg 6.70b
20–40 6.03a 1.99e 0.32b 5.69g 3.84d
Middle Cultivated 0–20 5.58ef 2.12d 0.19f 10.11d 5.87c
20–40 5.69de 1.94e 0.15g 12.15c 3.67d
Grazing 0–20 5.50fg 2.40c 0.26d 9.00de 3.78d
20–40 5.24h 1.41hi 0.18f 7.83ef 1.65g
Upper Cultivated 0–20 5.22h 1.50g 0.11h 13.71bc 3.83d
20–40 5.62def 1.46gh 0.07j 21.12a 2.66e
Grazing 0–20 5.42g 1.57f 0.13g 12.12c 2.35f
20–40 5.61def 1.37i 0.09i 15.34b 1.94g
LSD (0.05) 0.13 0.07 0.02 1.98 0.29
CV (%) 1.39 2.02 5.77 10.84 4.07

Mean values within a column followed by the same letter are not significantly different at P > 0.05.

The interaction effect of land use X soil depth X slope position had a significant (P ≤ 0.001) effect on soil OC and AP and a significant (P ≤ 0.01) effect on TN and (P ≤ 0.05) on the C/N ratio. After that, the maximum mean OC concentration (2.91%) was found in the surface layer of grazing field soils at the lower slope position, while the lowest (1.37%) was found in the bottom layers of grazing land soils at the upper slope position (Table 3). The maximum TN content (0.43%) was identified in the top layers of soils under grazing land use types at lower slope levels, while the lowest (0.07%) was reported in the subsurface layers of soils under cultivated land use types at upper slope positions (Table 3). The highest (21.12) and lowest (5.69) C/N ratio values were found in the top slope subsoil layer of cultivated land and the lower slope subsurface layers of grazing land, respectively (Table 3). Under the two land use patterns, the C/N ratio varied unevenly with depth. The C/N ratios in the 0–20 cm soil depth of all land uses were rather narrow; however, they were broader in the subsurface soil layers. The lowest AP (1.65 mg/kg) was found in the middle slope position’s subsurface layer of grazing land soils, while the greatest (7.68 mg/kg) was found in the lower slope position’s surface layers of cultivated land soils.

Land use types, soil depth, and slope position all had a substantial (P ≤ 0.001) effect on exchangeable calcium and magnesium. The subsurface layer and grazing land had the most exchangeable Ca2+ and Mg2+ contents. The slope location (P ≤ 0.001) and the interaction effects of the three variables (P ≤ 0.05) had a significant impact on exchangeable potassium. The maximum exchangeable K+ content (0.79 cmol(+)/kg) was found in the surface layer of grazing land soils at lower slope positions (Table 4). Both slope position and soil depth had a highly significant (P ≤ 0.001) effect on exchangeable sodium.

Table 4

Exchangeable bases, exchangeable acidity, CEC, and PBS are all affected by land use types, slope position, and soil depth

Treatment Exchangeable bases (cmol(+)/kg) CEC (cmol(+)/kg) Ex. acidity (cmol(+)/kg) PBS (%)
Ca Mg K Na
Land use types
Grazing 19.95a 5.15a 0.60 0.30 50.30a 0.26b 51.69b
Cultivated 18.87b 4.85b 0.61 0.29 43.60b 0.49a 56.47a
LSD 0.88 0.27 NS NS 3.30 0.22 2.30
CV (%) 6.72 7.88 20.02 16.16 10.39 86.20 6.24
Soil depth (cm)
0–20 18.90b 4.84b 0.62 0.27b 44.05b 0.48a 55.91a
20–40 19.92a 5.16a 0.58 0.31a 49.85a 0.27b 52.09b
LSD 0.89 0.26 NS 0.029 3.51 0.20 2.48
CV (%) 6.78 7.75 19.69 14.96 11.03 86.85 6.74
Slope position
Lower 20.62a 5.36a 0.66a 0.34a 51.06a 0.75a 52.84
Middle 19.43b 5.00b 0.65a 0.30b 46.08b 0.23b 55.08
Upper 18.16c 4.62c 0.50b 0.25c 43.71b 0.15b 53.83
LSD 0.83 0.24 0.078 0.022 4.28 0.18 NS
CV (%) 5.13 5.77 15.65 9.27 10.98 57.85 7.72

Ex. acidity – exchangeable acidity; PBS – percent base saturation; CEC – cation exchange capacity. Mean values within a column followed by the same letter are not significantly different at P > 0.05.

The results of the ANOVA revealed that slope position, land use, and soil depth all influenced the soil’s CEC in a very significant (P ≤ 0.001) way. The greatest proportion of CEC (51.06 cmol(+)/kg) was found in the research area’s lower slope (Table 4). The bottom strata had the highest CEC than the top layer. Land use and soil depth had a highly significant (P ≤ 0.001) impact on PBS. The lowest PBS value (52.09%) was found in the subsurface layer, while the highest PBS value (55.91%) was found in the study area’s top layer (Table 4). Slope position, land use, soil depth, and the interaction impact of the three factors all had a significant (P ≤ 0.001) effect on exchangeable acidity. The soils of cultivated land have a higher exchangeable acidity than the soils of uncultivated land.

The interaction of the three parameters (land use × soil depth × slope position) had a highly significant (P ≤ 0.001) effect on the concentration of soluble micronutrients (Fe, Mn, Zn, and Cu). The surface layer of grazing land at the lower slope position had the largest concentration of usable Fe (52.91 mg/kg), Zn (2.53 kg/kg), and Cu (7.87 mg/kg) (Table 5).

Table 5

Land use types, soil depth, and slope position interact to affect accessible micronutrients in the Tekorsh sub-watersheds

Slope Land use types Depth (cm) Fe (mg/kg) Mn (mg/kg) Zn (mg/kg) Cu (mg/kg)
Lower Cultivated 0–20 44.43b 67.32e 1.56c 6.22c
20–40 42.28c 37.29i 1.45d 5.72ef
Grazing 0–20 52.91a 83.55c 2.53a 7.87a
20–40 44.57b 45.73h 1.46d 6.55b
Middle Cultivated 0–20 43.68bc 103.30a 1.24f 6.05cd
20–40 39.59d 70.79d 0.83i 5.85de
Grazing 0–20 42.97bc 105.55a 1.76b 6.23c
20–40 37.62e 63.06f 1.54c 5.97d
Upper Cultivated 0–20 30.31fg 93.89b 1.21fg 4.93h
20–40 25.20h 84.59c 0.93h 4.04i
Grazing 0–20 31.62f 103.67a 1.18g 5.59f
20–40 29.13g 58.71g 1.30e 5.246g
LSD (0.05) 1.77 2.92 0.05 0.23
CV (%) 2.71 2.27 2.12 2.35

Mean values within a column followed by the same letter are not significantly different at P > 0.05.

4 Discussion

4.1 Effect of land use types, soil depth, and slope position on soil physical properties

The high sand percentage on the top slope could be attributed to erosion selectively removing small particles while leaving the coarser soil particles on the upper slope [20]. It is possible that the higher clay concentration under continuous cropping is related to farming, which has accelerated physical and chemical weathering [21]. The larger clay content in the subsurface layer could be attributed to clay moving vertically from the top to the bottom layer [22].

The highest bulk density (D b) under grazing land could be attributed to uncontrolled overgrazing, which often likely caused trampling and compaction [23]. The highest D b in all land uses’ subsurface soils could be ascribed to a decrease in organic matter content with depth, less aggregation, less root penetration, and increased compaction of the subsurface soils due to the weight of the overlaying layers of soils [24]. The bulk densities of the study area, according to Hazelton and Murphy [25], were in the range of 1.20–1.44 g/cm3, which is low to medium. Squeezing of macro-pores due to compaction by overgrazing [26] and filling of macro-pores with finer earth fractions contributed to a decrease in TP in grazing land soils compared to cultivated land soils. The lowest TP was found at the top of the slope, which could be linked to the low clay and organic matter concentration. The TP values were quite high, according to Jahn et al. [27].

The highest FC, PWP, and AWHC in the subsurface may be due to an increase in clay content as soil depth increases [28]. Water retention is primarily due to clay adsorption rather than capillary effects at FC and PWP [29]. The specific surface area available to attract water molecules around charged colloidal surfaces determines adsorption. Clay has a large number of micropores that hold water in a film or hygroscopic state, making it more resistant to water movement [30]. According to Beernaert and Bitondo [31], the study area available water content values ranged from 15.72 to 19.56% (by volume), which is considered medium to high.

4.2 Effect of land use types, soil depth, and slope position on soil chemical properties

The decreased pH in the cultivated land’s surface layer could be due to basic cation depletion and removal as a result of persistent soil tillage and crop assimilation or soil erosion and leaching [32]. The greatest pH at the lower slope positions could be owing to the erosion of basic cations from the upper slope and deposition of basic cations at the lower slope positions [33]. The pH of the soil in the study region was moderately acidic to mildly acidic, according to Tekalign et al. [34].

The low OC content on cultivated land may be related to rapid breakdown and mineralization, as continuous cultivation influences soil moisture and aeration, leading to oxidation of soil organic matter and less organic matter buildup through plant harvesting and plant leftovers [35]. The lowest OC in the upper slope could be attributed to the downward movement of soil minerals from the top to the lower slope with runoff water [36]. The soil OC content of the study area’s soils was in the low to optimum range, according to EthioSIS [37] rating. The lowest TN in the crop field could be attributed to soil nitrogen depletion caused by crop uptake and harvest, as well as the removal of plant leftovers from farmed land. The lowest level of TN content in repeatedly cultivated soils could be attributable to lower external nitrogen input, high decomposition of organic matter, nitrogen leaching, and mining [38]. The maximum TN in the lower slope could be due to runoff water flowing down from the top slope and accumulating at the lower slope position [39]. The TN content of soils in the studied region was in the range of extremely low to high, according to EthioSIS [37] rating. The lower carbon-to-nitrogen (C/N) ratio in the top (0–20 cm) soil layer may be owing to higher microbial activity and more CO2 evolution and loss to the atmosphere than in the bottom (20–40 cm) soil layer [40]. A C/N ratio of around 10:1 indicates a faster breakdown rate, indicating greater nitrogen availability to plants and the ability to assimilate agricultural leftovers into the soil without causing nitrogen immobilization [41].

The greater AP on cultivated land could be the result of the use of diammonium phosphate (DAP) fertilizer in the past [42]. Low AP is induced by continuous phosphorus removal by crop harvest in cultivated and overgrazed fields. Due to acidic soil reactivity, the soil’s inherent P inadequacy and P fixation with Fe and Al may also be promoted. AP showed a decreasing trend with depth, which could be due to better levels of soil organic matter content at the surface layers to retain the AP [43], and an increasing trend down the slope position, which could be due to selected removal of clay by erosion and subsequent deposition at the lower slope [44]. All of the soil samples in the study sites had an AP status of less than 20 mg/kg, according to Bray and Kurtz [16].

The highest exchangeable base in the grazing field could be owing to the greater organic matter content collected as a result of the continual degradation of the dead fibrous root [45]. The greater exchangeable K+ in the surface layer could be because nutrient cycling is faster in the surface layers of soils than in the deeper horizons [24]. The soils in the sub-watershed had a medium to high amount of exchangeable K+, as per [46] exchangeable base ratings. The greater exchangeable Ca2+, Mg2+, and Na+ values shown in the subsurface layer could be due to leaching from the surface layer to the subsurface layer [47]. In the lower slope position, the most exchangeable bases were found. This could be due to erosion removing these exchangeable basic cations from upper slopes and buildup in lower slopes [48]. The soils in the study area were low in exchangeable Na+, according to [46] exchangeable base ratings.

The most CEC in the bottom strata could be due to the high clay content buildup [49]. The lowest CEC in cultivated land could be attributed to organic matter depletion caused by extensive farming, loss of basic cations, and inorganic fertilizer input [50]. The CEC of the analyzed soils was classified as very high, per Hazelton and Murphy [25]. PBS variability may be caused by differences in pH, organic matter content, soil texture, parent materials, cultivation intensity, leaching, slope, and soil management strategies [51]. The PBS of the investigated soils was classed as medium, according to Hazelton and Murphy [25].

The greater exchangeable acidity in farm field could be attributed to intensive farming and use of fertilizers (urea and DAP), as well as base leaching caused by excessive rainfall [40]. The top layer of all land use types has the most exchangeable acidity. Because basic cations are washed and leached from the surface to the subsurface soil layer, the surface soil exchange complex is dominated by Al3+ and H+ [52].

Because of crop harvest, soil OM depletion, low external intake of these nutrients, and a higher rate of soil erosion on cultivated land than in grazing soil, cultivated land has the lowest micronutrient content [53]. The maximum soluble micronutrients in lower slope soils may be due to the increased clay and organic matter content of these soils, as well as the deposition of eroded soil from the upper slope area [54]. According to Sims and Johnson [55], the critical level of soil soluble Fe, Cu, and Mn for normal plant growth was reported to be in the range of adequate for normal plant growth, which is above the critical limits of Fe (2.5–4.5 mg/kg), Cu (0.1–2.5 mg/kg), and Mn (1–50 mg/kg).

5 Conclusions

Because of slope position, land use type, drainage conditions, and management approaches, the physical and chemical characteristics of soils can vary from place to place, as was the case in the current research region. Some physical and chemical factors may be present in sufficient and appropriate amounts in a specific soil, while others may be insufficient or hazardous. The soils of the study area, for example, had potentially excellent physical fertility but poor chemical fertility, as evidenced by high exchangeable acidity, low AP, and hazardous levels of micronutrients.

Crop production on these soils can only be sustained if the soils’ productive potentials are maintained through meticulous application of fertilizers and compost, crop rotation, fallowing, and intercropping leguminous crops with cereals. Furthermore, crop residue removal on farms, the use of a free grazing system, and current farming practices on difficult and upper slopes should also be examined. By introducing/developing resistant crop types, adding organic fertilizers, and liming, existing soil acidity problems should be handled sooner. As a result of the study’s findings, it is suggested that soil physico-chemical management practices such as soil and water conservation, appropriate use of inorganic fertilizers, and avoiding deforestation and overgrazing be implemented to prevent land degradation and to restore and improve the physico-chemical properties on cultivated land, ultimately improving agricultural productivity on a long-term basis.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank Haramaya University for their assistance. They also thank Samuel Feyissa (Dr), Solomon Tamiru, and the rest of the crew for their cooperation.

  1. Funding information: The authors state no funding involved.

  2. Author contributions: Dilnesa Bayle was responsible for all aspects of the research, including data collection, analysis, and manuscript writing. All writers contributed to the refinement and finalization of the article, as well as reading and approval of the final edition.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.

  4. Data availability statement: The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Received: 2021-12-17
Revised: 2022-09-07
Accepted: 2022-10-03
Published Online: 2023-10-05

© 2023 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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https://doi.org/10.1515/opag-2022-0147
Schlagwörter für diesen Artikel
physico-chemical; micronutrients; soil parameters; cultivated land; grazing land
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  24. Factors affecting household carbohydrate food consumption in Central Java: Before and during the COVID-19 pandemic
  25. Properties of paper coated with Prunus serotina (Ehrh.) extract formulation
  26. Fertiliser cost prediction in European Union farms: Machine-learning approaches through artificial neural networks
  27. Molecular and phenotypic markers for pyramiding multiple traits in rice
  28. Natural product nanofibers derived from Trichoderma hamatum K01 to control citrus anthracnose caused by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides
  29. Role of actors in promoting sustainable peatland management in Kubu Raya Regency, West Kalimantan, Indonesia
  30. Small-scale coffee farmers’ perception of climate-adapted attributes in participatory coffee breeding: A case study of Gayo Highland, Aceh, Indonesia
  31. Optimization of extraction using surface response methodology and quantification of cannabinoids in female inflorescences of marijuana (Cannabis sativa L.) at three altitudinal floors of Peru
  32. Production factors, technical, and economic efficiency of soybean (Glycine max L. Merr.) farming in Indonesia
  33. Economic performance of smallholder soya bean production in Kwara State, Nigeria
  34. Indonesian rice farmers’ perceptions of different sources of information and their effect on farmer capability
  35. Feed preference, body condition scoring, and growth performance of Dohne Merino ram fed varying levels of fossil shell flour
  36. Assessing the determinant factors of risk strategy adoption to mitigate various risks: An experience from smallholder rubber farmers in West Kalimantan Province, Indonesia
  37. Analysis of trade potential and factors influencing chili export in Indonesia
  38. Grade-C kenaf fiber (poor quality) as an alternative material for textile crafts
  39. Technical efficiency changes of rice farming in the favorable irrigated areas of Indonesia
  40. Palm oil cluster resilience to enhance indigenous welfare by innovative ability to address land conflicts: Evidence of disaster hierarchy
  41. Factors determining cassava farmers’ accessibility to loan sources: Evidence from Lampung, Indonesia
  42. Tailoring business models for small-medium food enterprises in Eastern Africa can drive the commercialization and utilization of vitamin A rich orange-fleshed sweet potato puree
  43. Revitalizing sub-optimal drylands: Exploring the role of biofertilizers
  44. Effects of salt stress on growth of Quercus ilex L. seedlings
  45. Design and fabrication of a fish feed mixing cum pelleting machine for small-medium scale aquaculture industry
  46. Indicators of swamp buffalo business sustainability using partial least squares structural equation modelling
  47. Effect of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi on early growth, root colonization, and chlorophyll content of North Maluku nutmeg cultivars
  48. How intergenerational farmers negotiate their identity in the era of Agriculture 4.0: A multiple-case study in Indonesia
  49. Responses of broiler chickens to incremental levels of water deprivation: Growth performance, carcass characteristics, and relative organ weights
  50. The improvement of horticultural villages sustainability in Central Java Province, Indonesia
  51. Effect of short-term grazing exclusion on herbage species composition, dry matter productivity, and chemical composition of subtropical grasslands
  52. Analysis of beef market integration between consumer and producer regions in Indonesia
  53. Analysing the sustainability of swamp buffalo (Bubalus bubalis carabauesis) farming as a protein source and germplasm
  54. Toxicity of Calophyllum soulattri, Piper aduncum, Sesamum indicum and their potential mixture for control Spodoptera frugiperda
  55. Consumption profile of organic fruits and vegetables by a Portuguese consumer’s sample
  56. Phenotypic characterisation of indigenous chicken in the central zone of Tanzania
  57. Diversity and structure of bacterial communities in saline and non-saline rice fields in Cilacap Regency, Indonesia
  58. Isolation and screening of lactic acid bacteria producing anti-Edwardsiella from the gastrointestinal tract of wild catfish (Clarias gariepinus) for probiotic candidates
  59. Effects of land use and slope position on selected soil physicochemical properties in Tekorsh Sub-Watershed, East Gojjam Zone, Ethiopia
  60. Design of smart farming communication and web interface using MQTT and Node.js
  61. Assessment of bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) seed quality accessed through different seed sources in northwest Ethiopia
  62. Estimation of water consumption and productivity for wheat using remote sensing and SEBAL model: A case study from central clay plain Ecosystem in Sudan
  63. Agronomic performance, seed chemical composition, and bioactive components of selected Indonesian soybean genotypes (Glycine max [L.] Merr.)
  64. The role of halal requirements, health-environmental factors, and domestic interest in food miles of apple fruit
  65. Subsidized fertilizer management in the rice production centers of South Sulawesi, Indonesia: Bridging the gap between policy and practice
  66. Factors affecting consumers’ loyalty and purchase decisions on honey products: An emerging market perspective
  67. Inclusive rice seed business: Performance and sustainability
  68. Design guidelines for sustainable utilization of agricultural appropriate technology: Enhancing human factors and user experience
  69. Effect of integrate water shortage and soil conditioners on water productivity, growth, and yield of Red Globe grapevines grown in sandy soil
  70. Synergic effect of Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and potassium fertilizer improves biomass-related characteristics of cocoa seedlings to enhance their drought resilience and field survival
  71. Control measure of sweet potato weevil (Cylas formicarius Fab.) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) in endemic land of entisol type using mulch and entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana
  72. In vitro and in silico study for plant growth promotion potential of indigenous Ochrobactrum ciceri and Bacillus australimaris
  73. Effects of repeated replanting on yield, dry matter, starch, and protein content in different potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) genotypes
  74. Review Articles
  75. Nutritional and chemical composition of black velvet tamarind (Dialium guineense Willd) and its influence on animal production: A review
  76. Black pepper (Piper nigrum Lam) as a natural feed additive and source of beneficial nutrients and phytochemicals in chicken nutrition
  77. The long-crowing chickens in Indonesia: A review
  78. A transformative poultry feed system: The impact of insects as an alternative and transformative poultry-based diet in sub-Saharan Africa
  79. Short Communication
  80. Profiling of carbonyl compounds in fresh cabbage with chemometric analysis for the development of freshness assessment method
  81. Special Issue of The 4th International Conference on Food Science and Engineering (ICFSE) 2022 - Part I
  82. Non-destructive evaluation of soluble solid content in fruits with various skin thicknesses using visible–shortwave near-infrared spectroscopy
  83. Special Issue on FCEM - International Web Conference on Food Choice & Eating Motivation - Part I
  84. Traditional agri-food products and sustainability – A fruitful relationship for the development of rural areas in Portugal
  85. Consumers’ attitudes toward refrigerated ready-to-eat meat and dairy foods
  86. Breakfast habits and knowledge: Study involving participants from Brazil and Portugal
  87. Food determinants and motivation factors impact on consumer behavior in Lebanon
  88. Comparison of three wine routes’ realities in Central Portugal
  89. Special Issue on Agriculture, Climate Change, Information Technology, Food and Animal (ACIFAS 2020)
  90. Environmentally friendly bioameliorant to increase soil fertility and rice (Oryza sativa) production
  91. Enhancing the ability of rice to adapt and grow under saline stress using selected halotolerant rhizobacterial nitrogen fixer
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Heruntergeladen am 6.9.2025 von https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/opag-2022-0147/html
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