Ethnopharmacological study of medicinal plants in Kastamonu province (Türkiye)
-
Gökhan Şen
und
Mustafa Karaköse
Abstract
This study is aimed at determining some of the plants traditionally used in the treatment of diseases by the local people living in Kastamonu province center and surrounding villages. A face-to-face questionnaire was applied and semi-structured interviews were conducted with 52 informants, 34 women and 18 men. Identification of 92 plants belonging to 41 families has been confirmed and their medicinal uses have been recorded. The most used families were Rosaceae (13 taxa), Asteraceae (11), and Lamiaceae (11). The most preferred folk recipes of medicinal plants was decoction (55 taxa) and in preparations and applications, the most used were the leaves (45 taxa). According to the International Classification of Primary Care categories, plants were the most used for digestive disorders (37 taxa), respiratory disorders (27 taxa), and urological disorders (24 taxa). The highest use-value was recorded for Urtica dioica (0.519), and highest relative frequency citation was recorded for Tilia rubra subsp. caucasica (0.231). Male genital diseases had the highest informant consensus factor value (0.83). New areas of use were also determined for Pilosella leucopsilon subsp. pilisquama, Galium palustre, and Astragalus nitens. With this study, new information for folkloric medicines is presented and the usage of herbal drugs in the study area are enhanced.
Graphical abstract
1 Introduction
Component of cultures, beliefs, and even folk remedies that make up societies are plants [1]. During their travel, European explorers and adventurers observed and documented how and for what indigenous peoples traditionally used plants. Thus, began the science of ethnobotany [2]. However, records of medicinal use of plants are found in Sumer, Assyria, Egypt, and Hittite civilizations until about 5,000 years ago, when writing was found [3]. Ethnobotany compiles all local knowledge about plants used in various ways and for various purposes [4]. The oldest source written on this subject in Anatolia is Dioscorides’ “De Materia Medica,” which contains information about more than 600 plants [5].
Plants play an important role for human beings from past to present. Healing with plants is one of the indispensable treatment methods since the existence of humanity. The use of plants by humans for health purposes dates back to the primeval era [6]. The majority of the world’s population, especially in developing countries, obtain the necessary source for their food and health from plants [7]. This rate reaches 80% in developing countries [8]. The number of plants used only in traditional and modern medicine varies between 50,000 and 75,000 worldwide [9]. Plants are used for various purposes such as food, medicine, spices, dyes, healing, religious beliefs, clothing, shelter, and ornaments. Plants produce a wide variety of organic compounds [10]. While primary metabolites (nucleotides, amino acids, and organic acids) are directly effective in the key functions of the plant, secondary metabolites (alkaloids, terpenoids, and phenolics) are compounds that are not directly effective in terms of the vital function of the plant. Secondary metabolites are at least as important as primary metabolites in terms of the plant’s vital function, as they form a defense mechanism against pests and diseases. People use secondary metabolites (with essential oils obtained from plants) in medicine and food industries [11,12]. Essential oils are usually colorless or light yellow, volatile, and strong smelling. These oils produced from parts of plants such as roots, stems, leaves, fruits, bark, and flowers are liquid at room temperature, sometimes freeze, and can quickly crystallize. [13]. Essential oil of plants with high economic value has gained more importance day by day. Beside these, essential oils and aromatic extracts are also used in the fragrance and flavor industry (especially the species belonging to the Lamiaceae family), in perfumes, cleaning products, cosmetics, and pharmaceutical preparations [14]. The recognition of the biological features of many secondary metabolites has influenced the search for new drugs, antibiotics, insecticides, and also herbicides.
Türkiye is very rich in terms of climate and soil characteristics. It is one of the most glorious countries, especially because it has favorable conditions for the natural growth of medicinal and aromatic plants. Today, Türkiye is one of the important biodiversity centers, with 11,707 plant taxa, 3,649 of which are endemic [15]. Anatolian territories, the cradle of civilization, have hosted various civilizations and cultures since 3000 BC [16]. These two issues are the most important references for ethnobotany.
Although ethnobotanical research has gained momentum since the 1990s in Türkiye, it still has a significant accumulation of information that needs to be recorded. One of these centers is Kastamonu province, which has a rich historical and cultural structure, geography with a maritime and continental climate, and biological diversity. It has over 1,000 plant taxa, about 20% of which are endemic, registered to the province flora, which can be the subject of botanical and ethnobotanical research. If the plant is endemic, the information about it is also endemic. Even if the plant is not endemic, its knowledge may be endemic; in other words, the specific use of that plant may be unique to a region, culture, or even an individual [3]. This study revealed and recorded this cultural accumulation in the Kastamonu region.
2 Materials and methods
2.1 Study area
Kastamonu province is in the western part of the Black Sea region between 41–42° north latitudes and 33–46° east longitudes (Figure 1). The province, which has a surface area of 13,152 km2, constitutes approximately 1.7% of Türkiye’s surface area [17]. The known history of Kastamonu begins with the Hittite Empire. After the Hittites, Phrygian and Lydian Kingdoms ruled this area. The inhabitants of this region, which was named Paphlagonia after prehistoric times, are the Gaska Turks, one of the oldest branches of the Sumerians. B.C. The Gaslar, who ruled between 2000 and 1300, constantly had political, commercial, and cultural relations with Egyptians, Syrians, and Chaldeans. Afterwards, Macedonian Kingdom, Pontus Kingdom, Romans, Byzantine Empire, Anatolian Seljuks, and Ottoman Empire ruled in this region. Due to these relations and Kastamonu being one of the commercial and administrative centers, the interaction of many peoples has taken place [18]. The local language in the region is Turkish.
The geographical location of Kastamonu Province.
Kastamonu is located in the Euxine province of the Circumboreal phytogeographical region and falls within the A4–A5 squares according to the grid system [19]. Kastamonu, between the Western Black Sea and Kızılırmak Basins, is bordered by the Isfendiyar (Küre) Mountains to the north and the Ilgaz Mountains to the south. The Black Sea coastline of Kastamonu is 170 km long and 780 m above sea level; the mountains stretch parallel to the sea. Therefore, while the Black Sea climate is seen on the coasts, continental climate features are observed in the interior. The temperature ranges from −26.9°C to +38.7°C. Annual precipitation varies between 450 and 1,215 mm depending on the region. The annual precipitation average for Kastamonu Province is 500 mm (between 1930 and 2018). The annual number of rainy days is 128, and the annual average temperature is 9.8°C (1981–2010) [17,20,21].
There are two national parks in Kastamonu province. These are Küre Mountains National Park and Ilgaz Mountain National Park. Küre Mountains National Park has a Protected Areas Network certificate (PAN Parks) and Platinum Wilderness Certificate [17].
65% of Kastamonu, which is quite mountainous, is covered with forests and this rate is above Türkiye’s average of 28.6%. 26.2% of Kastamonu forests (1,239,498 ha) are degraded forests. 79.8% of these forests are productive and 20.1% are degraded forests [20,21]. Kastamonu Province is located in a very rich area in terms of forest vegetation. The dominant species in the area are Pinus nigra subsp. pallasiana (Lamb.) Holmboe, Pinus sylvestris var. hamata Steven, Abies nordmanniana subsp. equi-trojani (Asch. & Sint. ex Boiss.) Coode & Cullen, and Juniperus spp. (Juniperus communis var. saxatilis Pall., Juniperus oxycedrus L.) from coniferous species, Quercus spp. (Quercus petraea subsp. iberica (Steven ex M.Bieb.) Krassiln., Quercus pubescens Willd., Quercus cerris L., Quercus macranthera subsp. syspirensis (K.Koch) Menitsky), Fagus orientalis Lipsky, Carpinus betulus L., Castanea sativa Mill., Populus tremula L., and other leafy species [22].
2.2 Data collection
This study was conducted in Kastamonu city center and surrounding villages (Yukarıbatak, Eşen, Çavundur, Ayvalı, Kuşkara, Bükköyü, Bozoğlak, Alınören, Belençal, Kızıleller, Serdar Köyü, Dereberçin, Haydarlar, Küçükkızılca, Büyükkızılca, Çukurköy, Yenidoğan, Aşağıkayı, Ermelik, Şekerköy, Kovanlı, Guzyaka, Gölköy, Yürekveren, Ahlatcı, Çevrik, Asıklı Köyü, Harmangeriş, Edeler, Aybasan, Uzunyol, Valay, Kuztekke, Dağlı, Küçükmutlu, Büyükmutlu, Bürnük, Akseki, Hacımuharrem, Hatip, Emirler, and Kurusaray) during the vegetation period between March and September 2021. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 52 informants, 34 women and 18 men. A face-to-face questionnaire (Appendix) was applied to determine the demographic characteristics of the people, the plants they used for medicinal and therapeutic purposes, preparation methods, and the parts used (Figure 2). The guidelines of International Society of Ethnobiology were taken into account in the ethical rules. Prior informed consent was provided orally before each interview. [23]. Plant species were identified and named according to the Flora of Türkiye by the botanists (Dr. Sefa Akbulut and Dr. Mustafa Karaköse) [19,24,25]. The current names of the plants have been reviewed according to the World Flora Online [26]. The voucher specimens were kept in Kastamonu University Herbarium (KÜH).
Interviews with local people (a, b), samples of herbal drogs sold by locals (c–e).
2.3 Data analysis
Three different statistical methods were used and evaluated in the analysis of the data obtained from the local population. These are use-value (UV), relative frequency citation (RFC), and informant consensus factor (FIC).
UV is a method for determining how frequently individuals in the country utilize plants in daily life. The formula used in the calculations is [27]
where U = number of usage citations by informants, and N = number of informants.
The RFC was used to quantitatively evaluate the ethnobotanical data. When calculating the RFC, only the citation frequency and the total number of informants are taken into account. The categories of use of plants are not taken into account here. The formula used in the calculations is [28]
where FC = number of informants who mentioned the species’ use, and N = total number of informants participating in the survey.
FIC is a technique used to determine the homogeneity between specific ailments and the plant species used in its treatment and the potentiality of the species. The formula used in the calculations is [27,29]
where Nur = number of citations in each category, and Nt = number of species used.
3 Results
3.1 Demographic features
Thirty-four participants were female and 18 were male (total 52). The ages of the participants ranged from 32 to 81, with an average of 58. The education level of 84.6% of the participants was low (30.8% were illiterate, and 53.8% were primary school graduates) (Table 1).
Demographic features of informants
| Indicator | Number of informants | Percentage | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Gender | Male | 18 | 34.6 |
| Female | 34 | 65.4 | |
| Educational level | Illiterate | 16 | 30.8 |
| Primary | 28 | 53.8 | |
| Secondary | 7 | 13.5 | |
| University | 1 | 1.9 | |
| Age groups | 20–40 | 2 | 3.8 |
| 40–50 | 9 | 17.4 | |
| >50 | 41 | 78.8 | |
3.2 Medicinal plants and folk remedies
Information on the use of 92 plants belonging to 41 families in folk medicine is given in Table 2. The taxonomic order was made alphabetically, first by family and then by scientific names.
Traditional uses of medicinal plants
| Family | Botanical name (voucher specimen) | Vernacular name | Used parts | FC | UR | RFC | UV | Purpose of usage | Mode of preparation/application | Reported literature uses | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Acoraceae | Acorus calamus L. | Hazanbel, Eğir kökü | Root | 2 | 4 | 0.038 | 0.077 | Prostate, cancer, urinary tract infection | The dried root is ground, then drunk with the infusion or decoction method | Bronchitis, cramps, diarrhea, digestive problems, nervous disorders, rheumatism, sedative, vascular problems [30] | |
| (Kastamonu University Herbarium (KÜH) 21101) | |||||||||||
| Adoxaceae | Sambucus ebulus L. | Şahmelik | Leaf, petiole | 1 | 2 | 0.019 | 0.038 | Anti-allergy, analgesic | The leaves are directly applied to the allergic area. Leaves of Urtica dioica, Elymus repens, Juglans regia, Salix × fragilis, and Sambucus ebulus are boiled and the aching place is immersed in water | Laxative, diuretic, diaphoretic, common colds, rheumatism, intestinal disorder, hemorrhoids, skin diseases, cough, diarrhea, gastro-intestinal disorders, liver, lungs, leg pain, bruises, injuries, abscess, burns, eczema, fungal diseases, wounds, urticaria, asthma, high fever, sore throat, sunstroke, bee bite, scorpion bite, snake bite, edema, inflammation, malaria, mastitis, expelling worms, stomach ache, sterility, analgesic, tonic [5,31–48] | |
| (KÜH 21102) | |||||||||||
| Adoxaceae | Sambucus nigra L. | Yalangöz | Flower | 2 | 4 | 0.038 | 0.077 | Diuretics, anemia, antipyretic | Flowers are put in hot water to make infusion and drunk. The flowers are made into a paste with honey and consumed for anemia. Flowers are consumed fresh for antipyretics | Abscess, asthma, diuretic, diaphoretic, hemorrhoids, laxative, fungal itches, eczema, cough, prostatitis, heart diseases, respiratory diseases, emollient, expectorant, diarrhea, dysentery, ear inflammations, vasodilatory, anti-atherosclerotic, cholagogue, liver disorders, jaundice, skin diseases, kidney disorders, laxative, malaria, puerperal fever, rabies, influenza, flu, tonic, stimulant, rheumatism, arthritis, sore eyes [5,34,37,49–56] | |
| (KÜH 21103) | |||||||||||
| Amaryllidaceae | Allium cepa L. | Soğan | Root | 3 | 4 | 0.058 | 0.077 | Wound healing, bone fracture, sprains, cough | The roots are applied directly or after cooking to the wounded area. Onions are put in water to make decoction and drunk | Vulnerary, emollient, abscess, rheumatism, cicatrizing, earache, diabetes, otitis, anuria, whitlow, sprain, bruise, edema, wound healing, anti-inflammatory, constipation, weep, gynecological diseases, asthma, cancer, diuretic, fungal infection, headache, hypertension, cough, galactagogue, panacea, bone fracture, gastric ulcer and reflux, injuries, abdominal pain, gastrointestinal diseases, insect bite, burns, scabies, arteriosclerosis, bronchitis, common colds, dysmenorrhea, dysuria, sore throat, urinary inflammation, uterus inflammation, woman infertility, paralysis, abortifacient, analgesic, laxative, expectorant [33,35–38,42,44,45,51,54,57–68] | |
| (KÜH 21104) | |||||||||||
| Apiaceae | Anethum graveolens L. | Dereotu | Leaf, seed, aerial parts | 4 | 6 | 0.077 | 0.115 | Osteoarthritis, nausea, goiter, galactagogue | The infusion is prepared from leaves and seeds and drunk. The aerial parts are consumed fresh | carminative, diuretic, galactagogue, stimulant, stomachic, intestinal spasms, griping, colic, appetite, gas, digestion, urinary complaints, mental disorders [69] | |
| (KÜH 21105) | |||||||||||
| Apiaceae | Angelica sylvestris L. | Melekotu | Leaf | 1 | 1 | 0.019 | 0.019 | Stomach disorder | Decoction is prepared from leaves and drunk | Appetite, anorexia, anemia, migraine, vertigo, influenza, bronchitis, general dizziness, expectorant, cough, cold, sore throat, cystitis, urinary antiseptic, muscular craps, headache, rheumatic pain, asthma, digestive disorders [70,71,72] | |
| (KÜH 21106) | |||||||||||
| Apiaceae | Petroselinum crispum (Mill.) A.W.Hill | Maydanoz | Leaf, aerial parts | 4 | 5 | 0.077 | 0.096 | Urinary tract infection, anti-inflammatory, cholesterol | Decoction is prepared from leaves and drunk. The parsley is crushed with lemon. The mixture is drunk every morning on an empty stomach | Diabetes, anemia, eczema, diuretic, hemorrhoids, cholesterol, stomach diseases, kidney stones, abdominal pain, kidney ache, anti-inflammatory, halitosis, sore throat, constipation, eye health, stomach ache, infection, kidney diseases, dyspnea, sore in mouth, urethral inflammation, urinary system infections, vaginitis, bronchitis, cough, edema, urethritis, diarrhea, menstrual problem, carminative, anti-flatulence, relieves breast pain [5,32,33,35,36,39,42,51,53,58,59,63,65,73–78] | |
| (KÜH 21107) | |||||||||||
| Araceae | Arum orientale M.Bieb. | Yılan yastığı | Leaf | 1 | 1 | 0.019 | 0.019 | Hemorrhoid | The leaves are roasted and eaten | Eczema, cardiovascular [79,80] | |
| (KÜH 21108) | |||||||||||
| Araliaceae | Hedera helix L. | Duvar sarmaşığı | Leaf | 2 | 3 | 0.038 | 0.058 | Cough, gallstone | Decoction is prepared from dried leaves and drunk | Abortion, asthma, bronchitis, burns, chills, common cold, abscess, renal failure, vesicant, diaphoretic, laxative, wound healing, stomach ache, stomach disorders, menstrual regulator, anthelmintic, increases bile production, expectorant, skin inflammation, exudative, skin diseases [5,34,35,41,53,54,68,73,77,81,82] | |
| (KÜH 21109) | |||||||||||
| Asteraceae | Achillea millefolium L. | Civanperçemi | Flower, leaf | 4 | 4 | 0.077 | 0.077 | Cough, menstrual irregularity | Infusion is prepared from leaves and flowers and drunk | Diuretic, eye inflammations, antidermatotic, hemorrhoids, wound healing, anemia, breath freshener, gynecological diseases, hemostatic, hypertension, increases sweating, antispasmodic, diarrhea, menstrual problem, abdominal pain [5,34,38,40,55,62,65,73,76,78,83–86] | |
| (KÜH 21110) | |||||||||||
| Asteraceae | Artemisia absinthium L. | Pelin otu | Leaf, flower, stem | 2 | 4 | 0.038 | 0.077 | Cough, diabetes, cholesterol, liver disorder | The infusion is prepared from leaves, flowers, and stems and drunk. Decoction is prepared from leaves and flowers and drunk for diabetes | Gastric, stomach disorders, ulcer, dyspepsia, intestinal parasites, liver problems, renal colic, chronic fevers, swellings, inflammation of liver, menstrual disorders, hepatocyte enlargement, hepatitis, gastritis, jaundice, wound healing, splenomegaly, dyspepsia, indigestion, flatulence, gastric pain, anemia, anorexia, esophageal bowel syndrome with irritation, weak memory tremors, depression, epilepsy, chronic fever, skin diseases, gout, rheumatism, antipyretic, abdominal pain, digestive [65,87–90] | |
| (KÜH 21111) | |||||||||||
| Asteraceae | Bellis perennis L. | Çayır papatyası, Döndön çiçeği | Leaf, flower, stem | 3 | 10 | 0.058 | 0.192 | Liver disorder, common cold, sinusitis, insomnia, sedative, mental disorder, stomach ache | Decoction or infusion is prepared from leaves, flowers, and stems and drunk. The flowers and stem are boiled and a vapor bath is made | Purgative, common cold, flu, diuretic, bronchitis, tonsillitis, eye inflammations, hemorrhoids, headache, respiratory, tranquilizer, gynecological diseases, stomach disorders, stomach ache, intestinal disorder, gastric complaints, insomnia, nausea, vomiting, asthma, panacea, expectorant, antipyretic, laxative, tonic, sedative, rheumatism [32–35,46,50,54,65,68,73,91–93] | |
| (KÜH 21112) | |||||||||||
| Asteraceae | Calendula arvensis (Vaill.) L. | Aynısefa | Flower, leaf | 1 | 2 | 0.019 | 0.038 | Diuretic, diaphoretic | Leaves and flowers are put in water to make decoction and drunk | Disinfectant, antispasmodic, diuretic, anti‑inflammatory, anticancer, antipyretic, sudorific, emmenagogue, diaphoretic, sedative, wound healing, gastrointestinal ulcers, dysmenorrhea, burns, cancer, diaphoretic, mental tension, insomnia [94] | |
| (KÜH 21113) | |||||||||||
| Asteraceae | Cichorium intybus L. | Yabani hindiba | Root, whole plant | 3 | 3 | 0.058 | 0.058 | Liver disorder, eczema, insect sting | Decoction is prepared from roots and drunk. Decoction is prepared from whole plant and drunk for eczema. The plant is crushed and applied directly | Cancer, heart diseases, liver disorders, cough, bronchitis, rheumatism, indigestion, wound healing, jaundice, tonic, diuretic, laxative, anti-bilious, antipyretic, blood purification, strengthens the stomach [89,95,96] | |
| (KÜH 21114) | |||||||||||
| Asteraceae | Inula germanica L. | Andızotu | Root | 1 | 2 | 0.019 | 0.038 | Liver disorder, gall bladder | Decoction is prepared from roots and drunk | Gastrointestinal diseases [97] | |
| (KÜH 21115) | |||||||||||
| Asteraceae | Matricaria chamomilla L. var. recutita (L.) | Mayıs papatyası | Flower, stem, branch | 8 | 21 | 0.154 | 0.404 | Eye diseases, antiseptic, tonsillitis, influenza, headache, cough, sinusitis, stomach ache, common cold, insomnia, sedative, mental disorder, sore throat, anti-inflammatory | Decoction or infusion is prepared from flowers and stems and drunk. The flower, branch and stem are boiled and a vapor bath is made for sinusitis or common cold | Anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, carminative, healing, sedative, spasmolytic activity, stomach ache, irritable bowel syndrome, insomnia, bactericidal, relaxant activities, acaricidal properties, cholesterol, wound healing, diabetes, colds and flu, hair wash, common cold, cough, expectorant, flu, sedative, sore throat [65,98,99] | |
| Fiori (KÜH 21116) | |||||||||||
| Asteraceae | Pilosella leucopsilon subsp. pilisquama (Nägeli & Peter) Gottschl. (KÜH 21117) | Ot kesme otu | Aerial parts | 1 | 1 | 0.019 | 0.019 | Wound healing | The aerial parts of the plant are burned, the ash is turned into mush and applied to the wound | No record | |
| Asteraceae | Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertn. | Deve dikeni | Seed | 1 | 1 | 0.019 | 0.019 | Liver disorder | The seeds are pounded in a mortar and then consumed by infusion | Liver disorders, jaundice, cholesterol, bladder, prostate, heart diseases, nervous system [100] | |
| (KÜH 21118) | |||||||||||
| Asteraceae | Taraxacum serotinum (Waldst. & Kit.) Fisch. | Karahindiba, Aslandişi otu | Leaf, flower | 2 | 2 | 0.038 | 0.038 | Liver disorder, intestinal disorders | The infusion is prepared from leaves and drunk. Decoction is prepared from leaves and flowers and drunk for intestinal disorder | Cardiotonic, appetizer, digestant [101] | |
| (KÜH 21119) | |||||||||||
| Asteraceae | Tussilago farfara L. | Öksürük otu | Flower, stem | 1 | 1 | 0.019 | 0.019 | Common cold | Decoction is prepared from flowers and stems and drunk | Cough, expectorant, dyspnea, asthma, flu, common cold, bronchitis, sedative [5,40,50,53,65,73,102–104] | |
| (KÜH 21120) | |||||||||||
| Boraginaceae | Alkanna orientalis (L.) Boiss. | Havacivaotu | Root | 1 | 1 | 0.019 | 0.019 | Intestinal disorder | Decoction is prepared from roots and drunk | Wound healing, ambustion, scar, festering sore, asthma, bronchitis, stomach ache, ophthalmia [105,106] | |
| (KÜH 21121) | |||||||||||
| Boraginaceae | Symphytum officinale L. | Karakafesotu | Leaf | 1 | 1 | 0.019 | 0.019 | Bone fracture | The infusion is prepared from dried leaved and drunk | Painkiller, wound healing [107] | |
| (KÜH 21122) | |||||||||||
| Boraginaceae | Trachystemon orientalis (L.) D.Don | Ispıt | Leaf, flower, petiole | 1 | 3 | 0.019 | 0.058 | Diaphoretic, diuretic, cough | Leaf, flower, and petiole are cooked and consumed | Abscess, tonsillitis, insomnia, dysmenorrhea, diaphoretic, antipyretic, diuretic, dyspepsia, intestinal diseases, anti-inflammation, constipation, expectorant, anti-depressive, breast cancer, carminative, stomach ache, wounds, rheumatism, lengthen the life [5,34–36,41,42,45,54,68,108] | |
| (KÜH 21123) | |||||||||||
| Brassicaceae | Brassica oleracea L. | Karalahana | Leaf | 2 | 2 | 0.038 | 0.038 | Analgesic, headache | The heated or fresh leaf is wrapped around the aching place or forehead | Dyspepsia, expectorant, rheumatism, heartburn, earache, wounds, varicose, sore throat, boil, abscess, hordeolum, cough, fever, pneumonia, headache, hoarseness, stomach ache, ulcer, tearing, watery eyes, bone pain, sooth pain, hair loss, analgesic, anemia, sedative, tonic, kidney stones, inappetence, asthma, gout, hypnotic, anthelmintics [5,35,36,42,44,45,54,61,62,68,73,76–78,109] | |
| (KÜH 21124) | |||||||||||
| Brassicaceae | Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik. | Çoban çantası | Aerial parts | 2 | 5 | 0.038 | 0.096 | Kidney sand, kidney stone, hemostatic | The infusion is prepared from the aerial parts and drunk. Aerial parts are used to buffer the nose | Internal bleeding, wounds, impotence, hemostatic, diuretic, antipyretic, edema, nephritis, dysuria, chyluria, hemafecia, menorrhagia, hypertension [65,110] | |
| (KÜH 21125) | |||||||||||
| Brassicaceae | Raphanus raphanistrum L. subsp. sativus (L.) Domin | Turp | Root | 3 | 3 | 0.058 | 0.058 | Ulcer, cough | The radish is crushed to extract the juice with honey and drunk. The radish is grated, mixed with black cumin, and wrapped around the aching area | Orexigenic, diuretic, depilatory, weaken hairs, stimulant, inappetence, diuretic, antiseptic, expectorant [5,50,51,111] | |
| (KÜH 21126) | |||||||||||
| Cannabaceae | Humulus lupulus L. | Şerbetçi otu | Leaf | 1 | 3 | 0.019 | 0.058 | Roborant, insomnia, inappetence | The infusion is prepared from leaves and drunk | spasms, anxiety, fever, inflammation, gastric, sleeplessness, nervousness, headache, appetite, digestion, toothache, earache, neuralgia, diuretic, antispasmodic, anaphrodisiac, sedative, rheumatism, analgesic, pneumonia, intestinal pain, dyspepsia [112,113] | |
| (KÜH 21127) | |||||||||||
| Caryophyllaceae | Stellaria media (L.) Vill. | Kuşotu, Kedicırnığı | Aerial parts | 1 | 2 | 0.019 | 0.038 | Antipyretic, roborant | Decoction is prepared from aerial parts and drunk | Rheumatism, broken bones, anti-inflammatory, renal, astringent, headache, swelling, refrigerant, demulcent, emollient, vulnerary, antipruritic, diarrhea, itching, gastrointestinal disorders, asthma, measles, jaundice, digestive, reproductive and respiratory tracts inflammations, [36,114,115] | |
| (KÜH 21128) | |||||||||||
| Cornaceae | Cornus mas L. | Kiren, Kızılcık | Fruit | 2 | 3 | 0.038 | 0.058 | Diabetes, stomach ache, cancer, aphtha | The fruits are consumed as marmalade or compost | Abdominal pain, diarrhea, diabetes, common cold, bronchitis, sunstroke, insomnia, constipation, wound healing, flu, urinary inflammations, cough, cardiac diseases, hyperglycemia, nephritis, anti-fungal, antipyretic, incurable diseases, sooths pain, eases child birth, headache, toothache [5,33,35,36,43,45–47,50,54,58,62,63,65,66,74,109,116,117] | |
| (KÜH 21129) | |||||||||||
| Equisetaceae | Equisetum hyemale L. | At kuyruğu, Katır kuyruğu, Kırkkilit otu | Aerial parts, leaves | 5 | 8 | 0.096 | 0.154 | Bone fracture, kidney disorder, kidney stone, kidney sand, diuretic, urinary tract infection | The infusion is prepared from the aerial parts and drunk. Leaves are made to paste and used externally. The infusion is prepared from dried leaves and drunk | Hypertension, inflammation, acute stroke, bleeding, cancer [118] | |
| (KÜH 21130) | |||||||||||
| Ericaceae | Erica arborea L. | Funda | Leaf | 1 | 3 | 0.019 | 0.058 | Urinary tract infection, anti-inflammatory, kidney sand | The infusion is prepared from dried leaves and drunk | Bedwetting, urinary, urolithiasis, inflammations, hypertension, prostate, blood heating, diuretic, antiseptic, laxative [5,119] | |
| (KÜH 21131) | |||||||||||
| Ericaceae | Vaccinium arctostaphylos L. | Kara çilek, Ayı üzümü | Fruit | 1 | 3 | 0.019 | 0.058 | Cholesterol, heart health, anti-inflammatory | Fruits are consumed as fresh | Constipation, kidney diseases, gastro-intestinal inflammations, memory, anemia, cold, diabetes, inflammation, stomach ache [5,33,35,40,78,104] | |
| (KÜH 21132) | |||||||||||
| Euphorbiaceae | Euphorbia falcata L. | Sütleğen | Latex | 2 | 2 | 0.038 | 0.038 | Wart | The latex is dripped onto the wart | Hypertension, warts, skin diseases [120] | |
| (KÜH 21133) | |||||||||||
| Fabaceae | Astragalus nitens Boiss. & Heldr. | Geven | Root | 1 | 1 | 0.019 | 0.019 | Earache | The oil obtained from the root is dripped into the ear | No record | |
| (KÜH 21134) | |||||||||||
| Fabaceae | Melilotus officinalis (L.) Desr. | Sarıyonca | Flower, leaf | 2 | 2 | 0.038 | 0.038 | Dyspepsia, rheumatism | Decoction is prepared from leaves and flowers and drunk | Emollient, arthritis, rheumatism demulcent, aphrodisiac, tonic, carminative, painkiller, aches, leukoderma, bronchitis, brachialgia, hemorrhoids, [121,122] | |
| (KÜH 21135) | |||||||||||
| Fagaceae | Quercus infectoria Oliv. subsp. veneris (A.Kern.) Meikle | Meşe | Leaf, fruit | 2 | 3 | 0.038 | 0.058 | Intestinal disorders, diarrhea, anti-inflammatory | Infusion is prepared from leaves and drunk. The fruits are dried, ground, and consumed as coffee. The leaves and fruit are boiled and applied directly to the infected area | Alopecia, ulcer, diarrhea, gingivitis, hemorrhage hematuria, menorrhagia, pharyngitis, ringworm, wound healing, postpartum practices, skin disease [123,124] | |
| (KÜH 21136) | |||||||||||
| Hypericaceae | Hypericum perforatum L. | Sarı kantaron | Flower, leaf | 4 | 11 | 0.077 | 0.212 | Intestinal worm, diuretic, sedative, inappetence, mental disorder, wound healing, diarrhea, rheumatism, blood purifier | Decoction or infusion is prepared from leaves and flowers and drunk. The flowers are crushed, boiled, and the juice is drunk | Anemia, cough, antiseptic, sedative, urogenital, anthelmintic, stomach ache, neoplastic disease, diabetes, dyspepsia, cancer, wound healing, burns, hypertension, sedative, hemorrhoids, chest emollient, diuretic, antipyretic, ulcer, abrasion, anti-inflammatory, hemostatic, bronchitis, constipation, depurative, diarrhea, enterocolitis, gastric-ulcer, genitourinary disorders, jaundice, neurosis, urinary tract infection, influenza, arthritis, abdominal pain, enteritis, expelling worms, stomach diseases, hypertensive, arteriosclerosis, asthma, bronchitis, chest diseases, common cold, pharyngitis, dyspnea, tuberculosis, cancer, eczema, herpes labialis, cardiac diseases, skin diseases, earache, facial paralysis, insomnia, internal hemorrhage, osteoporosis, rheumatism, toothache, anti-fungal, inappetence, diaphoretic, sedative, prostates, gynecological diseases, neurological diseases, vasodilator, dysmenorrhea, herpes zoster, migraine [5,33–35,39,43,44,46,47,50,51,57–59,61,65,68,74–76,81,83,85,86,102,116,117,125,126] | |
| (KÜH 21137) | |||||||||||
| Iridaceae | Crocus ancyrensis (Herb.) Maw | Çiğdem | Whole plant | 1 | 1 | 0.019 | 0.019 | Earache | The whole plant is boiled and dripped into the ear | Abdominal pain, diuretic [127] | |
| (KÜH 21138) | |||||||||||
| Juglandaceae | Juglans regia L. | Ceviz | Leaf | 1 | 1 | 0.019 | 0.019 | Analgesic | Leaves of Urtica dioica, Elymus repens, Juglans regia, Salix × fragilis, and Sambucus ebulus are boiled and the aching place is immersed in water | Diabetes, eczema, antiseptic, inappetence, goiter, cholesterol, hyperglycemia, abscess, sore throat, cancer, joint pain, kidney stone, wounds, intestinal worm, analgesic, acne, asthma, rheumatism, leg pain, hemorrhoids, bee bite, eczema, edema, cardiac disorders, vasodilator, dyspepsia, hair care, headache, vaginitis, kidney diseases, osteoporosis, respiratory tract problem, skin diseases, sunstroke, anti-fungal, hemostatic, hypoglycemic, tonic, psoriasis, cough, mnemonic, wounds, burns, myalgia and neurogenic pain, body skin conditioner, anthelmintics, itching, toothache, smoking cessation [5,34–36,38,39,42,44,47,51,54,57–59,61–63,65,66,73,76,78,81–83,86,92,117,128–130] | |
| (KÜH 21139) | |||||||||||
| Lamiaceae | Lamium maculatum L. | Ballıbaba | Flower, leaf | 2 | 3 | 0.038 | 0.058 | Hemorrhoid, mumps | Infusion is prepared from flowers and leaves and drunk | Trauma, fracture, hypertension [131] | |
| (KÜH 21140) | |||||||||||
| Lamiaceae | Lavandula stoechas L. | Karabaş otu | Flower | 1 | 1 | 0.019 | 0.019 | Heart health | It is drunk using the method of infusion with Melissa officinalis and Crataegus orientalis | Obesity, cholesterol, diabetes, hypertension, atherosclerosis, heart disease, hyperglycemia [132] | |
| (KÜH 21141) | |||||||||||
| Lamiaceae | Marrubium vulgare L. | Bertikotu | Aerial parts | 1 | 1 | 0.019 | 0.019 | Joint pain | Aerial parts are boiled with milk, applied to the aching place | Gallstone, hair loss, headache, measles, stomach ache, urinary tract infection, liver problems, flu, antiseptic, cholagogue, antispasmodic, stimulant, cough, hoarseness, bronchitis [133,134,135] | |
| (KÜH 21142) | |||||||||||
| Lamiaceae | Melissa officinalis L. | Melisa | Leaf, petiole, branch, flower | 4 | 7 | 0.077 | 0.135 | Heart health, hypertension, insomnia, mental disorder | Decoction or infusion is prepared from dried leaves and drunk | Promotes sleep, gastrointestinal disorders, hysteria, melancholia, migraine, toothache, earache, headache, cholesterol, rheumatism, nerve pains, stiff neck, neuralgia, heart problems, bronchitis, digestive, diarrhea, hemostasis, tracheobronchitis, otitis, arthritis, pharyngitis, migraine, insomnia, gynecological diseases, gout, dizziness, anemia, sedative, galactagogue, bruises, burns, furunculosis, parodontids [35,136,137] | |
| (KÜH 21143) | |||||||||||
| Lamiaceae | Mentha longifolia (L.) L. subsp. typhoides (Briq.) Harley | Yarpuz | Leaf, stem, flower | 3 | 5 | 0.058 | 0.096 | Nausea, abdominal pain | Decoction is prepared from leaves, stems, and flowers and drunk | Abdominal pain, carminative, diarrhea, hemorrhoids, digestive disorders, intestinal diseases, stomach disorders, cough, common cold, flu, tonsillitis, halitosis, headache, lumbago, sunstroke, skin diseases, rheumatism, dyspnea, menstrual disorders, infertility [38,42,43,47,54,59,63,66,67,68,82,117] | |
| (KÜH 21144) | |||||||||||
| Lamiaceae | Mentha spicata L. | Nane | Leaf, petiole | 2 | 3 | 0.038 | 0.058 | Common cold, headache, sinusitis | The decoction is prepared from leaves and drunk with lemon. Leaves and petioles are boiled, and then a vapor bath is made | Hemorrhoids, nerves, tincture, common cold, nausea, respiratory disease, stomach ache, abdominal pain, cough, flu, dyspnea, gastrointestinal diseases, cardio tonic, vasodilator, eczema, gastric ulcer, reflux, stimulates lactation of nursing mothers, digestive disorders, vomiting, carminative, diuretic, diaphoretic, increases bile production, anti-infective, diarrhea, nasal bleeding, nervous headaches, migraine, intestinal disorder, hiccups [35,42,53,54,57,74,76,78,82,93,104,109,138–140] | |
| (KÜH 21145) | |||||||||||
| Lamiaceae | Ocimum basilicum L. | Fesleğen | Leaf, stem, flower | 3 | 3 | 0.058 | 0.058 | Dyspepsia, dizziness | The infusion is prepared from leaves, stems, and flowers and drunk | Diabetics, cardiovascular disorders, pimples, headache, cough, kidney malfunction, insect sting, snake bite, skin infection, ache, pain, sedative, purgative, antidepressant, vulnerary, rheumatism, diarrhea, orexigenic, digestive, carminative, anti-inflammatory [35,141,142] | |
| (KÜH 21140) | |||||||||||
| Lamiaceae | Salvia tomentosa Mill. | Adaçayı | Leaf, flower | 3 | 5 | 0.058 | 0.096 | Asthma, common colds | Decoction is prepared from leaves and flowers and drunk | Pharyngitis, respiratory tract diseases, flu, bronchitis, diarrhea, asthma, rheumatism, tonsillitis, throat ache, toothache, gastrointestinal diseases, neurotic, abdominal pain [57,68,85,143,144] | |
| (KÜH 21146) | |||||||||||
| Lamiaceae | Teucrium chamaedrys L. | Mayasırotu | Leaf | 1 | 1 | 0.019 | 0.019 | Hemorrhoid | Decoction is prepared from leaves and drunk | Malaria, spasmodic, appetizing, diabetes, hemorrhoid, gastric pain, heart diseases, intestinal colic, kidney diseases, chapped, fissure [145] | |
| (KÜH 21147) | |||||||||||
| Lamiaceae | Thymus longicaulis C.Presl | Dağ kekiği | Aerial parts | 3 | 6 | 0.058 | 0.115 | Influenza, common cold | The infusion is prepared from the aerial parts and drunk | Antiseptic, expectorant, spasmolytic, enteralgia, stomach ache, diabetes [146,147] | |
| (KÜH 21148) | |||||||||||
| Lamiaceae | Thymus sipyleus Boiss. | Yumuşak kekik | Leaf, branch, flower, aerial parts | 4 | 8 | 0.077 | 0.154 | Anemia, cholesterol, diabetes, hypertension, influenza, insomnia, bronchitis, common colds | Decoction or infusion is prepared from leaves, branches, flowers, or aerial parts and drunk | Abdominal pain, diabetes, expectorant, breath problems, sunstroke, laxative, pulmonary diseases, common colds, ulcer, stomach ache, hypotension, emollient, toothache [141,148–150] | |
| (KÜH 21149) | |||||||||||
| Lauraceae | Laurus nobilis L. | Defne | Leaf | 2 | 2 | 0.038 | 0.038 | Rheumatism, anti-inflammatory | Decoction is prepared from leaves and drunk | Analgesic, anthelmintic, antipyretic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, antistress, cough, bee sting, cardiovascular, common cold, chokes, diabetes, diaphoretic, diarrhea, diuretic, dyspepsia, dyspnea, eczema, enteritis, emmenagogue, expectorant, flatulence, hair care, headache, hemorrhoid, inappetence, intestinal diseases, itching, kidney diseases, prostatitis, respiratory disease, rheumatism, scorpion bite, sedative, skin diseases, snake bite, stomach ache, stomach disorders, sweaty, tonic, ulcer, wound, weakness [5,38,39,43,45,46,51,52,65,83,92,108,130,144,148,151] | |
| (KÜH 21150) | |||||||||||
| Malvaceae | Althaea officinalis L. | Hatmi çiçeği | Flower | 2 | 3 | 0.038 | 0.058 | Expectorant, common cold, toothache | Decoction is prepared from flowers and drunk | Diuretic, expectorant, ulcer, antilithic, emollient, demulcent, wound, bronchitis [52,61,141] | |
| (KÜH 21151) | |||||||||||
| Malvaceae | Malva sylvestris L. | Ebegömeci, Kaba otu | Leaf, stem | 4 | 5 | 0.077 | 0.096 | Cough, sore throat, stomach ache, bronchitis, dyspnea | Decoction or infusion is prepared from leaves and drunk | Gargle, sore throat, skin disorders, wound, maturation, dyspepsia, internal injury, abscess, abortive, common colds, flu, cough, stomach diseases, cancer, diuretic, stomach ache, rheumatism, infertility, carminative, mouth, kidney, gut and throat inflammations, abdominal pain [33,35,41,50,51,53,73, 77,81,82,102,109] | |
| (KÜH 21152) | |||||||||||
| Malvaceae | Tilia rubra DC. subsp. caucasica (Rupr.) V.Engl. | Ihlamur | Flower, bract, seed | 12 | 21 | 0.231 | 0.404 | Abdominal pain, common cold, cough, influenza, bronchitis | Decoction or infusion is prepared from flowers, bracts, and seeds and drunk | Diuretic, diaphoretic, cough, asthma, stomach diseases, tonsillitis, gastric diseases, common cold, tachycardia, liver disease, sedative, flu, dyspepsia, sore throat [5,34,35,42,45,59,65,74,81,84,85,86] | |
| (KÜH 21153) | |||||||||||
| Moraceae | Morus nigra L. | Kara dut | Leaf, fruit | 2 | 2 | 0.038 | 0.038 | Diabetes, anemia | Decoction or infusion is prepared from dried leaves and drunk. The molasses of the fruit is consumed | Worm, hematinic, anti-inflammatory, cancer, expectorant, stomach disorder, cholesterol, blood forming, gargle, oral wound, diabetes, odor, gingival disease [5,50,51,65,68,85] | |
| (KÜH 21154) | |||||||||||
| Nitrariaceae | Peganum harmala L. | Üzerlik otu | Leaf, stem, flower | 1 | 3 | 0.019 | 0.058 | Stomach ache, expectorant, joint pain | The infusion is prepared from leaves, stems, and flowers and drunk | Snake repellent, cardiac pains, muscle spasm, food poisoning, rabies, vermicide, rheumatic, hair-fall, aphrodisiac, headache, nervous seizure, blood purification, hepatitis, antibacterial, eczema, pruritus, gangrene, tranquilizing, sterility, epilepsy, varicose veins, allergic influenza, hay fever, joint and rheumatic pains, hemorrhage, sexual potency enhancer elephantiasis and urinal incontinence/bed wetting [152,153,154] | |
| (KÜH 21155) | |||||||||||
| Oleaceae | Olea europaea L. | Zeytin | Leaf | 1 | 2 | 0.019 | 0.038 | Lose weight, edema | Infusion is prepared from leaves and drunk | Diabetes, cholesterol, bronchitis, toothache, defuse, diuretic, inappetence, constipation, antipyretic, wound healing, burns, bruises, sprains, broken and dislocated bones, abscess, alopecia, oral wounds, nail/slivers, scorpion bite, cardio tonic, tachycardia, vasodilator, carminative, cancer, hemorrhoids, common cold, cough, diabetes, earache, eye diseases, foot swelling, hypertension, nodule, rheumatism, hemostatic, febrifuge, memory improvement, hyperuricemia, sore throat [5,35,38,39,42,45,47,51,54,57,61,62,67,73,74,86,117] | |
| (KÜH 21156) | |||||||||||
| Onagraceae | Epilobium angustifolium L. | Yakı otu | Leaf | 2 | 3 | 0.038 | 0.058 | The prostate, urinary tract infection | Infusion is prepared from leaves and drunk | Ulcers, swelling, gastritis, colitis, dysentery, diarrhea, prostate, urinary problems, voiding disorders, mouth wounds, skin disorders, burns, skin irritation, swelling and boils of the skin, blood purifier, antiseptic, migraine headaches, insomnia, anemia, delirium, infections, cold [155,156] | |
| (KÜH 21157) | |||||||||||
| Orobanchaceae | Euphrasia pectinata Ten. | Gözotu | Seed | 1 | 1 | 0.019 | 0.019 | Eye diseases | The seed is boiled and a vapor bath is applied to the eye | Wound healing [5] | |
| (KÜH 21158) | |||||||||||
| Papaveraceae | Chelidonium majus L. | Temre otu | Leaf, stem | 1 | 1 | 0.019 | 0.019 | Antiseptic | Leaves and stems are crushed, then applied directly | Abscess, analgesic, bronchitis, burns, diuretic, fistulae, herpes, foot corns, laxative, cholagogue, sedative, stomach ache, stomach diseases, stimulant, eczema, skin diseases, acne, warts, jaundice, pains, wound healing, gall bladder, liver, fungal infection, moles, eye diseases, alopecia areata, sores, calluses, callosities [5,33,34,37,40,41,54,56,68,77,86,104,139,157] | |
| (KÜH 21159) | |||||||||||
| Papaveraceae | Fumaria officinalis L. | Şahtere otu, Tilki kişnişi | Leaf, flower, stem | 1 | 3 | 0.019 | 0.058 | Blood purifier, diaphoretic, diuretic | Decoction is prepared from leaves, flowers, and stems and drunk | Rheumatism, skin disorders, hypertension, asthma, blood purifier, itching, scabies treatment, liver ailments, constipation, cystitis, arteriosclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, hypoglycemia, infections [158] | |
| (KÜH 21160) | |||||||||||
| Papaveraceae | Papaver rhoeas L. | Gelincik | Flower | 2 | 2 | 0.038 | 0.038 | Whooping cough | Decoction is prepared from flowers and drunk | Cough, insomnia, sedative, painkiller [159] | |
| (KÜH 21161) | |||||||||||
| Pinaceae | Pinus nigra J.F.Arnold subsp. pallasiana (Lamb.) Holmboe | Karasakız | Resin, bark, cone | 4 | 11 | 0.077 | 0.212 | Stomach disorder, bronchitis, common cold, kidney disorder, sprains, lung disease, asthma | Resin is consumed fresh. Decoction is prepared from bark and drunk. The heated resin is applied directly to the bone fracture or sprains. Cones are used in jam making and are consumed | Asthma, wound, bronchitis, common cold, cough [160] | |
| (KÜH 21162) | |||||||||||
| Pinaceae | Pinus sylvestris L. var. hamata Steven | Çam | Cone, resin | 6 | 10 | 0.115 | 0.192 | Common cold, influenza, asthma, anti-inflammatory, wound healing | Cones are used in jam making and are consumed. Decoction is prepared from cones and drunk. The resin is heated and applied directly to the infected area. The resin is cooked with butter, turned into a paste with starch, and applied to the relevant wound or infected area | Abscess, anthelmintic, anti-fungal, antiseptic, cough, asthma, bronchitis, burns, calmative, cancer, common cold, colophony, diabetes, diaphoretic, diarrhea, diuretic, dyspnea, eczema, emollient, expectorant, immune system booster, internal diseases, kidney disorders, lung infections, panacea, podagra, rheumatism, scabs, sinusitis, skin diseases, snake bites, stops bleeding, stomach ache, tonic, tuberculosis, ulcer, vulnerary, whooping cough, wound healing, backache, bone fracture, dysmenorrhea, tetanus, neurotic [5,32,35–37,40,45,50,51,68,73,86,104,157] | |
| (KÜH 21163) | |||||||||||
| Plantaginaceae | Plantago lanceolata L. | Sinir otu | Leaf | 3 | 7 | 0.058 | 0.135 | Lung disease, dyspepsia, diarrhea, stomach disorder, wound healing | Infusion is prepared from leaves and drunk. Leaves are applied directly to the wounds | Hemostatic, burns, sinusitis, ulcer, gynecological diseases, stomach disorder, ulcer, wound healing, antiseptic, acne, mouth sores odor, inappetence, dyspepsia, embolism, abscess, bee bites, eczema, wart, asthma, bronchitis, cough, tuberculosis, atherosclerosis, diarrhea, hemorrhoids, urinary tract inflammation, antipyretic, sedative, dyspnea, diabetes, stomach ache, intestinal disorder, sedative, osteoarthritis, constipation, urinary tract infection, goiter, heart ailments [5,33,34,39,42,43,44,46,47,51,54,59,61,63,65,66,73,78,82,86,117,128] | |
| (KÜH 21164) | |||||||||||
| Plantaginaceae | Plantago major L. | Siğilotu, Eyvadana otu, Sivilce otu | Leaf | 8 | 11 | 0.154 | 0.212 | Wart, anti-inflammatory, wound healing, low back pain, abdominal pain, analgesic, abscess | Leaves are made to apply directly on the wart, abscess, inflamed area, or wound | Anti-inflammatory, erysipelas, rash, urticaria, toothache, asthma, dyspnea, diabetes, diarrhea, hemorrhoids, embolism, edema, goiter, kidney stone, vaginitis, analgesic, influenza, warts, knee pain, vulnerary, abscess, wound healing, antiseptic, acne, rheumatism, stomach ache, cough, sedative, osteoarthritis, urinary tract disorder, goiter, heart ailments, sinusitis, stomach disorder, psoriasis, hair loss, infarction, cholesterol, eczema, cancer, coronary diseases, bleeding, digestive disorder, gastritis, gastro-intestinal disorders, expectorant, jaundice, bronchitis, diuretic vasodilator, pricks, felons, cardiovascular diseases, panacea, kidney cancer, constipation [5,32,33–35,36,38,39,44,46,47,51,53,54,56,58,59,62,63,65,66,67,77,78,81,85,86,92,104,105] | |
| (KÜH 21165) | |||||||||||
| Platanaceae | Platanus orientalis L. | Çınar | Leaf | 2 | 2 | 0.038 | 0.038 | Bronchitis, rheumatism | Decoction is prepared from leaves and drunk | Constipation, antipyretic, arthrolith, edema, kidney disorders, kidney stones, dyspnea, diarrhea, wound healing, tonic, toothache, diuretic, mouthwash, diabetes, rheumatism, osteoarthritis, backache, joint pain, severe eye inflammation, dysentery, peeling skin, snakebite, urinary tract disorder [5,36,46,54,55,67,73,86,92,143,148,161,162] | |
| (KÜH 21166) | |||||||||||
| Poaceae | Avena sativa L. | Yulaf | Leaf | 1 | 2 | 0.019 | 0.038 | Diuretic, stomach disorder | Infusion is prepared from leaves and drunk | Nervous exhaustion, insomnia, weakness of the nerves, antispasmodic, antitumor, cyanogenetic, demulcent, diuretic, neurotronic, stimulant, tonic, vulnerary [163] | |
| (KÜH 21167) | |||||||||||
| Poaceae | Elymus repens (L.) Gould | Ayrık otu | Root, leaf | 8 | 14 | 0.154 | 0.269 | Kidney sand, kidney stone, edema, kidney disorder, urinary tract infection, osteoarthritis, analgesic | Decoction or infusion is prepared from fresh leaves and drunk. Infusion is prepared from roots and drunk. Leaves of Urtica dioica, Elymus repens, Juglans regia, Salix × fragilis, and Sambucus ebulus are boiled and the aching place is immersed in water | Diuretic, calming, pain in urinary tract disorders, demulcent, tonic, cystitis, urethritis, prostate [164] | |
| (KÜH 21168) | |||||||||||
| Poaceae | Zea mays L. | Mısır | Style | 1 | 1 | 0.019 | 0.019 | Urinary tract infection | Decoction is prepared from styles and drunk | Hemorrhoids, urinary system, kidney stones, burns, prostate cancer, pyelonephritis, diabetes, diarrhea, diuretic, gonorrhea, aphrodisiac, hypertension, ringworm, prostate, whitlow, rheumatism, abdominal pain, intestinal worms, stomach ache, cough, sore throat, dysmenorrhea, dysuria, edema, urinary tract inflammation, goiter [32,33,35,37,39,42,45,47,54,59,61,62,63,65,66,77,78,83,86,91,92,108,139] | |
| (KÜH 21169) | |||||||||||
| Polygonaceae | Rumex acetosella L. | Kuzukulağı | Root | 1 | 1 | 0.019 | 0.019 | Diuretic | Decoction is prepared from roots and drunk | Anti-inflammatory, cholagogue, diuretic, diabetes, cholesterol, abscess, hypertension, stomachic, digestive disorders, tooth inflammation, abdominal pain, sinusitis, eczema, cardiovascular diseases, constipation, gastrointestinal disorders, melancholia, palpitations, infectious disease, gastric acidity, metabolic disorders, diseases of the adrenal glands, skin diseases, neck tumors, women’s diseases, diarrhea, dysentery, hemorrhoids, hemostatic, liver diseases, acne [5,33,34,35,65,73,81,157,165,166] | |
| (KÜH 21170) | |||||||||||
| Polygonaceae | Rumex crispus L. | Develik, Labada | Seed, root | 2 | 4 | 0.038 | 0.077 | Diarrhea, itch, urinary bladder | Decoction is prepared from seeds and drunk. Decoction is prepared from roots and drunk for itching | Constipation, diarrhea, eczema laxative, diuretic, antipyretic, wound cure, anti-inflammatory [5] | |
| (KÜH 21171) | |||||||||||
| Rosaceae | Agrimonia eupatoria L. subsp. asiatica (Juz.) Skalicky | Burçotu | Leaf, stem | 3 | 4 | 0.058 | 0.077 | Sprains, liver disorder, rheumatism, dyspepsia | Leaves are applied directly to the wounds. Decoction is prepared from leaves and stems and drunk | Emollient, expectorant, varicose veins, phlebitis, liver disorder, diuretic, tuberculosis, astringent [49] | |
| (KÜH 21172) | |||||||||||
| Rosaceae | Alchemilla mollis (Buser) Rothm. | Aslan pençesi | Leaf, flower | 8 | 10 | 0.154 | 0.192 | Menopause, menstrual irregularity, migraine | Decoction or infusion is prepared from leaves and flowers and drunk. Decoction is prepared from leaves and drunk for migraine | Menopausal discomfort, gynecological disorders, dysmenorrhea, menorrhagia, menstrual pain, wounds, skin disorders [167] | |
| (KÜH 21173) | |||||||||||
| Rosaceae | Crataegus orientalis Pall. ex M.Bieb. | Alıç, Yemişen | Leaf, fruit, flower | 5 | 8 | 0.096 | 0.154 | Heart health, vessel stiffness, hypertension, eye diseases | Decoction is prepared from leaves and drunk. Fruits are consumed as fresh or marmalade. It is drunk using the method of infusion with Melissa officinalis and Lavandula stoechas | Hypertension, throat inflammation, diabetes, blood pressure, nerves, kidney sands, insomnia, itching, asthma, bronchitis, intestinal problems, vascular occlusion, kidney stones, shortness of breath, heart diseases, urinary tract disorder, stomach disorders, cough [76,168] | |
| (KÜH 21174) | |||||||||||
| Rosaceae | Cydonia oblonga Mill. | Ayva | Leaf, fruit, seed | 4 | 6 | 0.077 | 0.115 | Common cold, cough, acne, tonsillitis | Decoction is prepared from leaves and drunk. The seeds are kept in water for one night, and then they are pounded and when turned into mush, they are applied to the acne. The fruit is cut in half, cooked on embers and wrapped in the throat | Galactagogue, edema, heart, diarrhea, expectorant, common cold, cough, dyspepsia, breast feeding nipple wound, psoriasis, cancer, cardiac diseases, sore throat, respiratory tract problem, cystitis, dysuria, kidney stone, urinary disorders, sterility, gastrointestinal diseases, stomach ache, diuretic, earache, headache, hypoglycemic, antihypertensive, appetizer, tranquilizer, nausea, heartburn, pyrosis, sedative, dysmenorrhea, hemorrhoids, dyspnea [33,35,36,38,39,45–47,54,57–59,61,62,67,68,74,76,85,93,102,116,117,128,151,169] | |
| (KÜH 21175) | |||||||||||
| Rosaceae | Fragaria vesca L. | Çilek | Leaf | 2 | 2 | 0.038 | 0.038 | Hypertension | Decoction is prepared from leaves and drunk | Tonic, diabetes, constipation, inappetence, diuretic, headache, blood pressure, kidney disorder, heart disorder, diarrhea, fever, skin diseases, laxative, digestive disorders, hemorrhoids, common cold [5,34,35,55,68,102,170,171] | |
| (KÜH 21176) | |||||||||||
| Rosaceae | Mespilus germanica L. | Döngel | Leaf | 1 | 2 | 0.019 | 0.038 | Urinary tract infection, kidney disorder | Fir cones, barley and Mespilus leaves are boiled and drunk | Kidney disorder, diarrhea, gastric, abdominal pain, anthelmintic, hemorrhoids, asthma, bronchitis, common colds, cough, flu, tuberculosis, diabetes, eczema, hypertension, diuretic, kidney stone, bladder stone, hemostatic, stomach and intestinal disorders, urinary sand, sedative, gastroenterology diseases, dysentery, angina, laryngitis, toothache, varicose veins, scabies, inflamed digestive tracts, dyspepsia, stomach ache, dysmenorrhea, urolithiasis [36,39,45,47,54,68,77,81,89,116,157,161] | |
| (KÜH 21177) | |||||||||||
| Rosaceae | Potentilla recta L. | Beşparmak otu | Leaf | 1 | 1 | 0.019 | 0.019 | Toothache | Infusion is prepared from leaves and drunk | Dental and oral healthcare, skin diseases, gastrointestinal disorders, neurological disorders, respiratory disorders [172] | |
| (KÜH 21178) | |||||||||||
| Rosaceae | Prunus avium (L.) L. | Kiraz | Pedicel | 2 | 3 | 0.038 | 0.058 | Lose weight, urinary tract infection | Decoction or infusion is prepared from pedicels with corn styles and drunk | Intestinal disorders, urinary tract disorder, diarrhea, diuretic, abdominal pain, carminative, dysuria, kidney stone, bronchitis, constipation, renal diseases, edema, common cold, anti-inflammatory, immune system booster, anti-coagulant, cough, hemorrhoids, whooping cough, stomach disorder, dyspepsia [33,36,42, 45,47,53,54,61,68,74,83,84,86,93] | |
| (KÜH 21179) | |||||||||||
| Rosaceae | Prunus divaricata Ledeb. | Erik | Fruit | 2 | 2 | 0.038 | 0.038 | Analgesic, intestinal disorder | Fruit leather, applied directly to the aching place for one night. Fruits are consumed fresh | Urinary system disorders, cardiovascular, gastrointestinal disorders, respiratory disorders [172] | |
| (KÜH 21180) | |||||||||||
| Rosaceae | Prunus mahaleb L. | Mahlep | Fruit, leaf | 1 | 1 | 0.019 | 0.019 | Diuretic | Decoction is prepared from leaves and fruits and drunk | Urinary system disorders, cardiovascular, gastrointestinal disorders, respiratory disorders [172] | |
| (KÜH 21181) | |||||||||||
| Rosaceae | Rosa canina L. | Kuşburnu | Fruit | 4 | 9 | 0.077 | 0.173 | Influenza, roborant, stomach ache, anemia, diabetes, heart health, common cold | Fruits are consumed as jam, marmalade or put in water to make decoction or infusion and drunk. | Herpes zoster, flu, hemorrhoids, common cold, diarrhea, diabetes, kidney stone, sedative, tonic, constipation, tinea pedis, prostatitis cancer, cough, hepatitis, malaria, stomach ache, dyspnea, ease inhalation, influenza, healthy living, analgesic, abdominal pain, anemia, antiemetic, antipyretic, hemostatic, atherosclerosis, bronchitis, bruises, carminative, dysuria, eye hemostatic, foot pain, gallstones, heartaches, inflamed gall bladder, inappetence, intestinal disorders, reduce thirst, gastric inflammation, mouthwash, snake bites, sore throat, stomach disorders, sudorific, abscess, burns, eczema, itching, rash, wart, wound healing, allergy, respiratory tract disorders, cancer, cystitis, intrauterine inflammation, kidney disorders, eye strain, heart diseases, hypertension, thyroid, rheumatism, aphrodisiac, urine retention, tuberculosis, vasodilator, panacea [5,33–35,38,39,42–47,49–51, 53–55,58,59,61,63,65,67,68,73, 76,85, 92,105,116,117,128,151,157,173,174] | |
| (KÜH 21182) | |||||||||||
| Rosaceae | Rubus canescens DC. | Böğürtlen | Leaf, branch | 2 | 2 | 0.038 | 0.038 | Hemostatic, kidney sand | The leaves are chewed in the mouth and applied to the bleeding area. The leaves and branches are boiled with the root of Elymus repens and drunk | Aphthae, burn, cancer, gingival bleeding, cardiac diseases, diuretic, diabetes, gonorrhea, hypertension, hemostatic, hemorrhoids, infertility, cough, anemia, tonsillitis, antiemetic, antipyretic, asthenopia, diarrhea, wounds, anti-aging, eye and mouth sore, hair care, anti-inflammatory, stomach disorder [35,45,50,65,68,83,85,102,151,175,176] | |
| (KÜH 21183) | |||||||||||
| Rosaceae | Rubus hirtus Waldst. & Kit. | Böğürtlen | Leaf, fruit, roots | 4 | 7 | 0.077 | 0.135 | Rheumatism, stomach disorder, anemia, eye diseases, kidney sand, urinary tract infection | Fruits are consumed fresh. Decoction or infusion is prepared from leaves and drunk. Decoction is prepared from roots and drunk as kidney sand | Burn, wound healing, hemostatic, tonic, anemia, dyspnea, diabetes, eczema, hemorrhoids, nephritis, prostate [34,50,68,176] | |
| (KÜH 21184) | |||||||||||
| Rubiaceae | Galium palustre L. | Yapışkan otu | Leaf | 2 | 4 | 0.038 | 0.077 | Anemia, diuretic, intestinal disorder | Decoction is prepared from leaves and drunk | No record | |
| (KÜH 21185) | |||||||||||
| Salicaceae | Salix × fragilis L. | Söğüt | Leaf | 1 | 1 | 0.019 | 0.019 | Analgesics | Leaves of Urtica dioica, Elymus repens, Juglans regia, Salix × fragilis, and Sambucus ebulus were boiled and the aching place was immersed in water | Fever [177] | |
| (KÜH 21186) | |||||||||||
| Scrophulariaceae | Verbascum thapsus L. | Sığırkuyruğu | Aerial parts, leaves | 2 | 2 | 0.038 | 0.038 | Hemorrhoid, bronchitis | Aerial parts are boiled, then vapor bath is made. Decoction is prepared from leaves and drunk | Wounds, asthma, bronchitis, ulcers, tumors, piles, analgesic, lumbago, joints, diarrhea, dysentery, skin infections, demulcent, astringent, aphrodisiac, tuberculosis, respiratory tract disorders, cough, blood purifier, influenza, burns, ear ailments, blood diseases, cuts, diuretic, infections, sores, abscess, colds, constipation, dysentery, mental relaxation, pulmonary problems, sores, styptic, anti-inflammatory, gynecological problems [178] | |
| (KÜH 21187) | |||||||||||
| Solanaecae | Hyoscyamus niger L. | Ban otu | Flower, leaf | 1 | 1 | 0.019 | 0.019 | Heart health | The infusion is prepared from leaves and flowers and drunk | Analgesic, sedative, itching, stomatitis, dyspnea, toothache, earache, expel worms from eyes, headache, antitumor, febrifuge, neuralgia, rheumatism, hysteria, migraine, sinusitis [5,50,54,57,68,73,102] | |
| (KÜH 21188) | |||||||||||
| Solanaceae | Solanum tuberosum L. | Patates | Root | 4 | 6 | 0.077 | 0.115 | Intestinal disorders, dyspepsia, cancer, headache, stomach ache | The bark of the root is grated, the juice is squeezed and half a tea glass is drunk. The potato is cut in half and applied directly to the forehead | Headache, eye disorders, burns, eczema, edema, swelling, analgesic, diarrhea, sunburn, anti-inflammatory, fever, cough, sedative, stomach ache, stomach disorders, [33,35,36,42,47,54,61,62,67,68,73,76,109] | |
| (KÜH 21189) | |||||||||||
| Urticaceae | Urtica dioica L. | Isırgan | Root, leaf, aerial parts, seed, petiole | 16 | 27 | 0.308 | 0.519 | Cancer, stomach ache, analgesic, hypertension, urinary tract infection, prostate, rheumatism, common cold, heart health, hemorrhoids, jaundice, dyspepsia, roborant, immunity, joint pain | The cleaned root is boiled for 10 min and drunk. Leaves are cut pasted and used externally on rheumatism for one night. Decoction is prepared from leaves and drunk. A meal made from leaves and seeds is consumed. Leaves of Urtica dioica, Elymus repens, Juglans regia, Salix × fragilis, and Sambucus ebulus are boiled and the aching place is immersed in water. Leaves, stems, and seeds are boiled, then applied to the aching area | Immune system booster, evil-eye, anemia, alopecia, fever, neuralgia, cicatrizing, anthrax, scabby, kidney disorder, nose bleeding, malicious wounds, ulcer, joint pain, antiseptic, sedative, hypertension, bleeding, cholesterol, cardiovascular, acne, oily seborrhea, radiculitis, liver disease, biliary tract, uterine, pneumonic, intestinal hemorrhages, dysentery, purgative, expectorant, anastatic, anticonvulsant, antipyretic, podagra, bruises and injuries, diuretic, stomach ache, cancer, dyspepsia, hypertension, jaundice, leg pain, measles, rheumatism, dandruff, anemia, diabetes, bronchitis, depurative, anti-inflammatory, hemorrhoids, skin diseases, measles, allergic diseases, low back pain, cough, eczema, respiratory disease, tonsillitis, analgesic, anthrax, antiseptic, arthritis, common colds, flu, gynecological disorders, tuberculous, gout, menstrual irregularity, dysmenorrhea, intestinal worm, hair cleaning, whooping cough, dyspnea, prostate [5,32–36,38,39,42,45,47,49–51,61–63,65,66,68,74,83,93,105,117,151] | |
| (KÜH 21190) | |||||||||||
| Zingiberaceae | Zingiber officinale Roscoe | Zencefil | Root | 1 | 1 | 0.019 | 0.019 | Migraine | Decoction is prepared from roots and drunk | Nausea, pains, vomiting, asthma, cough, constipation, palpitation, inflammation, dyspepsia, loss of appetite, indigestion [179] | |
| (KÜH 21191) |
The most used families were Rosaceae (13 taxa), Asteraceae (11), and Lamiaceae (11) (Figure 3). The most preferred folk recipes of medicinal plants were decoction (55 taxa) and infusion (40 taxa), followed by boiled (16 taxa) and direct application (11 taxa). Other uses of plants included fresh, crushing, cooked, marmalade, heating, paste, jam, grated, ground, roasted, mush, and molasses (Figure 4). In preparation and application, leaves were mostly used (45 taxa), followed by flowers (26 taxa) and roots (14 taxa) (Figure 5). The locals also used the stem, aerial parts, fruit, seed, petiole, branch, resin, cone, whole plant, bract, latex, pedicel, bark, and style parts for medicinal purposes.
The most-cited plant families.
Preparation methods of folk medicines in the region.
Plant parts used.
The highest UVs were observed for Urtica dioica L., Matricaria chamomilla L. var. recutita (L.) Fiori, and Tilia rubra DC. subsp. caucasica (Rupr.) V.Engl. (0.519, 0.404, and 0.404, respectively). The highest RFC values belonged to Urtica dioica (0.308), followed by Tilia rubra subsp. caucasica (0.231), Matricaria chamomilla var. recutita, Alchemilla mollis (Buser) Rothm., Elymus repens (L.) Gould, andPlantago major L. (all with a value of 0.154) (Table 2). Plant taxa with high UV values used to treat different disease categories also have high RFC values.
According to the International Classification of Primary Care/2nd edition (ICPC-2) ailment categories (WHO, 2022), plants were the most used for digestive disorders (37 taxa), respiratory disorders (27 taxa), and urological disorders (24 taxa). According to FIC values, male genital disorders were in the first place (FIC = 0.83), followed by respiratory disorders (FIC = 0.73), and heart health disorders (FIC = 0.53) (Table 3).
FIC values by category of ailment within the present study
| ICPC-2 categories | Ailments | Nur | Nt | FIC |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| A-General and unspecified | Analgesic (UR:9), cancer (UR:8), edema (UR:4), roborant (UR:4), antipyretic (UR:2), hemostatic (UR:2) | 29 | 17 | 0.43 |
| B-Blood, blood forming organs and immune mechanism | Anemia (UR:8), blood purifier (UR:2) | 10 | 8 | 0.22 |
| D-Digestive | Stomach ache (UR:12), dyspepsia (UR:9), liver disorder (UR:8), diarrhea (UR:6), intestinal disorder (UR:6), stomach disorder (UR:4), nausea (UR:4), abdominal pain (UR:3), toothache (UR:2), gall bladder (UR:2), mumps (UR:1), jaundice (UR:1), aphtha (UR:1), ulcer (UR:1), intestinal worm (UR:1) | 61 | 37 | 0.4 |
| F-Eye | Eye disease (UR:4) | 4 | 4 | 0 |
| H-Ear | Earache (UR:2) | 2 | 2 | 0 |
| K-Cardiovascular | Heart health (UR:14), hemorrhoids (UR:6), hypertension (UR:5), cholesterol (UR:4), hypotension (UR:1), vessel stiffness (UR:1) | 31 | 15 | 0.53 |
| L-Musculoskeletal | Rheumatism (UR:11), bone fracture (UR:6), arthralgia (UR:4), sprains (UR:1), osteoarthritis (UR:2), osteoporosis (UR:1), low back pain (UR:1) | 28 | 17 | 0.41 |
| N-Neurological | Headache (UR:6), mental disorder (UR:4), migraine (UR:2), dizziness (UR:1) | 13 | 10 | 0.25 |
| P-Psychological | Insomnia (UR:5), sedative (UR:3) | 8 | 6 | 0.29 |
| R-Respiratory | Common cold (UR:31), influenza (UR:20), cough (UR:18), bronchitis (UR:6), asthma (UR:5), sinusitis (UR:4), tonsillitis (UR:3), sore throat (UR:2), expectorant (UR:2), whooping cough (UR:2), lung disease (UR:2), dyspnea (UR:1) | 96 | 27 | 0.73 |
| S-Skin | Wound healing (UR:11), anti-inflammatory (UR:11), wart (UR:3), antiseptic (UR:2), anti-allergy (UR:1), abscess (UR:1), itching (UR:1), acne (UR:1), eczema (UR:1), scorpion sting (UR:1) | 33 | 18 | 0.47 |
| T-Endocrine/metabolic and nutritional | Diabetes (UR:6), diaphoretic (UR:3), inappetence (UR:3), lose weight (UR:3), immunity (UR:1), goiter (UR:1), galactagogue (UR:1) | 18 | 14 | 0.24 |
| U-Urological | Urinary tract infection (UR:16), diuretic (UR:11), kidney sand (UR:10), kidney disorder (UR:5), kidney stone (UR:4), urinary bladder (UR:1) | 47 | 24 | 0.5 |
| X-Female genital | Menopause (UR:4), menstrual irregularity (UR:3) | 5 | 3 | 0.5 |
| Y-Male genital | Prostate (UR:5) | 7 | 2 | 0.83 |
4 Discussion
Plants and recipes used in folk medicine in the current study were compared with ethnobotanical studies in Türkiye and around the world.
In many studies, the infusion and decoction have been the most preferred preparations for using plants for medicinal purposes [34,68,85,180,181,182]. In this study, decoction and infusion were the most preferred methods, respectively.
Rosaceae, Asteraceae, and Lamiaceae were the families that contain the most medicinal plants. Although the rankings differ, the families most commonly used in the literature were similar [33,78,82,86]. The most cited plants were Urtica dioica (27 citations), Tilia rubra subsp. caucasica (21 citations), and Matricaria chamomilla var. recutita (21 citations). Urtica dioica is a species that naturally spreads in wide areas in Türkiye and is frequently used medicinally [67,75,168]. Additionally, being an edible plant has caused it to become the most preferred plant.
It was recorded in this study that Bellis perennis L., Trachystemon orientalis D. Don, Cornus mas L., Lamium maculatum L., Pinus nigra J. F. Arnold subsp. pallasiana (Lamb.) Holmboe, Rubus canescens DC., R. hirtus Waldst. & Kit., and Galium palustre L., which were known to be used medicinally in the literature, were used to treat different diseases. Table 2 shows crosscheck of the information of medicinal plants in Kastamonu with the previously recorded literature on plant usage in Türkiye and some near countries.
It has been reported that Bellis perennis has been used to treat antipyretic, asthma, bronchitis, common cold, cough, diuretic, eye inflammations, expectorant, flu, gastric complaints, gynecological diseases, hemorrhoids, headache, insomnia, intestinal disorder, laxative, nausea, panacea, purgative, respiratory disorders, rheumatism, tonic, tonsillitis, tranquilizer, sedative, stomach disorders, stomach ache, and vomiting, in various sources [32,33,34,50,54,65,91,92,93,183] in Türkiye. It was recorded for the first time that local people used to treat sinusitis and nervousness. There are already many pharmacological studies on Bellis perennis in the literature. According to aqueous and methanol extract of B. perennis cis-chrysanthenyl acetate (0–2.2%), γ-himachalene (5.2–17.4%), germacrene D (0.2–6.4%), tetradecanal (0.1–8.6%), pentadecanal (tr-4.4%), hexahydrofarnesylacetone (0–2.2%), phytol (3.5–30.4%), nonacosane (0–3.2%), and hexadecenoic acid (14.0–87.6%) were determined as the major constituents [184]. Previous studies reported that B. perennis showed wound healing activity, anxiolytic properties, antitumor activity, antibacterial, antifungal, antioxidant, postpartum antihemorrhagic, pancreatic lipase inhibitor cytotoxic activity, and antimicrobial activity [185,186,187,188,189,190,191].
Trachystemon orientalis is both a medicinal and an edible plant. It was used medicinally for abscess, tonsillitis, insomnia, dysmenorrhea, diaphoretic, antipyretic, diuretic, dyspepsia, intestinal diseases, anti-inflammation, constipation, expectorant, anti-depressive, breast cancer, carminative, stomach ache, wounds, rheumatism, lengthen the life, abscess, digestive, intestinal, insomnia, dysmenorrhea, and inflammation [5,34,35,36,41,42,45,54,65,68,108,192]. It was recorded that the plant, which was consumed by cooking leaves, flowers, and petiole, was used as a cough suppressant in Kastamonu. Antimicrobial, antimutagenic, antioxidant, antidiabetic, and antifungal activities and total phenolic and flavonoid contents of the Trachystemon orientalis were evaluated [193,194,195,196,197]. In addition, it has been investigated whether this plant is suitable for use in the cosmetic industry and it has been determined that it can be used for photoprotective and antiaging purposes [198]. Beside these medicinal properties, T. orientalis is traditionally known as an important food source, and its nutritional and mineral contents have also been analyzed [199,200]. As a result of these analyzes, it was determined that this plant is a natural antioxidant source that can be used instead of synthetic antioxidants. These features of Trachystemon orientalis describe and show its traditional use and significance in pharmaceutical, food, and cosmetic industries.
In Kastamonu, the locals make a compote from the ripe fruit of Cornus mas and use it to gargle to treat oral aphtha. It was reported that the fruit and other parts of C. mas are used in traditional practices for abdominal pain, antifungal, antipyretic, atherosclerosis, bleeding, bronchitis, cardiac diseases, cancer, carminative, cholera, common cold, constipation, cough, degenerative diseases, diabetes, diarrhea, ease child birth, flu, gastrointestinal disorders, headache, herpes zoster, hyperglycemia, incurable diseases, insomnia, intestinal disease, kidney stones, marsh fever, nephritis, sooth pain, sunstroke, toothache, urinary diseases, urinary inflammations, and wound healing [5,33,36,43,45,46,47,50,54,58,62,63,65,66,68,74, 109,117,201,202] in Türkiye and Iran. C. mas is a medicinal and food plant that has been the subject of extensive studies for its nutraceutical and pharmaceutical potential. Main components Delphinidin 3-O-β-galactopyranoside, cyanidin 3-O-β-galactopyranoside, and pelargonidin 3-O-β -galactopyranoside characterized the chemical profile of the essential oil from C. mas [203]. Important flavonoids, anthocyanins, and iridoids were determined from the essential oils of the fruits and leaves of C. mas [204]. Essential oils of C. mas were proved to have anticarcinogenic, antibacterial, antimicrobial, anti-obesity, anticancer, anticoagulant, antiparasitic, hypolipidemic, anti-atherosclerotic, antidiabetic, antiviral, antioxidative, cytotoxic, hepatoprotective, renal protective, neuroprotective, reproductive organ protective, antiplatelet, antiglaucoma, radioprotective, aldose reductase inhibitory, cardioprotective, and anti-inflammatory effects [202,204,205].
Lamium maculatum and some other Lamium species such as L. album L., and L. purpureum L. were used for rheumatism pain, constipation, arthritic ailments, and as roborant in Türkiye [5,206]. In traditional Chinese medicine, it was used for treating various diseases such as injury, fracture, palsy, and high blood pressure [207]. Kastamonu locals make infusions from flowers and leaves and drink it as tea. This tea was used for treating hemorrhoids and mumps. Lamalbide, Lamiide, 5-OH-8-epi-Loganin, Penstemoside, Shanzhiside methyl ester, Sesamoside, Lamiol, Liriodendrin, and Verbascoside are found in L. maculatum [208]. According to pharmacological studies, Lamium species have many biological activities such as antimicrobial, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, anti-nociceptive activity, cytotoxicity, and cytoprotective activity [209]. Thus, treating of hemorrhoid and mump, which are viral and bacterial diseases, with ethnomedicines have been validated by modern pharmacological analyzes.
Species belonging to the genus Rubus (R. canescens, R. hirtus, R. idaeus L., and R. sanctus Schreb.) were generally used as a folk medicine for diuretic, diabetes, hypertension, stomach disorders, cough, hemorrhoids, constipation, dyspnea, roborant, tonsillitis, gingival bleeding, colds, aphthae, burn, cancer, anemia, and liver diseases [50,65,68,162,210]. Some other Rubus species around the world have similar uses [211]. It was recorded that the Rubus taxa included in the study were used to treat abscess anemia, anti-aging, antiemetic, anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, aphthae, asthenopia, burn, cancer, cardiac diseases, cough, diabetes, diarrhea, diuretic, dyspnea, eczema, eye and mouth sore, gingival bleeding, gonorrhea, hair care, hemostatic, hemorrhoids, hypertension, infertility, kidney sand, nephritis, prostate, rheumatism, stomachic, stomach disorder, tonic, tonsillitis, and wound healing in Türkiye [34,35,38,45,50,65, 68,83,85,102,151,175]. While Rubus hirtus is used for rheumatism, stomach disorder, anemia, eye diseases, kidney sand, urinary tract infection purposes, R. canescens is used for the treatment of hemostatic and kidney sand in the study area. Some of these diseases are caused by inflammation such as rheumatism, cancer, cardiac diseases, hypertension, diabetes, and wounds. It has been reported that the use of R. hirtus, which has anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive activity, may be appropriate in the treatment of these inflammatory diseases [212,213]. Antimicrobial, antioxidant, and antibacterial studies have been carried out for other Rubus species in the study area and pharmacologically confirmed [214,215].
The resin, shoot, bark, cone, and needles of five Pinus species (P. brutia Ten., P. sylvestris var. hamata Steven, P. nigra, P. halepensis Mill., and P. pinea L.) grown in the flora of Türkiye [216] were used for treating mostly asthma, bronchitis, cold, cough, and wounds [160]. In Kastamonu, the locals declared that they used the resin and raw cones of Pinus nigra subsp. pallasiana for treating stomach disorder, bronchitis, common cold, kidney disorder, sprains, lung disease, and asthma. P. sylvestris var. hamata is preferred in the treatment of diseases such as common cold, influenza, asthma, inflammation, and wound healing in Kastamonu province. As can be seen, these two pine species that grow naturally in the study area are generally used in respiratory diseases, followed by inflammatory diseases. Essential oil compositions of the needles of P. nigra and P. sylvestris var. hamata were investigated separately [217,218]. While α-pinene, β-pinene, β-caryophyllene, and germacrene D were found as the main components in the essential oil of Black pine, α-pinene, camphene, and β-pinene were detected in scot pine. Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antifungal, and analgesic activities of these pines have already been studied [219,220,221,222]. On the other hand, bark extracts of these two pines were also studied and phenolic compounds such as catechin, ferulic acid and taxifolin were determined. The presence of these compounds has been reported to indicate the presence of anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antioxidant, and antiproliferative activities [222,223].
Common cold, influenza, cough, urinary tract infection, heart health, wound healing, stomach ache, anti-inflammatory, diuretic, kidney sand, and rheumatism were the most frequently mentioned ailments in Kastamonu. Although there are regional differences, the plants mentioned in folk medicine studies in Türkiye are generally used for treating these diseases [3,192]. However, it was recorded for the first time that Pilosella leucopsilon subsp. pilisquama (Nägeli & Peter) Gottschl., Galium palustre L., and Astragalus nitens Boiss. & Heldr. were used as folk medicine. The aerial parts of P. leucopsilon subsp. pilisquama (Nägeli & Peter) Gottschl. were used for wound treatment, while the roots of A. nitens were used to relieve earache. While there are antifungal and antibacterial studies for A. nitens in the literature, no study has been found for P. leucopsilon subsp. pilisquama. In previous studies conducted in Türkiye and the world, Galium species were used for appetizer, diuretic, rheumatic pain, burn healing, cancer, antioxidant, antidiabetic, and calmative purposes [5,50,224,225]. In Kastamonu, it was recorded that the leaf infusion of Galium palustre was used for anemia and intestinal diseases. The extract of the G. palustre was tested with three different methods (aqueous, ethanol, and methanol) and the presence of antitumor properties was determined, and beside this, the inhibitory activity (antibacterial) was not observed [185]. Thus, it is understood that more pharmacological studies are needed for the new medicinal plants identified within the scope of the study, and the traditional use of these plants should be proven.
No previous studies have been found in the research area that includes FIC values. The FIC value ranged from 0 to 0.83. If the FIC value is close to 1, medicinal plants used to treat some diseases are considered more effective. The FIC values in this study differed from other results in Türkiye. Male genital disorder had the highest FIC value (0.83) in this study. Acorus calamus L., Epilobium angustifolium L., and Urtica dioica were reported to be among the plants treat pointed for this purpose. Respiratory diseases had the second-highest FIC value (0.73), and heart health disorders had the third rank (0.53). According to Emre et al. [82] for analgesics in Mersin, Gürbüz et al. [54] for dermatological in İzmir, Karaköse et al. [85] for cold and flu in Torul (Gümüşhane), Kaval et al. [226] for respiratory tract problems in Geçitli (Hakkari), Kılıç et al. [227] for gynecological diseases in Artuklu, Polat [64] for healing cut and wounds in Bingöl found the highest FIC values (Table 3).
5 Conclusion
Kastamonu is one of the significant lands of Euro-Siberian flora area. It has a geography where the transition from a temperate maritime climate to a continental climate, and forest vegetation to steppe vegetation has been observed. Therefore, it has a rich plant diversity. Biodiversity is a significant source for folk medicine studies. This study enabled us to collect information about the traditional uses of medicinal plants in Kastamonu. Because of face-to-face interviews with 52 locals living in the region, information about the uses of 92 plants in folk medicine was compiled.
The use of Pilosella leucopsilon subsp. pilisquama, Galium palustre, and Astragalus nitens in traditional therapy was reported for the first time in this study. In this study, it was recorded that Bellis perennis, Trachystemon orientalis, Cornus mas, Lamium maculatum, Pinus nigra subsp. pallasiana, Rubus canescens, and R. hirtus were also used for treating different diseases. This is significant because the newly recorded species and different uses of plants will contribute to fields such as phototherapy, chemist’s shop, and chemistry.
Acknowledgement
The authors thank the Kastamonu locals and informants for their contributions to the study.
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Funding information: This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
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Author contributions: Conceptualization: S.A., M.K.; methodology: S.A.; literature search: M.K. and G.Ş.; resources: G.Ş.; writing – original draft preparation: S.A., M.K., and G.Ş.; writing – review and editing: S.A., M.K.; supervision: S.A., M.K., and G.Ş. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
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Conflict of interest: The authors declare no competing interest.
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Ethical approval: The participants provided their written prior informed consent to participate in this study and researchers adhered to the ethical guidelines of the International Society of Ethnobiology [23].
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Informed consent: Prior Informed Consent (PIC) was provided orally before each interview
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Data availability statement: Data supporting the findings of this study contain personal information of subjects and are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. Since the data include the places where people live, they are stored in a controlled access repository.
Appendix
Age and gender of the informant.
Marital status of the informant.
Educational level of the informant.
Place of residence of the informant.
What are the medical plants you know?
For what purposes do you use medical plants?
Which parts of plants are you using?
How do you prepare the preparation?
What is the vernacular name of the plant used?
What are the poisonous plants you know? How do you use them?
What are the food plants you know? How do you use them?
Do you use auxiliary substances when preparing the preparation? (Honey, oil, butter, etc.)
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- Antioxidant, antidiabetic, and anticholinesterase potential of Chenopodium murale L. extracts using in vitro and in vivo approaches
- Study on essential oil, antioxidant activity, anti-human prostate cancer effects, and induction of apoptosis by Equisetum arvense
- Experimental study on turning machine with permanent magnetic cutting tool
- Numerical simulation and mathematical modeling of the casting process for pearlitic spheroidal graphite cast iron
- Design, synthesis, and cytotoxicity evaluation of novel thiophene, pyrimidine, pyridazine, and pyridine: Griseofulvin heterocyclic extension derivatives
- Isolation and identification of promising antibiotic-producing bacteria
- Ultrasonic-induced reversible blood–brain barrier opening: Safety evaluation into the cellular level
- Evaluation of phytochemical and antioxidant potential of various extracts from traditionally used medicinal plants of Pakistan
- Effect of calcium lactate in standard diet on selected markers of oxidative stress and inflammation in ovariectomized rats
- Identification of crucial salivary proteins/genes and pathways involved in pathogenesis of temporomandibular disorders
- Zirconium-modified attapulgite was used for removing of Cr(vi) in aqueous solution
- The stress distribution of different types of restorative materials in primary molar
- Reducing surface heat loss in steam boilers
- Deformation behavior and formability of friction stir processed DP600 steel
- Synthesis and characterization of bismuth oxide/commercial activated carbon composite for battery anode
- Phytochemical analysis of Ziziphus jujube leaf at different foliar ages based on widely targeted metabolomics
- Effects of in ovo injection of black cumin (Nigella sativa) extract on hatching performance of broiler eggs
- Separation and evaluation of potential antioxidant, analgesic, and anti-inflammatory activities of limonene-rich essential oils from Citrus sinensis (L.)
- Bioactivity of a polyhydroxy gorgostane steroid from Xenia umbellata
- BiCAM-based automated scoring system for digital logic circuit diagrams
- Analysis of standard systems with solar monitoring systems
- Structural and spectroscopic properties of voriconazole and fluconazole – Experimental and theoretical studies
- New plant resistance inducers based on polyamines
- Experimental investigation of single-lap bolted and bolted/bonded (hybrid) joints of polymeric plates
- Investigation of inlet air pressure and evaporative cooling of four different cogeneration cycles
- Review Articles
- Comprehensive review on synthesis, physicochemical properties, and application of activated carbon from the Arecaceae plants for enhanced wastewater treatment
- Research progress on speciation analysis of arsenic in traditional Chinese medicine
- Recent modified air-assisted liquid–liquid microextraction applications for medicines and organic compounds in various samples: A review
- An insight on Vietnamese bio-waste materials as activated carbon precursors for multiple applications in environmental protection
- Antimicrobial activities of the extracts and secondary metabolites from Clausena genus – A review
- Bioremediation of organic/heavy metal contaminants by mixed cultures of microorganisms: A review
- Sonodynamic therapy for breast cancer: A literature review
- Recent progress of amino acid transporters as a novel antitumor target
- Aconitum coreanum Rapaics: Botany, traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology, and toxicology
- Corrigendum
- Corrigendum to “Petrology and geochemistry of multiphase post-granitic dikes: A case study from the Gabal Serbal area, Southwestern Sinai, Egypt”
- Corrigendum to “Design of a Robust sliding mode controller for bioreactor cultures in overflow metabolism via an interdisciplinary approach”
- Corrigendum to “Statistical analysis on the radiological assessment and geochemical studies of granite rocks in the north of Um Taghir area, Eastern Desert, Egypt”
- Corrigendum to “Aroma components of tobacco powder from different producing areas based on gas chromatography ion mobility spectrometry”
- Corrigendum to “Mechanical properties, elastic moduli, transmission factors, and gamma-ray-shielding performances of Bi2O3–P2O5–B2O3–V2O5 quaternary glass system”
- Erratum
- Erratum to “Copper(ii) complexes supported by modified azo-based ligands: Nucleic acid binding and molecular docking studies”
- Special Issue on Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology (ABB 2021)
- Study of solidification and stabilization of heavy metals by passivators in heavy metal-contaminated soil
- Human health risk assessment and distribution of VOCs in a chemical site, Weinan, China
- Preparation and characterization of Sparassis latifolia β-glucan microcapsules
- Special Issue on the Conference of Energy, Fuels, Environment 2020
- Improving the thermal performance of existing buildings in light of the requirements of the EU directive 2010/31/EU in Poland
- Special Issue on Ethnobotanical, Phytochemical and Biological Investigation of Medicinal Plants
- Study of plant resources with ethnomedicinal relevance from district Bagh, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan
- Studies on the chemical composition of plants used in traditional medicine in Congo
- Special Issue on Applied Chemistry in Agriculture and Food Science
- Strip spraying technology for precise herbicide application in carrot fields
- Special Issue on Pharmacology and Metabolomics of Ethnobotanical and Herbal Medicine
- Phytochemical profiling, antibacterial and antioxidant properties of Crocus sativus flower: A comparison between tepals and stigmas
- Antioxidant and antimicrobial properties of polyphenolics from Withania adpressa (Coss.) Batt. against selected drug-resistant bacterial strains
- Integrating network pharmacology and molecular docking to explore the potential mechanism of Xinguan No. 3 in the treatment of COVID-19
- Chemical composition and in vitro and in vivo biological assortment of fixed oil extracted from Ficus benghalensis L.
- A review of the pharmacological activities and protective effects of Inonotus obliquus triterpenoids in kidney diseases
- Ethnopharmacological study of medicinal plants in Kastamonu province (Türkiye)
- Protective effects of asperuloside against cyclophosphamide-induced urotoxicity and hematotoxicity in rats
- Special Issue on Essential Oil, Extraction, Phytochemistry, Advances, and Application
- Identification of volatile compounds and antioxidant, antibacterial, and antifungal properties against drug-resistant microbes of essential oils from the leaves of Mentha rotundifolia var. apodysa Briq. (Lamiaceae)
- Phenolic contents, anticancer, antioxidant, and antimicrobial capacities of MeOH extract from the aerial parts of Trema orientalis plant
- Chemical composition and antimicrobial activity of essential oils from Mentha pulegium and Rosmarinus officinalis against multidrug-resistant microbes and their acute toxicity study
- Special Issue on Marine Environmental Sciences and Significance of the Multidisciplinary Approaches
- An insightful overview of the distribution pattern of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon in the marine sediments of the Red Sea
- Antifungal–antiproliferative norcycloartane-type triterpenes from the Red Sea green alga Tydemania expeditionis
- Solvent effect, dipole moment, and DFT studies of multi donor–acceptor type pyridine derivative
- An extensive assessment on the distribution pattern of organic contaminants in the aerosols samples in the Middle East
- Special Issue on 4th IC3PE
- Energetics of carboxylic acid–pyridine heterosynthon revisited: A computational study of intermolecular hydrogen bond domination on phenylacetic acid–nicotinamide cocrystals
- A review: Silver–zinc oxide nanoparticles – organoclay-reinforced chitosan bionanocomposites for food packaging
- Green synthesis of magnetic activated carbon from peanut shells functionalized with TiO2 photocatalyst for Batik liquid waste treatment
- Coagulation activity of liquid extraction of Leucaena leucocephala and Sesbania grandiflora on the removal of turbidity
- Hydrocracking optimization of palm oil over NiMoO4/activated carbon catalyst to produce biogasoline and kerosine
- Special Issue on Pharmacology and metabolomics of ethnobotanical and herbal medicine
- Cynarin inhibits PDGF-BB-induced proliferation and activation in hepatic stellate cells through PPARγ
- Special Issue on The 1st Malaysia International Conference on Nanotechnology & Catalysis (MICNC2021)
- Surfactant evaluation for enhanced oil recovery: Phase behavior and interfacial tension
- Topical Issue on phytochemicals, biological and toxicological analysis of aromatic medicinal plants
- Phytochemical analysis of leaves and stems of Physalis alkekengi L. (Solanaceae)
- Phytochemical and pharmacological profiling of Trewia nudiflora Linn. leaf extract deciphers therapeutic potentials against thrombosis, arthritis, helminths, and insects
- Pergularia tomentosa coupled with selenium nanoparticles salvaged lead acetate-induced redox imbalance, inflammation, apoptosis, and disruption of neurotransmission in rats’ brain
- Protective effect of Allium atroviolaceum-synthesized SeNPs on aluminum-induced brain damage in mice
- Mechanism study of Cordyceps sinensis alleviates renal ischemia–reperfusion injury
- Plant-derived bisbenzylisoquinoline alkaloid tetrandrine prevents human podocyte injury by regulating the miR-150-5p/NPHS1 axis
- Network pharmacology combined with molecular docking to explore the anti-osteoporosis mechanisms of β-ecdysone derived from medicinal plants
- Chinese medicinal plant Polygonum cuspidatum ameliorates silicosis via suppressing the Wnt/β-catenin pathway
- Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials for Energy, Environmental and Biological Applications - Part I
- Investigation of improved optical and conductivity properties of poly(methyl methacrylate)–MXenes (PMMA–MXenes) nanocomposite thin films for optoelectronic applications
- Special Issue on Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology (ABB 2022)
- Model predictive control for precision irrigation of a Quinoa crop
