Home Effects of salt stress on growth of Quercus ilex L. seedlings
Article Open Access

Effects of salt stress on growth of Quercus ilex L. seedlings

  • Giovanni Gugliuzza EMAIL logo , Carla Gentile , Dario Scuderi , Eristanna Palazzolo and Vittorio Farina
Published/Copyright: August 18, 2023
Download Article (PDF)
Open Agriculture
From the journal Open Agriculture Volume 8 Issue 1

Abstract

High salt concentration is one of the main factors that affects plants’ growth, especially in urban areas. Many Mediterranean sclerophyllous species manifest high resistance to salt, although few information exists in the literature on Quercus ilex. The aim of this work was to evaluate the response of Q. ilex seedlings to salt stress conditions generated by an increasing concentration of sodium chloride on water supply irrigation. A 2-year experiment was conducted by using salt water at different concentrations (first year 50–100–200 and second year 75–150–300 mM NaCl). At increasing salt concentration, a plant growth reduction was registered in both years. Until 200 mM NaCl, the plants grew and did not show any visible damage on the leaves, while at 300 mM NaCl, all the plants died. Also, the photosynthetic rate decreased at increasing salt concentration. Sodium was accumulated in the plant parts and this accumulation occurred at the expense of potassium uptake.

Keywords: Quercus ilex ; salt stress; carotenoids; photosynthesis

1 Introduction

In the arid zones of the world, crop production consumes large quantities of water, and groundwater is often used for irrigation. The increased anthropic pressure, climate changes, the use of inorganic fertilizers, and irrigation with saline water are considered the sources of increasing salt concentration in the groundwater [1,2,3,4]. The scarce water resources in dry climates and the increased demands for water by civilian, industrial, and agricultural practices force the use of low-quality water for irrigation in urban landscape [5]. In urban environments, trees are subjected to abiotic and biotic stresses such as heat, low air humidity, restricted irrigation volumes, soil compaction, water stress related to reduced rainfall infiltration, de-icing salt, air pollution, insect damages, and NaCl soil contamination [6,7]. Soil salinity in urban environments is caused primarily by the application of NaCl to “deice” the winter streets and sidewalks [8], whereas in the coastal areas, it is a consequence of the sea-salt aerosol formed by air bubbles and spume droplets mixed into the surface layer of the sea by wave action [9]. High salt concentration is a major environmental factor limiting plant growth [10,11]. Salt stress not only contributes to a reduction in the landscape value of the trees but also causes major changes in its physiological and biochemical processes as well as in its morphology [12,13], its susceptibility to pests or diseases, and often, is the cause of plant death.

Quercus ilex L. is an evergreen Mediterranean sclerophyllous species typical of the broadleaf woodlands that can grow up to 20 m tall with a fissured blackish bark. Q. ilex has been largely used as an ornamental plant in the landscaping of parks and gardens and is very common on roadsides all along the coast of the western Mediterranean [14,15,16,17]. It is found under a variety of conditions of environmental pollution due to its capacity to accumulate pollutants using leaves as bio-accumulator [18,19,20]. This characteristic is due to the dense cover of hairs that allows the retention of airborne particulate, whereas the abundance of wax components promotes the incorporation of lipophilic organic pollutants [21].

Many Quercus species (Q. lyrata Walt., Q. michauxii Nutt., Q. nigra L., Q. virginiana Mill., and Q. nuttallii Palmer) are susceptible to salinity, showing a decrease in photosynthesis, stomatal conductance, tree height, and trunk diameter under saline conditions [22]. A recent study on Q. ilex [23] observed the responses to mild root zone salinity stress and evidenced the strategies adopted by this plant to allocate potentially toxic ions. The effect of medium salt concentrations (150 mM NaCl, 15 days) on photosynthesis, hydric relations, and ion partitioning saplings was done by Guidi et al. in 2017 [24]. Another study on transcriptome analysis conducted by Natali et al. [25], always on Q. ilex at max 150 mM NaCl, showed how salinity strongly changed the profile of expressed transcripts; indicating a higher genetic expression with respect to a biochemical and physiological response.

However, few information exists on Q. ilex susceptibility to high salinity levels. For their use in urban greening, where salt stress conditions are frequently reported, investigating the salt tolerance of Q. ilex represents a fundamental piece of information. Hence, the aim of this work was to evaluate the response of Q. ilex seedlings to salt stress conditions generated by an increasing concentration of sodium chloride in irrigation water.

2 Methods

2.1 Plant material

Q. ilex seedlings from the ‘Crucicchia’ forest nursery in Castellammare del Golfo (TP), managed by the Azienda Foreste Demaniali of Regione Sicilia, were transplanted in 7 L plastic pots filled with a 7:3 (v/v) mixture of sand and sandy soil. Seedlings were grown in an east–west-oriented greenhouse (540 mq) with a steel structure and polymethacrylate methyl cover located in Bagheria (38°5′28″N: 13°31′18″E; 23 m a.s.l.), Sicily, Italy. The yearly maximum, average and minimum temperatures were 45.3, 21.7 and 2.5°C for the first year and 46.4, 20.3 and 1.7°C for the second year.

A 2-year experiment was conducted: during the first year, 1-year-old plants were manually watered twice a week with 1 L per plant by using four solutions at different NaCl concentrations (0, 50, 100, and 200 mM NaCl) for 90 days during the growing season, occurring in spring; in the second year, the same experiment was conducted with a new plot of 2-year-old plants which were manually watered twice a week with 2 L per plant by using four solutions at different NaCl concentrations (0, 75, 150, and 300 mM NaCl) for 90 days during the growing season, occurring in spring.

A completely randomized experimental design was adopted with six plants per treatment per four treatments – corresponding to the irrigation water NaCl concentrations – for a total of 24 plants per year.

At the end of the experiment, samples of leaves, stems, and roots from each plant were taken for fresh weight determination. Dry weights (DWs) were determined after oven drying the samples at 60°C for 48 h. Before drying, the number and area of leaves were measured by leaf area meter (Win DIAS).

2.2 Gas exchange

Leaf stomatal conductance (g s) and net photosynthetic rate (P n) were determined using a gas exchange system (LI-6400; LI-COR Inc., Lincoln, NE, USA).

Data were recorded at 12:00 solar time at the end of the experiment, on two mature leaves per plant. Environmental photosynthetic active radiation values were measured by Li-Cor sensor and fixed by an LED light source during the measurements.

2.3 Ion analysis

A sample of fresh leaves, shoots, and roots was washed with distilled water three times and then dried at 60°C to constant weight (6–8 h). The plant material was ground with a ball mill. The cations were determined after a digestion of 0.1 g dry matter with HNO3, and then, the extract was taken to determine the free Na+ and K+ concentrations. The contents of K+ and Na+ were determined using atomic absorption spectroscopy following wet mineralization [26,27].

2.4 Carbohydrate content

A sample of fresh leaves, shoots, and roots was washed with distilled water three times and, then, dried at 60°C to constant weight (6–8 h). The carbohydrate content, either free or present in polysaccharides, was obtained with the anthrone method reported in Loewus [28].

Carbohydrates were first hydrolyzed into simple sugars using diluted hydrochloric acid. In hot acidic medium, glucose is dehydrated to hydroxymethyl furfural which when mixing with anthrone forms a green-colored product with an absorption peak at 630 nm

2.5 Antioxidant activity

Analysis of leaves’ antioxidant activity was performed during the second year.

2.5.1 Extracts preparation

Ten grams of samples of young leaves were manually picked at the end of the experiment. After washing, leaves were freeze dried for 12 h and then were finely ground in a food grinder and stored at −80°C until extraction.

The powdered samples were extracted with 70% ethanol at a ratio of 1:10 (g/mL). Extraction was repeated two times for each sample. After a cleanup step via centrifugation (10 min at 10,000g, 4°C) and filtration through a Millex HV 0.45 μm filter (Millipore, Billerica, MA), the supernatants were recovered, combined, and used for the determination of antioxidant activity and phenolic content.

2.5.2 Total phenolic content

The phenolic content of ethanol extracts was determined by the reduction of phosphotungstic-phosphomolybdic acid (Folin–Ciocalteu’s reagent) to blue pigments, in an alkaline solution according to Folin and Denis [29,30]. Quantitation was made by reference to a curve constructed with gallic acid, and the results were expressed as mg gallic acid equivalents (GAE) per 100 g DW.

2.5.3 Total antioxidant activity (TAA)

The TAA of ethanol extracts was evaluated using the ABTS radical cation decolorization assay [31]. ABTS•+ was prepared by reacting ABTS with K2S2O8. Samples were analyzed at five different dilutions, within the linearity range of the assay, as previously described [32]. TAA was expressed as μmol Trolox equivalent/100 g DW.

2.5.4 Determination of total chlorophyll and carotenoid contents

The chlorophyll and carotenoid contents of leaves were analyzed according to the protocol described by Lichtenthaler and Buschmann [33] with minor variations. Briefly, freeze-dried leaves’ powder (5 mg) was mixed with 5 mL of dimethyl sulfoxide and incubated at 65°C for 6 h. After incubation, the mixture was centrifuged at 15,000g for 5 min. The supernatant was collected, and the absorbance was read at 663 nm to measure chlorophyll A content, 647 nm to measure chlorophyll B content, and 470 nm to measure carotenoids’ content. The chlorophyll and carotenoid concentrations were calculated using the following equations: chlorophyll A = 12.25A 663 − 2.79A 647; chlorophyll B = 21.50A 647 − 5.10A 663; total chlorophyll = 20.29A 647 + 8.02A 663; carotenoid = (1,000A 470 − 1.82 chlorophyll A − 95.15 chlorophyll B)/225.

2.5.5 Statistics

Statistical analyses were based on a one-way analysis of variance. The effects of salinity treatments were considered statistically significant when P < 0.05. In these cases, the Tukey test of significant differences was carried out and results are given in the tables and figures. All statistical analyses were performed by using the SYSTAT 10 software.

3 Results

3.1 Dry matter accumulation

In the first year, plant biomass, in terms of fresh (data not shown) and DW, decreased as NaCl concentration increased (Table 1). Significative differences were observed in terms of plant DW between 0 and 200 mM NaCl with a weight reduction until 40%. A slight increase in roots’ DW was registered at 50 mM NaCl while significative DW reductions were observed also between 50 and 200 mM NaCl. On the aerial parts of the plant, significative DW reductions at increasing NaCl concentrations were observed starting from 100 mM NaCl, reaching a 57% DW reduction at 200 mM NaCl. The highest DW reduction (−68%) was observed in the leaves at 200 mM NaCl. This reduction was determined partially by the leaf number reduction (−52%) and partially by the leaf area reduction (66%). Neither plants died nor leaf damage was observed in all the treatments.

Table 1

First-year DWs of Q. ilex plant components irrigated with water at different NaCl concentrations

NaCl (mM) Plant DW (g) Roots DW (g) Shoot DW (g) Leaves DW (g) Above ground DW (g) Leaves, n Leaf area (cm2)
0 39.01 ± 4.08a 19.81 ± 3.21ab 9.40 ± 1.97a 9.80 ± 0.52a 19.20 ± 2.25a 116 ± 6.65a 481.18 ± 37.3a
50 35.61 ± 6.63ab 20.64 ± 0.89a 7.30 ± 1.67ab 7.67 ± 1.40ab 14.97 ± 3.02ab 115 ± 7.34a 330.98 ± 58.4b
100 32.10 ± 3.81ab 19.23 ± 1.25ab 6.40 ± 0.72ab 6.47 ± 1.47b 12.87 ± 1.90bc 82 ± 8.71b 323.55 ± 54.6b
200 24.15 ± 3.65b 15.82 ± 1.01b 5.20 ± 0.53b 3.13 ± 0.11c 8.33 ± 0.62c 56 ± 8.62c 162.80 ± 6.86c

Data are represented as mean ± standard deviation. Within each column, different letters indicate significantly different means by Tukey’s multiple range test.

During the second year, shoots of the plants subjected to the treatment of 300 mM NaCl did not grow, leaf damage appeared, and all the plants died within 3 weeks from the beginning of the experiment.

For the other treatments, as in the first year, plant biomass, in terms of fresh (data not shown) and DW, decreased as NaCl concentration increased (Table 2). A significative plant DW reduction (−44%) was observed between 0 and 75 mM NaCl, while no statistical differences were observed between 75 and 150 mM NaCl concentration. The same behavior was observed in terms of roots’ and leaves’ DW (−75 and −50%). Leaves’ DW reduction was caused by both the leaf number reduction and the leaf area reduction.

Table 2

Second-year DWs of Q. ilex plant components irrigated with water at different NaCl concentrations

NaCl (mM) Plant DW (g) Roots’ DW (g) Shoot DW (g) Leaves’ DW (g) Above ground DW (g) Leaves, n Leaf area (cm2)
0 124.24 ± 17.39a 87.20 ± 9.34a 20.99 ± 2.50a 16.05 ± 1.53a 37.04 ± 0.97a 188 ± 15.13a 1092.4 ± 88.2a
75 69.84 ± 7.41b 41.33 ± 4.43b 17.07 ± 1.52ab 11.44 ± 1.89b 28.51 ± 3.41b 161 ± 18.01ab 806.9 ± 172.1ab
150 42.43 ± 7.81b 22.33 ± 4.50b 11.83 ± 2.49b 8.27 ± 1.09b 20.10 ± 3.90c 111 ± 8.82b 519.9 ± 128.7b

Data are represented as mean ± standard deviation. Within each column, different letters indicate significantly different means by Tukey’s multiple range test.

3.2 Ion levels

In both years, an increase in Na ions and a decrease in K ions were registered in all parts of the plant due to NaCl concentration increasing (Tables 3 and 4).

Table 3

First-year sodium (Na) and potassium (K) levels expressed as ppm/DW of Q. ilex plant components irrigated with water at different NaCl concentrations

Leaf Shoot Root
NaCl (mM) Na (ppm) K (ppm) Na (ppm) K (ppm) Na (ppm) K (ppm)
0 107.0 ± 2.16a 317.7 ± 4.16a 76.7 ± 2.50a 322.7 ± 4.72a 115.7 ± 2.08a 214.3 ± 7.02a
50 153.0 ± 2.64b 285.3 ± 7.50a 119.3 ± 2.08b 133.3 ± 2.08b 116.3 ± 3.21a 141.7 ± 1.53b
100 191.3 ± 3.21c 194.0 ± 5.56b 155.7 ± 4.04c 120.0 ± 1.02c 130.5 ± 1.72b 107.3 ± 1.15c
200 196.7 ± 3.51c 184.5 ± 6.81b 176.7 ± 3.06d 76.5 ± 4.20d 251.0 ± 3.34c 95.0 ± 2.16d

Data are represented as mean ± standard deviation. Within each column, different letters indicate significantly different means by Tukey’s multiple range test.

Table 4

Second-year sodium (Na) and potassium (K) levels expressed as ppm/DW of Q. ilex plant components irrigated with water at different NaCl concentrations

Leaf Shoot Root
NaCl (mM) Na (ppm) K (ppm) Na (ppm) K (ppm) Na (ppm) K (ppm)
0 122.1 ± 3.53a 306.0 ± 2.42a 73.4 ± 2.12a 123.0 ± 7.02a 110.0 ± 0.70a 156.3 ± 2.25a
75 158.3 ± 8.50b 284.7 ± 3.21a 126.2 ± 13.07b 120.0 ± 1.05a 125.7 ± 3.51b 107.3 ± 1.15b
150 161.7 ± 3.78b 214.4 ± 4.94b 127.6 ± 6.42b 79.8 ± 1.41b 130.3 ± 2.08b 101.4 ± 1.41b

Data are represented as mean ± standard deviation. Within each column, different letters indicate significantly different means by Tukey’s multiple range test.

In the first year, statistically significant increases in leaves’ Na concentration were registered among 0, 50, and 100 mM NaCl while statistically significant decreases in K ions were registered at NaCl concentration increase from 50 to 100 mM (Table 3). In the shoots, every NaCl increase corresponded to a statistically significant increase in Na and a decrease in K. Similar behavior was registered in the roots.

During the second year, a significative increase in Na was registered starting from 75 mM NaCl in all the plant components while no statistical differences were observed between 75 and 150 (Table 4). In the roots, a significative K reduction was observed starting from 75 mM NaCl, while in leaves and shoots, significative K reduction was observed at 150 mM NaCl.

3.3 Carbohydrates

In both years, a carbohydrate reduction was observed at NaCl concentration increasing in all plant parts (Tables 5 and 6). In the first year, significant carbohydrate reductions were registered in roots and shoots with a reduction of more than 50% of their content in the roots between 0 and 200 mM NaCl (Table 5).

Table 5

First-year carbohydrate (Carb.) content (g/100 g DW) of Q. ilex plant components irrigated with water at different NaCl concentrations

Leaf Shoot Root
NaCl (mM) Carb. g/100 g DW Carb. g/100 g DW Carb. g/100 g DW
0 7.45 ± 0.67a 3.52 ± 0.12a 7.20 ± 0.14a
50 6.86 ± 0.17ab 3.20 ± 0.04b 6.21 ± 0.13b
100 5.43 ± 0.11bc 2.60 ± 0.15c 3.66 ± 0.09c
200 4.43 ± 0.07c 2.52 ± 0.04c 3.36 ± 0.06c

Data are represented as mean ± standard deviation. Within each column, different letters indicate significantly different means by Tukey’s multiple range test.

Table 6

Second-year carbohydrate (Carb.) content (g/100 g DW) of Q. ilex plant components irrigated with water at different NaCl concentrations

Leaf Shoot Root
NaCl (mM) Carb. g/100 g DW Carb. g/100 g DW Carb. g/100 g DW
0 7.37 ± 0.38a 2.14 ± 0.09a 2.88 ± 0.07a
75 1.64 ± 0.11b 1.03 ± 0.04b 1.24 ± 0.10b
150 1.46 ± 0.04b 0.70 ± 0.06b 0.37 ± 0.02c

Data are represented as mean ± standard deviation. Within each column, different letters indicate significantly different means by Tukey’s multiple range test.

In the second year, significant carbohydrate reduction was registered in leaves and shoots between 0 and 75 mM NaCl with the reductions of more than 70% in all plant parts (Table 6).

3.4 Gas exchange

In both years of observation, plants’ assimilation rate and stomatal conductance were influenced by NaCl concentration variations.

In the first year, a slight photosynthesis increase was observed at 50 mM NaCl and a significant decrease at 200 mM NaCl with a reduction of around 80% of photosynthetic activity (Figure 1a). A similar trend was observed for conductance where significant reductions were observed starting from 100 mM NaCl and a reduction of around 50% at 200 mM NaCl (Figure 1c).

Figure 1 Net photosynthetic rate (P n) (a and b) and leaf stomatal conductance (g s) (c and d) measured during the first (a and c) and second (b and d) year of observation. Within each plot, different letters indicate significantly different means by Tukey’s multiple range test. First year air temperature 27°C, PAR 1,300 μmol m−2 s−1 VpdL 3.5; second year air temperature 32°C, PAR 1,350 μmol m−2 s−1 VpdL 4.3.
Figure 1

Net photosynthetic rate (P n) (a and b) and leaf stomatal conductance (g s) (c and d) measured during the first (a and c) and second (b and d) year of observation. Within each plot, different letters indicate significantly different means by Tukey’s multiple range test. First year air temperature 27°C, PAR 1,300 μmol m−2 s−1 VpdL 3.5; second year air temperature 32°C, PAR 1,350 μmol m−2 s−1 VpdL 4.3.

In the second year, significant reductions of photosynthesis were observed at every NaCl concentration increase with a 57% reduction at 150 mM NaCl (Figure 1b). The same behavior was observed for conductance with significant variation among the treatments (−63% at 150 mM NaCl) (Figure 1d). In both years of observation, plants’ gas exchanges were influenced by NaCl concentration variations.

3.5 Antioxidant, chlorophyll, and carotenoids

A progressive increase in TAA and GAE was observed as consequence of NaCl increasing with significant differences between 0 and 150 mM NaCl.

A significant reduction in Chla and Chlb was observed at 75 mM NaCl while no statistical differences were observed between 75 and 150 mM NaCl (Table 7). A slight, but not significant, reduction of carotenoids was observed at increasing NaCl concentration.

Table 7

Second-year TAA, GAE, and chlorophyll (Chl) levels of Q. ilex plant components irrigated with water at different NaCl concentrations

NaCl (mM) TAA g Trolox/100 g DW GAE mg/100 g DW Chl a g/100 gDW Chl b g/Kg DW Chl a/Chl b Carotenoids g/100 g
0 1.58 ± 0.52a 230.4 ± 62.8a 3.56 ± 0.13a 4.51 ± 0.99a 0.81 ± 0.16a 1.37 ± 0.29a
75 2.80 ± 0.59ab 395.7 ± 74.1ab 2.50 ± 0.39b 2.84 ± 0.65b 0.86 ± 0.10a 1.04 ± 0.18a
150 3.87 ± 0.29b 484.6 ± 50.8b 2.54 ± 0.29b 2.77 ± 0.41b 0.92 ± 0.15a 0.89 ± 0.16a

Data are represented as mean ± standard deviation. Within each column, different letters indicate significantly different means by Tukey’s multiple range test.

4 Discussion

It is well known that salinity, for many species, may have detrimental effects on plant growth. Salinity-induced modulations in growth, photosynthetic pigments, photosynthesis, ion concentration, and changes in the activity of various antioxidative enzymes.

In non-halophytic species, increasing soil salinity induces different responses in growth plant parameters, with symptoms such as a decrease in root and/or stem development or in leaf area damages while high concentrations lead to the death of the plant. Deciduous species tend to be more tolerant to salt spray or to soil-borne salt than evergreen coniferous species. In some evergreen species, the symptoms of salt damage manifested as chlorosis [34] while in deciduous trees, they manifested as foliage discoloration [35].

No previous reports are available in the literature regarding the effects of high salt concentration on Q. ilex. In our experiment, NaCl concentration of 200 mM was the highest concentration which allowed plant survival with no partial desiccation or leaf damage, while at 300 mM leaf damage appeared, plants did not grow and died within 3 weeks from the beginning of the experiment.

4.1 Dry matter accumulation

At 50 mM NaCl, a slight increase in roots’ DW was registered in our experiment. Alaoui-Sosse et al. [36] evidenced that an addition of 40 mM NaCl to the nutrient solution in oak seedlings reduced the length and weight of roots and first-flush stems. The number and the area of the leaves of each flush were not significantly affected regardless of the applied treatment. In contrast, the second vegetative flush was properly expanded even with a concentration of 40 mM of NaCl in the culture medium. Similar responses were observed on species of other botanical families, such as Mirtacae – Eucaliptus camaldulensis [37], Poaceae – Phragmites karka [38], and Zygophyllaceae – Zygophyllum xanthoxylum [39], where a lower salt concentration stimulated growth and dry matter accumulation.

Plant growth in terms of biomass decreased at NaCl concentration increases, as observed in other oak species, even at lower salt concentrations than those we used [32], and for many species like Phyllirea angustifolia [11] and halophyte Salvadora persica [40]. This result is in contrast with Gudi et al. [24], which registered no biomass loss. This is probably due to the shorter time the plants have been subjected to salt stress.

4.2 Gas exchange

Salinity reduced Q. ilex photosynthetic activity. This is probably due to a reduction of stomatal conductance and chlorophyll content of the leaf. A reduction in the photosynthetic activity was also registered by Guidi et al., who attribute it to stomatal closure which determines a strong dissipation of energy via the xanthophyll cycle [24]. Fusaro [23] evidenced a reduction in transpiration rates, as a strategy to limit Na absorption, which is a behavior put in practice by Q. ilex to resist to abiotic stress. This behavior was highlighted by Sultana [41]: reduction in photosynthesis in salinized rice plants is a consequence of reduction of available CO2 by stomatal closure, but also of the cumulative effects of leaf water and osmotic potential, stomatal conductance, transpiration rate, relative leaf water content, and biochemical constituents such as photosynthetic pigments, soluble carbohydrates, and proteins.

4.3 Antioxidant, chlorophyll, and carotenoids distribution

The increase of TAA observed in the leaves at 75 and 150 mM NaCl indicates that Q. ilex plants act to protect themselves from salt stress. Similar behavior was observed in Physalis peruviana L. [42] where also an increase in free radical scavenging activity was seen. Similarly to TTA, also GA values increased in leaves at salt concentration increasing. The increase of phenolic content under salt stress was observed also in Mentha pulegium [43].

Our results showed a linear reduction in both chlorophyll a and b content due to the salinity increase, with a subsequent photochemical efficiency reduction and a slight increase in their rate (Chla/Chlb). Total chlorophyll content reduction was observed in Q. ilex at 75 mM NaCl by Fusaro et al. [23] while no reduction was observed by Guidi et al. [24]. Chlorophyll content reduction was also registered in Eucaliptus camaldulensis [37] and Bruguiera parviflora [44]. An increase in the chlorophyll a/b ratio is commonly seen as an indicator of an enhancement in the plant photochemical capacity [45]. Salt concentration induces a progressive reduction of carotenoids according to Fusaro et al. and Guidi et al. [23,24] who observed a decrease of β-caroten in 75 and 150 mM NaCl Q. ilex-stressed plants. The same behavior was observed in Populus euphratica [39].

4.4 Carbohydrates

The observed reduction in carbohydrate concentration in the different plant components is probably due to the progressive decrease in photosynthetic activities as a consequence of the NaCl content increase. A decrease in the carbohydrate content was observed by Sultana et al. [41] in rice.

4.5 Ion levels

In our experiment, sodium was accumulated in all plant parts and this accumulation occurred at the expense of potassium uptake. The increase of sodium was confirmed by the results obtained by Alaoui-Sosse et al. [36] in oaks when 40 mM NaCl was applied. Roots accumulate a major part of this element, as we observed in both years. In several Eucalyptus species, when plants were exposed to high salt stress, roots accumulated more sodium than leaves [46,47]. An opposite behavior was observed for the potassium content of the plants of our study. In fact, under a high concentration of salt, sodium was exchanged for potassium [48] and its accumulation was reduced in roots. Moreover, sodium could act as a substitute for potassium during the uptake but not for the important role it plays in different biochemical processes. Sodium replaces potassium and other cations on the soil exchange complex and can lead to nutrient deficiencies.

5 Conclusions

Our results confirm analytically what is observed in nature: Q. ilex natural forests extend until the sea in the species’ natural habitat found in many Mediterranean areas. Here, the study evidenced how, until 200 mM NaCl the plant kept growing and did not show any visible damage on leaves. Only at 300 mM NaCl, the Q. ilex plants died. The study confirmed that oaks use several mechanisms, well-known in other species’ physiology, to resist salt stress. As expected, at increasing NaCl concentrations, plant biomass decreased, with a reduction of leaf area and leaf number but without partial desiccation or leaf damage. The Na ion content increased whereas the K ion content decreased in all plant parts as the excess of salt led to disturbance in ionic balance. As expected, photosynthetic activity and stomatal conductance decreased with the highest salt concentration influencing the carbohydrate content. In addition, the photosynthetic pigments decreased with an increase in salinity. TAA and GAE increase with salt concentration as an antioxidant response through preventing the oxidative damage.

Hence, based on the adaptive capacity of the plant confirmed by our results, the use of Q. ilex in urban areas represents a good strategy for improving vegetation presence in the cities. However, more studies should be conducted to understand the mechanism that Q. ilex plants use to resist high salt concentrations.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank Dr. Marcello Militello for his help and technical support.

  1. Funding information: This research was funded by the Italian Ministry of University and Research MIUR project – PRIN – TREECITY – Design the green city in the era of global change: functions of urban trees and their adaptability in the future climatic conditions.

  2. Author contributions: Conceptualization, V.F.; methodology, G.G., E.P., and C.G.; software, D.S.; validation, V.F. and G.G.; formal analysis, G.G.; investigation, G.G. and C.G.; resources, G.G, C.G., E.P., and V.F.; data curation, G.G., E.P., and C.G.; writing – original draft preparation, G.G.; writing – review and editing, V.F., G.G., and D.S.; supervision, G.G.; project administration, V.F.; funding acquisition, V.F. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the article.

  3. Conflict of interest: Vittorio Farina, who is the co-author of this article, is a current Editorial Board member of Open Agriculture. This fact did not affect the peer-review process.

  4. Data availability statement: The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

References

[1] Ghassemi F, Jakeman AJ, Nix HA. Salinisation of land and water resources: human causes, extent, management and case studies. Wallingford, UK: CAB International; 1995.Search in Google Scholar

[2] Smedema LK, Shiati K. Irrigation and salinity: A perspective review of the salinity hazards of irrigation development in the arid zone. Irrig Drain Syst. 2002;16(2):161–74.10.1023/A:1016008417327Search in Google Scholar

[3] Schiop ST, Al Hassan M, Sestras AF, Boscaiu M, Sestras RE, Vicente O. Identification of salt stress biomarkers in Romanian Carpathian populations of Picea abies (L.) Karst. PLoS One. 2015;10(8):e0135419.10.1371/journal.pone.0135419Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[4] Yadav S, Irfan M, Ahmad A, Hayat S. Causes of salinity and plant manifestations to salt stress: A review. J Environ Biol. 2011;32(5):667.Search in Google Scholar

[5] Miyamoto S, Chacon A. Soil salinity of urban turf areas irrigated with saline water: II. Soil factors. Landsc Urban Plan. 2006;77(1–2):28–38.10.1016/j.landurbplan.2004.12.011Search in Google Scholar

[6] Cregg BM, Dix ME. Tree moisture stress and insect damage in urban areas in relation to heat island effects. J Arboric. 2001;27(1):8–17.10.48044/jauf.2001.002Search in Google Scholar

[7] Sjöman H, Nielsen AB. Selecting trees for urban paved sites in Scandinavia–A review of information on stress tolerance and its relation to the requirements of tree planners. Urban Urban Green. 2010;9(4):281–93.10.1016/j.ufug.2010.04.001Search in Google Scholar

[8] Czerniawska‐Kusza I, Kusza G, Dużyński M. Effect of deicing salts on urban soils and health status of roadside trees in the Opole region. Environ Toxicol Int J. 2004;19(4):296–301.10.1002/tox.20037Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[9] Demoisson A, Tedeschi G, Piazzola J. A model for the atmospheric transport of sea-salt particles in coastal areas. Atmos Res. 2013;132:144–53.10.1016/j.atmosres.2013.04.002Search in Google Scholar

[10] Boyer JS. Plant productivity and environment. Science. 1982;218(4571):443–8.10.1126/science.218.4571.443Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[11] Gugliuzza G, Talluto G, Fascella G, Lo Bianco R. The effect of saline water on Phillyrea angustifolia L. seedlings. In II International Symposium on Woody Ornamentals of the Temperate Zone. Acta Horticulturae; 2012. p. 175–80.10.17660/ActaHortic.2013.990.19Search in Google Scholar

[12] Botella MA, Rosado A, Bressan RA, Hasegawa PM. Plant adaptive responses to salinity stress. Plant Abiotic Stress. 2005;21:38–70.10.1002/9780470988503.ch3Search in Google Scholar

[13] Munns R. Comparative physiology of salt and water stress. Plant Cell Environ. 2002;25(2):239–50.10.1046/j.0016-8025.2001.00808.xSearch in Google Scholar PubMed

[14] Alfani A, Baldantoni D, Maisto G, Bartoli G, De Santo AV. Temporal and spatial variation in C, N, S and trace element contents in the leaves of Quercus ilex within the urban area of Naples. Environ Pollut. 2000;109(1):119–29.10.1016/S0269-7491(99)00234-1Search in Google Scholar

[15] Cotrufo MF, De Santo AV, Alfani A, Bartoli G, De Cristofaro A. Effects of urban heavy metal pollution on organic matter decomposition in Quercus ilex L. woods. Environ Pollut. 1995;89(1):81–7.10.1016/0269-7491(94)00041-BSearch in Google Scholar

[16] De Rigo D, Caudullo G. Quercus ilex in Europe: Distribution, habitat, usage and threats. European Atlas For Tree Species; 2016. p. 152–3Search in Google Scholar

[17] La Mantia T, Barbera G. La tutela e valorizzazione delle aree verdi urbane e suburbane e lo sviluppo sostenibile delle città mediterranee: il caso studio della città di Palermo. Bari: Facoltà di Agraria, Università degli Studi di Bari; 2002.Search in Google Scholar

[18] De Nicola F, Maisto G, Prati MV, Alfani A. Temporal variations in PAH concentrations in Quercus ilex L.(holm oak) leaves in an urban area. Chemosphere. 2005;61(3):432–40.10.1016/j.chemosphere.2005.01.082Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[19] Fantozzi F, Monaci F, Blanusa T, Bargagli R. Holm Oak (Quercus ilex L.) canopy as interceptor of airborne trace elements and their accumulation in the litter and topsoil. Environ Pollut. 2013;183:89–95.10.1016/j.envpol.2012.11.037Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[20] Gratani L, Crescente Ma, Petruzzi M. Relationship between leaf life-span and photosynthetic activity of Quercus ilex in polluted urban areas (Rome). Environ Pollut. 2000;110(1):19–28.10.1016/S0269-7491(99)00285-7Search in Google Scholar

[21] Orecchio S. PAHs associated with the leaves of Quercus ilex L.: Extraction, GC–MS analysis, distribution and sources: Assessment of air quality in the Palermo (Italy) area. Atmos Environ. 2007;41(38):8669–80.10.1016/j.atmosenv.2007.07.027Search in Google Scholar

[22] McLeod KW, McCarron JK, Conner WH. Photosynthesis and water relations of four oak species: Impact of flooding and salinity. Trees. 1999;13(4):178–87.10.1007/s004680050231Search in Google Scholar

[23] Fusaro L, Mereu S, Brunetti C, Di Ferdinando M, Ferrini F, Manes F, et al. Photosynthetic performance and biochemical adjustments in two co-occurring Mediterranean evergreens, Quercus ilex and Arbutus unedo, differing in salt-exclusion ability. Funct Plant Biol. 2013;41(4):391–400.10.1071/FP13241Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[24] Guidi L, Remorini D, Cotrozzi L, Giordani T, Lorenzini G, Massai R, et al. The harsh life of an urban tree: the effect of a single pulse of ozone in salt-stressed Quercus ilex saplings. Tree Physiol. 1 febbraio 2017;37(2):246–60.10.1093/treephys/tpw103Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[25] Natali L, Vangelisti A, Guidi L, Remorini D, Cotrozzi L, Lorenzini G, et al. How Quercus ilex L. saplings face combined salt and ozone stress: a transcriptome analysis. BMC Genomics. 2018;19(1):1–18.10.1186/s12864-018-5260-2Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[26] Palazzolo E, Letizia Gargano M, Venturella G. The nutritional composition of selected wild edible mushrooms from Sicily (southern Italy). Int J Food Sci Nutr. 2012;63(1):79–83.10.3109/09637486.2011.598850Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[27] Morand P, Gullo J. Mineralisation des tissus vegetaux en vue du dosage de P, Ca, Mg, Na, K. Ann Agron. 1970;21(2):229–36.Search in Google Scholar

[28] Loewus FA. Improvement in anthrone method for determination of carbohydrates. Anal Chem. 1952;24(1):219–9.10.1021/ac60061a050Search in Google Scholar

[29] Folin O, Denis W. Protein metabolism from the standpoint of blood and tissue analysis: Sixth paper. On uric acid, urea and total non-protein nitrogen in human blood. J Biol Chem. 1913;14(1):29–42.10.1016/S0021-9258(18)88619-7Search in Google Scholar

[30] Singleton VL, Rossi JA. Colorimetry of total phenolics with phosphomolybdic-phosphotungstic acid reagents. Am J Enol Vitic. 1965;16(3):144–58.10.5344/ajev.1965.16.3.144Search in Google Scholar

[31] Re R, Pellegrini N, Proteggente A, Pannala A, Yang M, Rice-Evans C. Antioxidant activity applying an improved ABTS radical cation decolorization assay. Free Radic Biol Med. 1999;26(9–10):1231–7.10.1016/S0891-5849(98)00315-3Search in Google Scholar

[32] Gentile C, Tesoriere L, Butera D, Fazzari M, Monastero M, Allegra M, et al. Antioxidant activity of Sicilian pistachio (Pistacia vera L. var. Bronte) nut extract and its bioactive components. J Agric Food Chem. 2007;55(3):643–8.10.1021/jf062533iSearch in Google Scholar PubMed

[33] Lichtenthaler HK, Buschmann C. Chlorophylls and carotenoids: Measurement and characterization by UV‐VIS spectroscopy. Curr Protoc Food Anal Chem. 2001;1(1):F4–3.10.1002/0471142913.faf0403s01Search in Google Scholar

[34] Barrick W, Davidson H. Deicing salt spray injury in Norway maple as influenced by temperature and humidity treatments. HortScience. 1980;15(2):203–5.10.21273/HORTSCI.15.2.203Search in Google Scholar

[35] Gibbs J, Palmer C. A survey of damage to roadside trees in London caused by the application of de-icing salt during the 1990/91 winter. Arboric J. 1994;18(3):321–43.10.1080/03071375.1994.9747034Search in Google Scholar

[36] Alaoui-Sosse B, Sehmer L, Barnola P, Dizengremel P. Effect of NaCl salinity on growth and mineral partitioning in Quercus robur L., a rhythmically growing species. Trees. 1998;12(7):424–30.10.1007/PL00009726Search in Google Scholar

[37] Rawat J, Banerjee S. The influence of salinity on growth, biomass production and photosynthesis of Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh. and Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. seedlings. Plant Soil. 1998;205(2):163–9.10.1023/A:1004381021039Search in Google Scholar

[38] Abideen Z, Koyro HW, Huchzermeyer B, Ahmed MZ, Gul B, Khan MA. Moderate salinity stimulates growth and photosynthesis of Phragmites karka by water relations and tissue specific ion regulation. Environ Exp Bot. 2014;105:70–6.10.1016/j.envexpbot.2014.04.009Search in Google Scholar

[39] Ma Q, Yue LJ, Zhang JL, Wu GQ, Bao AK, Wang SM. Sodium chloride improves photosynthesis and water status in the succulent xerophyte Zygophyllum xanthoxylum. Tree Physiol. 2012;32(1):4–13.10.1093/treephys/tpr098Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[40] Rangani J, Parida AK, Panda A, Kumari A. Coordinated changes in antioxidative enzymes protect the photosynthetic machinery from salinity induced oxidative damage and confer salt tolerance in an extreme halophyte Salvadora persica L. Front Plant Sci. 2016;7:50.10.3389/fpls.2016.00050Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[41] Sultana N, Ikeda T, Itoh R. Effect of NaCl salinity on photosynthesis and dry matter accumulation in developing rice grains. Environ Exp Bot. 1999;42(3):211–0.10.1016/S0098-8472(99)00035-0Search in Google Scholar

[42] Miranda D, Fischer G, Mewis I, Rohn S, Ulrichs C. Salinity effects on proline accumulation and total antioxidant activity in leaves of the cape gooseberry (Physalis peruviana L.). J Appl Bot Food Qual. 2014;87:67–73.Search in Google Scholar

[43] Oueslati S, Karray-Bouraoui N, Attia H, Rabhi M, Ksouri R, Lachaal M. Physiological and antioxidant responses of Mentha pulegium (Pennyroyal) to salt stress. Acta Physiol Plant. 2010;32(2):289–96.10.1007/s11738-009-0406-0Search in Google Scholar

[44] Parida AK, Das AB. Salt tolerance and salinity effects on plants: A review. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf. 2005;60(3):324–49.10.1016/j.ecoenv.2004.06.010Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[45] Duarte B, Sleimi N, Caçador I. Biophysical and biochemical constraints imposed by salt stress: learning from halophytes. Front Plant Sci. 2014;5:746.10.3389/fpls.2014.00746Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[46] Fathi R, Prat D. Effects of saline stress on Eucalyptus seedlings. EDP Sciences; 1989. p. 376s–8s10.1051/forest:19890585Search in Google Scholar

[47] Van der Moezel P, Watson L, Pearce-Pinto G, Bell D. The response of six Eucalyptus species and Casuarina obesa to the combined effect of salinity and waterlogging. Funct Plant Biol. 1988;15(3):465–74.10.1071/PP9880465Search in Google Scholar

[48] Silberbush M, Ben-Asher J. The effect of NaCl concentration on NO3−, K + and orthophosphate-P influx to peanut roots. Sci Hortic. 1989;39(4):279–87.10.1016/0304-4238(89)90121-0Search in Google Scholar
Received: 2023-02-08
Revised: 2023-06-17
Accepted: 2023-06-23
Published Online: 2023-08-18

© 2023 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Regular Articles
  2. The impact of COVID-19 pandemic on business risks and potato commercial model
  3. Effects of potato (Solanum tuberosum L.)–Mucuna pruriens intercropping pattern on the agronomic performances of potato and the soil physicochemical properties of the western highlands of Cameroon
  4. Machine learning-based prediction of total phenolic and flavonoid in horticultural products
  5. Revamping agricultural sector and its implications on output and employment generation: Evidence from Nigeria
  6. Does product certification matter? A review of mechanism to influence customer loyalty in the poultry feed industry
  7. Farmer regeneration and knowledge co-creation in the sustainability of coconut agribusiness in Gorontalo, Indonesia
  8. Lablab purpureus: Analysis of landraces cultivation and distribution, farming systems, and some climatic trends in production areas in Tanzania
  9. The effects of carrot (Daucus carota L.) waste juice on the performances of native chicken in North Sulawesi, Indonesia
  10. Properties of potassium dihydrogen phosphate and its effects on plants and soil
  11. Factors influencing the role and performance of independent agricultural extension workers in supporting agricultural extension
  12. The fate of probiotic species applied in intensive grow-out ponds in rearing water and intestinal tracts of white shrimp, Litopenaeus vannamei
  13. Yield stability and agronomic performances of provitamin A maize (Zea mays L.) genotypes in South-East of DR Congo
  14. Diallel analysis of length and shape of rice using Hayman and Griffing method
  15. Physicochemical and microbiological characteristics of various stem bark extracts of Hopea beccariana Burck potential as natural preservatives of coconut sap
  16. Correlation between descriptive and group type traits in the system of cow’s linear classification of Ukrainian Brown dairy breed
  17. Meta-analysis of the influence of the substitution of maize with cassava on performance indices of broiler chickens
  18. Bacteriocin-like inhibitory substance (BLIS) produced by Enterococcus faecium MA115 and its potential use as a seafood biopreservative
  19. Meta-analysis of the benefits of dietary Saccharomyces cerevisiae intervention on milk yield and component characteristics in lactating small ruminants
  20. Growth promotion potential of Bacillus spp. isolates on two tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) varieties in the West region of Cameroon
  21. Prioritizing IoT adoption strategies in millennial farming: An analytical network process approach
  22. Soil fertility and pomelo yield influenced by soil conservation practices
  23. Soil macrofauna under laying hens’ grazed fields in two different agroecosystems in Portugal
  24. Factors affecting household carbohydrate food consumption in Central Java: Before and during the COVID-19 pandemic
  25. Properties of paper coated with Prunus serotina (Ehrh.) extract formulation
  26. Fertiliser cost prediction in European Union farms: Machine-learning approaches through artificial neural networks
  27. Molecular and phenotypic markers for pyramiding multiple traits in rice
  28. Natural product nanofibers derived from Trichoderma hamatum K01 to control citrus anthracnose caused by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides
  29. Role of actors in promoting sustainable peatland management in Kubu Raya Regency, West Kalimantan, Indonesia
  30. Small-scale coffee farmers’ perception of climate-adapted attributes in participatory coffee breeding: A case study of Gayo Highland, Aceh, Indonesia
  31. Optimization of extraction using surface response methodology and quantification of cannabinoids in female inflorescences of marijuana (Cannabis sativa L.) at three altitudinal floors of Peru
  32. Production factors, technical, and economic efficiency of soybean (Glycine max L. Merr.) farming in Indonesia
  33. Economic performance of smallholder soya bean production in Kwara State, Nigeria
  34. Indonesian rice farmers’ perceptions of different sources of information and their effect on farmer capability
  35. Feed preference, body condition scoring, and growth performance of Dohne Merino ram fed varying levels of fossil shell flour
  36. Assessing the determinant factors of risk strategy adoption to mitigate various risks: An experience from smallholder rubber farmers in West Kalimantan Province, Indonesia
  37. Analysis of trade potential and factors influencing chili export in Indonesia
  38. Grade-C kenaf fiber (poor quality) as an alternative material for textile crafts
  39. Technical efficiency changes of rice farming in the favorable irrigated areas of Indonesia
  40. Palm oil cluster resilience to enhance indigenous welfare by innovative ability to address land conflicts: Evidence of disaster hierarchy
  41. Factors determining cassava farmers’ accessibility to loan sources: Evidence from Lampung, Indonesia
  42. Tailoring business models for small-medium food enterprises in Eastern Africa can drive the commercialization and utilization of vitamin A rich orange-fleshed sweet potato puree
  43. Revitalizing sub-optimal drylands: Exploring the role of biofertilizers
  44. Effects of salt stress on growth of Quercus ilex L. seedlings
  45. Design and fabrication of a fish feed mixing cum pelleting machine for small-medium scale aquaculture industry
  46. Indicators of swamp buffalo business sustainability using partial least squares structural equation modelling
  47. Effect of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi on early growth, root colonization, and chlorophyll content of North Maluku nutmeg cultivars
  48. How intergenerational farmers negotiate their identity in the era of Agriculture 4.0: A multiple-case study in Indonesia
  49. Responses of broiler chickens to incremental levels of water deprivation: Growth performance, carcass characteristics, and relative organ weights
  50. The improvement of horticultural villages sustainability in Central Java Province, Indonesia
  51. Effect of short-term grazing exclusion on herbage species composition, dry matter productivity, and chemical composition of subtropical grasslands
  52. Analysis of beef market integration between consumer and producer regions in Indonesia
  53. Analysing the sustainability of swamp buffalo (Bubalus bubalis carabauesis) farming as a protein source and germplasm
  54. Toxicity of Calophyllum soulattri, Piper aduncum, Sesamum indicum and their potential mixture for control Spodoptera frugiperda
  55. Consumption profile of organic fruits and vegetables by a Portuguese consumer’s sample
  56. Phenotypic characterisation of indigenous chicken in the central zone of Tanzania
  57. Diversity and structure of bacterial communities in saline and non-saline rice fields in Cilacap Regency, Indonesia
  58. Isolation and screening of lactic acid bacteria producing anti-Edwardsiella from the gastrointestinal tract of wild catfish (Clarias gariepinus) for probiotic candidates
  59. Effects of land use and slope position on selected soil physicochemical properties in Tekorsh Sub-Watershed, East Gojjam Zone, Ethiopia
  60. Design of smart farming communication and web interface using MQTT and Node.js
  61. Assessment of bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) seed quality accessed through different seed sources in northwest Ethiopia
  62. Estimation of water consumption and productivity for wheat using remote sensing and SEBAL model: A case study from central clay plain Ecosystem in Sudan
  63. Agronomic performance, seed chemical composition, and bioactive components of selected Indonesian soybean genotypes (Glycine max [L.] Merr.)
  64. The role of halal requirements, health-environmental factors, and domestic interest in food miles of apple fruit
  65. Subsidized fertilizer management in the rice production centers of South Sulawesi, Indonesia: Bridging the gap between policy and practice
  66. Factors affecting consumers’ loyalty and purchase decisions on honey products: An emerging market perspective
  67. Inclusive rice seed business: Performance and sustainability
  68. Design guidelines for sustainable utilization of agricultural appropriate technology: Enhancing human factors and user experience
  69. Effect of integrate water shortage and soil conditioners on water productivity, growth, and yield of Red Globe grapevines grown in sandy soil
  70. Synergic effect of Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and potassium fertilizer improves biomass-related characteristics of cocoa seedlings to enhance their drought resilience and field survival
  71. Control measure of sweet potato weevil (Cylas formicarius Fab.) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) in endemic land of entisol type using mulch and entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana
  72. In vitro and in silico study for plant growth promotion potential of indigenous Ochrobactrum ciceri and Bacillus australimaris
  73. Effects of repeated replanting on yield, dry matter, starch, and protein content in different potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) genotypes
  74. Review Articles
  75. Nutritional and chemical composition of black velvet tamarind (Dialium guineense Willd) and its influence on animal production: A review
  76. Black pepper (Piper nigrum Lam) as a natural feed additive and source of beneficial nutrients and phytochemicals in chicken nutrition
  77. The long-crowing chickens in Indonesia: A review
  78. A transformative poultry feed system: The impact of insects as an alternative and transformative poultry-based diet in sub-Saharan Africa
  79. Short Communication
  80. Profiling of carbonyl compounds in fresh cabbage with chemometric analysis for the development of freshness assessment method
  81. Special Issue of The 4th International Conference on Food Science and Engineering (ICFSE) 2022 - Part I
  82. Non-destructive evaluation of soluble solid content in fruits with various skin thicknesses using visible–shortwave near-infrared spectroscopy
  83. Special Issue on FCEM - International Web Conference on Food Choice & Eating Motivation - Part I
  84. Traditional agri-food products and sustainability – A fruitful relationship for the development of rural areas in Portugal
  85. Consumers’ attitudes toward refrigerated ready-to-eat meat and dairy foods
  86. Breakfast habits and knowledge: Study involving participants from Brazil and Portugal
  87. Food determinants and motivation factors impact on consumer behavior in Lebanon
  88. Comparison of three wine routes’ realities in Central Portugal
  89. Special Issue on Agriculture, Climate Change, Information Technology, Food and Animal (ACIFAS 2020)
  90. Environmentally friendly bioameliorant to increase soil fertility and rice (Oryza sativa) production
  91. Enhancing the ability of rice to adapt and grow under saline stress using selected halotolerant rhizobacterial nitrogen fixer
https://doi.org/10.1515/opag-2022-0211
Keywords for this article
Quercus ilex; salt stress; carotenoids; photosynthesis
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Regular Articles
  2. The impact of COVID-19 pandemic on business risks and potato commercial model
  3. Effects of potato (Solanum tuberosum L.)–Mucuna pruriens intercropping pattern on the agronomic performances of potato and the soil physicochemical properties of the western highlands of Cameroon
  4. Machine learning-based prediction of total phenolic and flavonoid in horticultural products
  5. Revamping agricultural sector and its implications on output and employment generation: Evidence from Nigeria
  6. Does product certification matter? A review of mechanism to influence customer loyalty in the poultry feed industry
  7. Farmer regeneration and knowledge co-creation in the sustainability of coconut agribusiness in Gorontalo, Indonesia
  8. Lablab purpureus: Analysis of landraces cultivation and distribution, farming systems, and some climatic trends in production areas in Tanzania
  9. The effects of carrot (Daucus carota L.) waste juice on the performances of native chicken in North Sulawesi, Indonesia
  10. Properties of potassium dihydrogen phosphate and its effects on plants and soil
  11. Factors influencing the role and performance of independent agricultural extension workers in supporting agricultural extension
  12. The fate of probiotic species applied in intensive grow-out ponds in rearing water and intestinal tracts of white shrimp, Litopenaeus vannamei
  13. Yield stability and agronomic performances of provitamin A maize (Zea mays L.) genotypes in South-East of DR Congo
  14. Diallel analysis of length and shape of rice using Hayman and Griffing method
  15. Physicochemical and microbiological characteristics of various stem bark extracts of Hopea beccariana Burck potential as natural preservatives of coconut sap
  16. Correlation between descriptive and group type traits in the system of cow’s linear classification of Ukrainian Brown dairy breed
  17. Meta-analysis of the influence of the substitution of maize with cassava on performance indices of broiler chickens
  18. Bacteriocin-like inhibitory substance (BLIS) produced by Enterococcus faecium MA115 and its potential use as a seafood biopreservative
  19. Meta-analysis of the benefits of dietary Saccharomyces cerevisiae intervention on milk yield and component characteristics in lactating small ruminants
  20. Growth promotion potential of Bacillus spp. isolates on two tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) varieties in the West region of Cameroon
  21. Prioritizing IoT adoption strategies in millennial farming: An analytical network process approach
  22. Soil fertility and pomelo yield influenced by soil conservation practices
  23. Soil macrofauna under laying hens’ grazed fields in two different agroecosystems in Portugal
  24. Factors affecting household carbohydrate food consumption in Central Java: Before and during the COVID-19 pandemic
  25. Properties of paper coated with Prunus serotina (Ehrh.) extract formulation
  26. Fertiliser cost prediction in European Union farms: Machine-learning approaches through artificial neural networks
  27. Molecular and phenotypic markers for pyramiding multiple traits in rice
  28. Natural product nanofibers derived from Trichoderma hamatum K01 to control citrus anthracnose caused by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides
  29. Role of actors in promoting sustainable peatland management in Kubu Raya Regency, West Kalimantan, Indonesia
  30. Small-scale coffee farmers’ perception of climate-adapted attributes in participatory coffee breeding: A case study of Gayo Highland, Aceh, Indonesia
  31. Optimization of extraction using surface response methodology and quantification of cannabinoids in female inflorescences of marijuana (Cannabis sativa L.) at three altitudinal floors of Peru
  32. Production factors, technical, and economic efficiency of soybean (Glycine max L. Merr.) farming in Indonesia
  33. Economic performance of smallholder soya bean production in Kwara State, Nigeria
  34. Indonesian rice farmers’ perceptions of different sources of information and their effect on farmer capability
  35. Feed preference, body condition scoring, and growth performance of Dohne Merino ram fed varying levels of fossil shell flour
  36. Assessing the determinant factors of risk strategy adoption to mitigate various risks: An experience from smallholder rubber farmers in West Kalimantan Province, Indonesia
  37. Analysis of trade potential and factors influencing chili export in Indonesia
  38. Grade-C kenaf fiber (poor quality) as an alternative material for textile crafts
  39. Technical efficiency changes of rice farming in the favorable irrigated areas of Indonesia
  40. Palm oil cluster resilience to enhance indigenous welfare by innovative ability to address land conflicts: Evidence of disaster hierarchy
  41. Factors determining cassava farmers’ accessibility to loan sources: Evidence from Lampung, Indonesia
  42. Tailoring business models for small-medium food enterprises in Eastern Africa can drive the commercialization and utilization of vitamin A rich orange-fleshed sweet potato puree
  43. Revitalizing sub-optimal drylands: Exploring the role of biofertilizers
  44. Effects of salt stress on growth of Quercus ilex L. seedlings
  45. Design and fabrication of a fish feed mixing cum pelleting machine for small-medium scale aquaculture industry
  46. Indicators of swamp buffalo business sustainability using partial least squares structural equation modelling
  47. Effect of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi on early growth, root colonization, and chlorophyll content of North Maluku nutmeg cultivars
  48. How intergenerational farmers negotiate their identity in the era of Agriculture 4.0: A multiple-case study in Indonesia
  49. Responses of broiler chickens to incremental levels of water deprivation: Growth performance, carcass characteristics, and relative organ weights
  50. The improvement of horticultural villages sustainability in Central Java Province, Indonesia
  51. Effect of short-term grazing exclusion on herbage species composition, dry matter productivity, and chemical composition of subtropical grasslands
  52. Analysis of beef market integration between consumer and producer regions in Indonesia
  53. Analysing the sustainability of swamp buffalo (Bubalus bubalis carabauesis) farming as a protein source and germplasm
  54. Toxicity of Calophyllum soulattri, Piper aduncum, Sesamum indicum and their potential mixture for control Spodoptera frugiperda
  55. Consumption profile of organic fruits and vegetables by a Portuguese consumer’s sample
  56. Phenotypic characterisation of indigenous chicken in the central zone of Tanzania
  57. Diversity and structure of bacterial communities in saline and non-saline rice fields in Cilacap Regency, Indonesia
  58. Isolation and screening of lactic acid bacteria producing anti-Edwardsiella from the gastrointestinal tract of wild catfish (Clarias gariepinus) for probiotic candidates
  59. Effects of land use and slope position on selected soil physicochemical properties in Tekorsh Sub-Watershed, East Gojjam Zone, Ethiopia
  60. Design of smart farming communication and web interface using MQTT and Node.js
  61. Assessment of bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) seed quality accessed through different seed sources in northwest Ethiopia
  62. Estimation of water consumption and productivity for wheat using remote sensing and SEBAL model: A case study from central clay plain Ecosystem in Sudan
  63. Agronomic performance, seed chemical composition, and bioactive components of selected Indonesian soybean genotypes (Glycine max [L.] Merr.)
  64. The role of halal requirements, health-environmental factors, and domestic interest in food miles of apple fruit
  65. Subsidized fertilizer management in the rice production centers of South Sulawesi, Indonesia: Bridging the gap between policy and practice
  66. Factors affecting consumers’ loyalty and purchase decisions on honey products: An emerging market perspective
  67. Inclusive rice seed business: Performance and sustainability
  68. Design guidelines for sustainable utilization of agricultural appropriate technology: Enhancing human factors and user experience
  69. Effect of integrate water shortage and soil conditioners on water productivity, growth, and yield of Red Globe grapevines grown in sandy soil
  70. Synergic effect of Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and potassium fertilizer improves biomass-related characteristics of cocoa seedlings to enhance their drought resilience and field survival
  71. Control measure of sweet potato weevil (Cylas formicarius Fab.) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) in endemic land of entisol type using mulch and entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana
  72. In vitro and in silico study for plant growth promotion potential of indigenous Ochrobactrum ciceri and Bacillus australimaris
  73. Effects of repeated replanting on yield, dry matter, starch, and protein content in different potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) genotypes
  74. Review Articles
  75. Nutritional and chemical composition of black velvet tamarind (Dialium guineense Willd) and its influence on animal production: A review
  76. Black pepper (Piper nigrum Lam) as a natural feed additive and source of beneficial nutrients and phytochemicals in chicken nutrition
  77. The long-crowing chickens in Indonesia: A review
  78. A transformative poultry feed system: The impact of insects as an alternative and transformative poultry-based diet in sub-Saharan Africa
  79. Short Communication
  80. Profiling of carbonyl compounds in fresh cabbage with chemometric analysis for the development of freshness assessment method
  81. Special Issue of The 4th International Conference on Food Science and Engineering (ICFSE) 2022 - Part I
  82. Non-destructive evaluation of soluble solid content in fruits with various skin thicknesses using visible–shortwave near-infrared spectroscopy
  83. Special Issue on FCEM - International Web Conference on Food Choice & Eating Motivation - Part I
  84. Traditional agri-food products and sustainability – A fruitful relationship for the development of rural areas in Portugal
  85. Consumers’ attitudes toward refrigerated ready-to-eat meat and dairy foods
  86. Breakfast habits and knowledge: Study involving participants from Brazil and Portugal
  87. Food determinants and motivation factors impact on consumer behavior in Lebanon
  88. Comparison of three wine routes’ realities in Central Portugal
  89. Special Issue on Agriculture, Climate Change, Information Technology, Food and Animal (ACIFAS 2020)
  90. Environmentally friendly bioameliorant to increase soil fertility and rice (Oryza sativa) production
  91. Enhancing the ability of rice to adapt and grow under saline stress using selected halotolerant rhizobacterial nitrogen fixer
Sign up now to receive a 20% welcome discount
Institutional Access
How does access work?
Have an idea on how to improve our website?
Please write us.
© 2025 De Gruyter Brill
Downloaded on 5.9.2025 from https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/opag-2022-0211/html
Scroll to top button