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Study on essential oil, antioxidant activity, anti-human prostate cancer effects, and induction of apoptosis by Equisetum arvense

  • Hongyong Gu EMAIL logo , Ting Yi , Pengxiu Lin and Jin Hu
Published/Copyright: November 11, 2022
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Open Chemistry
From the journal Open Chemistry Volume 20 Issue 1

Abstract

In this study, we have reported the chemical composition of Equisetum arvense essential oil and the anti-cancer activity of the plant against the prostate cancer cell line. The essential oil was obtained using the hydro-distillation assay. The chemical composition was identified using the gas chromatographic methods including gas chromatography/flame ionization detector and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. The antioxidant activity of the essential oil and extract was evaluated using classical methods. The 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay was run to evaluate the cytotoxic effect of the essential oil and extract on the prostate cancer cell line of lymph node carcinoma of the prostate. The induction apoptosis of the extract was analyzed by a flow cytometer. Thymol acetate (14.7%), trans-carveol (12.5%), thymol (11.8%), and δ-elemene (9.4%) were identified as the main compounds for the essential oil. The extract scavenged the free radical of 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl with a half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) of 15.2 ± 1.4 μg/mL for the plant extract. In the MTT assay, the IC50 of the extract and essential oil were 25.2 ± 0.3 and 218.9 ± 10.7 μg/mL after 72 h. The highest apoptosis was 31.6% for the plant extract. The obtained results of the present study revealed that E. arvense can be introduced as a potent agent to prevent the growth of prostate tumors.

Keywords: Equisetum arvense ; thymol acetate; trans-carveol; prostate cancer; apoptosis

List of abbreviations

AsA

ascorbic acid

BHT

butylhydroxytoluene

DPPH

2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl

EDTA

ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid

FIC

ferrous ion chelating ability

GC/FID

gas chromatography/flame ionization detector

GC/MS

gas chromatography/mass spectrometry

IC50

half maximal inhibitory concentration

LNCaP

lymph node carcinoma of the prostate

MTT

3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide

RSA

radical scavenging activity

TPC

total phenolic content

TFC

total flavonoid content

TOC

α-tocopherol

1 Introduction

Prostate cancer is the most common cancer in men. If it is early detected, the survival rate is high [1,2]. Surgery, chemotherapy, or secondary hormonal therapy, which depends on tumor aggressiveness, are usual ways to treat prostate cancer [3,4,5]. Herbal medicine is an alternative to cure diseases due to the minimal side effects [4]. In recent years, there is an increasing interest in diets rich in some ingredients such as lycopene, vitamin C, vitamin K, and polyphenols to improve the survival of patients with prostate cancer due to their ability reported in the literature [6].

Equisetum arvense, known as horsetail, belongs to Equisetaceae family [7]. E. arvense is a perennial plant. It grows naturally in light sandy soils [8]. In folkloral medicine, E. arvense has been used for urinary and prostatic problems, managing enuresis, managing irritable symptoms of the urinary system [9]; treatment of digestive disorders and kidney/bladder stones, analgesic, hemostatic, astringent [10]; skin, hair, and nail remedies [11]; wounds, metabolic or hormonal edema, rheumatism, and chilblains [12].

The stem extract of E. arvense showed sedative and anticonvulsant properties [13]. The extract showed analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects [14]. The prepared herbal tea of E. aruense is known as a diuretic agent in folk medicine of different cultures [15]. Various uses have been reported for E. arvense. The plant showed antitumoral, antimicrobial, anticonvulsant, and antidiabetic activity [16]. The plant is an effective agent to treat tuberculosis, ulcers, and bleeding [17].

E. arvense is rich in polyphenolic compounds such as flavonoids, tannins, sterols, and saponins [18]. Epicatechin, quercetin, catechin, leutolin, and apigenin are the abundant flavonoids, and vanillic acid, caffeic acid, ferulic acid, and coumaric acid are the predominant phenolic compounds [19,20,21]. Oh et al. reported the isolation of phenolic compounds onitin and onitin-9-O-glucoside and of flavonoids luteolin, kaempferol-3-O-glucoside, and quercetin-3-O-glucoside from E. arvense [22]. Calcium, potassium, phosphate, iron, manganese, silicic acid, and silicates are abundant minerals in the plant [23,24].

In the present study, the chemical composition of E. arvense essential oil was analyzed using chromatography methods as well as the antioxidant activity of the plant essential oil and extract. Furthermore, as mentioned earlier, E. arvense is known as an herbal remedy for prostate problems in some traditional medicine around the world; this is a study examining on the anti-cancer activity of the plant volatile oil and extract using 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay on lymph node carcinoma of the prostate (LNCap) cell line as a standard human prostate cancer cell line.

2 Material and methods

2.1 Chemicals

The chemicals with analytical grades were used in this research: 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), ferrozine, and α-tocopherol (Sigma, USA); Na2SO4, ascorbic acid (AsA) (Merck, Germany); saturated hydrocarbon homologous series (C8–C20 and C21–C40) (Fluka, USA); ferrous sulfate heptahydrate (BD, UK).

2.2 Collection of plant material

The aerial parts of E. arvense were purchased from a medicinal plant store. The plant was identified by Mrs. Yudi Miao with voucher number 20-11-328.

2.3 Isolation of E. arvense essential oil

A 100 g plant sample was put in a Clevenger-type apparatus for 4 h. The hydrodistillation was repeated five times. The obtained essential oil was dried over anhydrous sodium sulfate (Merck) and stored in tightly closed vials at −18°C in the dark before biological and analytical assays.

2.3.1 Gas chromatography/flame ionization detector analysis

2.3.1.1 GC/FID analysis

The essential oil was subjected to GC/FID analysis using a Hewlett-Packard 5890 GC instrument equipped with a DB-5 capillary column (30 m × 0.25 mm i.d.; film thickness, 0.1 mm; from J.W. Scientific, USA). Helium was the carrier gas (1.0 mL/min). The injector and detector temperature was 250°C. The initial temperature was maintained at 40°C for 2 min, then raised at 3°C/min to 240°C, and held for 10 min. The split ratio was 1:20. Hydrogen was applied as fuel in the detector. A homologous series of saturated hydrocarbons (C8 to C40) were subjected to the instrument with the same conditions. Quantification was done by an external standard method using calibration curves generated by running GC analysis of representative compounds.

2.3.1.2 Gas chromatography/mass spectrometry analysis

For the GC-MS analysis of the essential oil, an Agilent GC/MS system (7890A equipped with an Agilent 5975C mass detector) was selected. The sample was injected into an HP-5 capillary column (30 m × 0.32 mm i.d.; 0.25 mm film thickness from J.W. Scientific). All parameters were the same as GC/FID conditions. A 70 eV was the ionization voltage, and the scan mass range was 50–600 amu for the mass detector.

2.3.1.3 Component identification

The identity of the chemical constituents of the volatile oil was established using the GC retention indices Kovats indices, the retention time, and mass spectral fragmentation patterns with those of the known compounds from the literature data [25] and the standard database of NIST (National Institute of Standards and Technology) [26]. Furthermore, structural assignment confirmation was also made by co-injection of available authentic pure samples. Quantification was done by an external standard method using calibration curves generated by running GC analysis of representative compounds.

2.4 Preparation of E. arvense extract

To obtain the hydroalcoholic extract of E. aevense, 50 g of the aerial parts of the plant was ground and macerated in the solvent for 72 h. The solvent consisted of 70% of ethanol and 30% of water. Then, the solvent was evaporated using a Buchi evaporator (50°C). Finally, the crude extract was put in a freeze-dryer for 48 h. The powder was kept in a dark-and-cold place before biological investigations.

2.4.1 Antioxidant activity evaluation assays

The classical assays including total phenolic content (TPC), total flavonoid content (TFC), radical scavenging activity (RSA), and ferrous ion chelating ability (FIC) were carried out to study the antioxidant activity of E. aevense extract and essential oil [27,28].

2.5 TPC

First, a mixture that included 0.5 mL of a methanolic solution of E. aevense extract (100 µg/mL), Folin-Ciocalteu Reagent (0.5 mL, 10% in distilled water), and H2O (2 mL) was prepared. After 5 min, 2 mL of sodium carbonate (5%) was added and shaken. Then, the optical density of the mixture was recorded at 760 nm using a Shimadzu instrument (UV-2400) after 2 h. The TPC was reported as mg GAE/g extract, which means mg of gallic acid equivalent per gram of extract. All measurements were carried out in triplicates.

2.5.1 TFC

A 1.5 mL of E. aevense extract (200 µg/mL) was added to AlCl3 in methanol (1 mL, 2%) and kept for 40 min. Then, the optical density was read at 415 nm. The TFC was reported as milligram RE/gram extract, that is, the milligram of rutin equivalent per gram of dried extract. The analyses were run three times.

2.5.2 RSA

A 0.5 mL of E. aevense extract or essential oil at different concentrations was poured into 0.5 mL of DPPH (1 × 10−3 M) and shaken. After 2 h, the absorbance was read at 517 nm. α-Tocopherol (Toc) and butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) were the selected positive controls for this assay. All measurements were run three times. The RSA% was obtained by the following equation:

RSA % = ( A c − A s ) A c × 100 ,

where A c and A s are the control absorbance (DPPH solution) and the sample, respectively.

2.5.3 FIC

Ferrozine (100 µL, 5 × 10−3 M) was pipetted to a mixture of FeSO4 (50 µL, 2 × 10−3 M) and 1 mL of E. aevense extract or essential oil at different concentrations. After 10 min. the absorbance was read at 562 nm. Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) and AsA were chosen as the positive control for this assay. All measurements were run three times. The FIC was calculated using the following equation:

Inhibition % = ( A c − A s ) A c × 100 ,

where A c and A s are the absorbance of the control (FeSO4 and ferrozine) and the sample, respectively.

2.5.4 MTT assay

In this research, we used LNCaP cell lines to evaluate the anti-human prostate cancer and cytotoxicity effects of E. arvense extract and essential oil. The assay was run according to previous studies with some modifications [29,30]. The cell line was cultured (1 × 104 cells/well) in a 96-well microplate and incubated at 37°C, CO2 5% for 24 h. Next, the plant extract or essential oil at different concentrations was added to the wells and incubated for 24, 48, and 72 h. After that, 20 µL of MTT (3-[4,5-dimethylthiazole-2-yl]-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide) with a concentration of 5 mg/mL in PBS was added and incubated at 37°C for 4 h. Finally, the absorbance of the dissolved formazan crystals in DMSO (dimethyl sulfoxide) was read at 570 nm and 630 by a plate reader (Thermo Lab systems, Franklin, MA USA). The half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50), which showed the concentration of E. arvense extract or essential oil for 50% mortality rate, was measured through Prism software. All treatments run three times. For this assay, DMSO and docetaxel (0.1 µM) were used as the negative and positive controls, respectively.

2.5.5 Flow cytometric analysis

The apoptosis was screened by propidium iodide (PI) staining of small DNA fragments followed by flow cytometry according to a previous study [30]. Briefly, LNCaP cells (1.5 × 105 cells) were cultured in FBS (10%) and then incubated overnight at 37°C under CO2 (5%). Then, it was treated with the calculated IC50 value of the extract for 24, 48, and 72 h. After that, the cells were taken up and put in an incubator for 24 h with 700 μL of 50 mg/mL PI. After that, a Becton Dickinson flow cytometer was used. A total of 10,000 events were attained with FACS. A flow Jo-V10 software was used to analyze the data.

2.6 Qualitative measurement

The obtained findings were analyzed using SPSS (version 20) software using one-way ANOVA, followed by Duncan's posthoc test (P ≤ 0.01).

3 Results and discussion

3.1 The essential oil composition

The obtained volatile oil was colorless with an average of 0.21 ± 0.03% (W/W) yield. Twenty compounds were identified in the essential oil comprising eight oxygenated monoterpenes (33.4%), four sesquiterpene hydrocarbons (29.1%), two phenolic compounds (26.5%), two oxygenated hydrocarbons (6.0%), and one monoterpene hydrocarbon (0.6%). These represented 95.6% of all oil components. Table 1 shows the chemical composition of E. aevense essential oil. The phenolic compounds of thymol acetate (14.7%) and oxygenated monoterpene of trans-carveol (12.5%) were the main components of the essential oil, followed by thymol (11.8%) and δ-elemene (9.4%).

Table 1

Chemical composition of the essential oil of the aerial parts of Equisetum arvense

No Compoundsa RT RI (Lit.)b RI (Obsd.)c Area (%) Id. Meth.d
1 1,8 Cineole 7.16 1,026 1,024 1.6 RI, MS
2 γ-Terpinene 7.94 1,054 1,053 0.6 RI, MS
3 Heptyl acetate 9.7 1,112 1,110 0.4 RI, MS
4 Octyl formate 10.2 1,127 1,122 5.6 RI, MS
5 iso-3-Thujanol 10.7 1,130 1,134 2.3 RI, MS
6 γ-Terpineol 13.1 1,199 1,196 7.9 RI, MS
7 trans-Carveol 13.9 1,216 1,215 12.5 RI, MS
8 E-Ocimenone 14.8 1,235 1,236 0.7 RI, MS
9 Geraniol 15.5 1,249 1,252 0.9 RI, MS
10 Geranial 15.7 1,264 1,267 0.4 RI, MS
11 Methyl nerolate 16.7 1,280 1,279 1.6 RI, MS
12 Thymol 17.3 1,289 1,291 11.8 RI, MS
13 Azulene 17.6 1,298 1,297 6.8 RI, MS
14 δ-Terpinyl acetate 18.5 1,316 1,318 1.7 RI, MS
15 δ-Elemene 19.4 1,335 1,338 9.4 RI, MS
16 α-Cubebene 19.7 1,345 1,344 4.8 RI, MS
17 Thymol acetate 19.8 1,349 1,348 14.7 RI, MS
18 (E)-Caryophyllene 22.8 1,417 1,415 5.7 RI, MS
19 4,8β-Epoxy-caryophyllane 23.4 1,423 1,427 2.4 RI, MS
20 trans-Carvyl propanoate 29.13 1,454 1,459 3.8 RI, MS
I Oxygenated monoterpenes (OM) 33.4
II Sesquiterpene hydrocarbons (SH) 26.7
III Phenolic compounds (Ph) 26.5
IV Oxygenated hydrocarbons (OH) 6.0
V Oxygenated sesquiterpene (OS) 2.4
VI Monoterpene hydrocarbons (MH) 0.6

aOxygenated monoterpenes, Nos. 2, 5–11, 14, 20; Sesquiterpene hydrocarbons, Nos. 13, 15,16, 18, 19; Phenolic compounds, Nos. 12 and 17; Oxygenated hydrocarbons, Nos. 3 and 4; Oxygenated sesquiterpene, Nos. 19; Monoterpene hydrocarbons, No. 2.

bRI (Lit.): Retention indices from literatures (Adams [25]).

cRI (Obsd.) Retention indices (I) on DB-5.

dIdentify method.

In a previous study, the essential oil of E. aevense from Europe was dominated by hexahydrofarnesyl acetone, cis-geranyl acetone, and trans-β-damascenone [31]. Fons et al. have evaluated the volatile organic compounds of different Equisetum species using GC/MS analysis. According to their reports, E. arvense was rich in 3-hydroxy-7,8-epoxy-β-ionol, (E,E)-pseudoionone, and 3-oxo-α-ionol; E. palustre var. americana was dominated by 1-octen-3-ol, (E)-2-hexenoic acid, and (E)-2-hexenal; 3-hydroxy-7,8-epoxy-β-ionol, 3-hydroxy-α-ionone, and 4-vinylguaiacol were the main component of E. telmateia; (E)-2-heptenal, (E)-and (Z)-ferulic acid isomers were the main compounds for E. hyemale; E. ramosissimum was rich in 4-vinylguaiacol, (E)- and (Z)-ferulic acid; on the other hand, 3-hydroxy-β-ionone, 3-hydroxy-7,8-epoxy-β-ionol (15.5%), and homovanillic acid were identified in E. scirpioides [32]. The essential oil of E. diffusum was dominated by phytol, hexacosane, and cis-cadin-4-ene-7-ol [33]. The difference in the chemical composition of Equisetum plants can be due to the method applied to the isolation of the essential oils, the seasonal variation, drying period, altitudes, environmental circumstances, climatic conditions, and geographical location of the plant [34,35].

3.2 Antioxidant activity

The results of the antioxidant activity of E.aevense extract and essential oil are presented in Table 2. A 389.0 ± 6.4 mg GAE/g for TPC and 57.6 ± 3.8 mg RE/g for TFC of E.aevense were recorded. According to our findings, the extract was more potent in the selected antioxidant assays compared to the essential oil. The extract scavenged DPPH with IC50 of 15.2 ± 1.4 μg/mL. The extract showed more activity than BHT and TOC. Furthermore, the IC50 of 112.7 ± 3.4 μg/mL was calculated for E.aevense extract using FIC assay. The extract was more active than AsA and less than EDTA. For the essential oil, 952.7 ± 15.2 and 1282.7 ± 12.7 μg/mL were calculated for the IC50 using RSA and FIC assays, respectively.

Table 2

TPC, TFC, DPPH RSA, and FIC of Equisetum arvense extract and essential oil

TPC mg GAE/g extract TFC (mg RE/g extract) RSA IC50 (μg/mL) FIC IC50 (μg/mL)
Extract 389.0 ± 6.4 57.6 ± 3.8 15.2 ± 1.4 112.7 ± 3.4
Essential oil — — 952.2 ± 15.2 1,282.7 ± 12.7
BHT — — 18.3 ± 1.1 —
TOC — — 32.4 ± 0.9 —
EDTA — — — 56.2 ± 1.8
AsA — — — 1371.2 ± 8.7

Values are presented as means ± SD (n = 3).

Previous studies have reported the ability of E. arvense extract to scavenge DPPH [9,19]. E. arvense from different locations in Romania was rich in polyphenols and flavonoids with a high ability to scavenge the free radical of DPPH [36], whereas 30% of RSA has been reported for E. hyemal [37]. A 0.675 mg/mL gallic acid equivalent has been reported for the hydroalcoholic extract of E. ramosissimum [38]. The extract of E. ramosissimum also scavenged the free radical of DPPH [39].

3.3 Cytotoxicity effect of E. arvense on LNCaP cell line

Figures 1 and 2 present the results of the MTT assay of E. arvense extract and essential oil against the human prostate cancer cell line (LNCaP cell line). In most studies on the evaluation of anti-prostate cancer activity, the MTT assay is run on the LNCaP cell line because it is known as the standard cell line. The cell line is androgen-responsive and derived from human prostate cancer with metastatic to bone. According to the results, the viability of the prostate cell line is reduced dose-dependently in the presence of the plant extract and essential oil. Furthermore, the cell viability depends on the treatment time. The IC50 of the plant extract was 43.2 ± 1.7, 29.3 ± 1.6, and 25.2 ± 1.3 μg/mL after treatment for 24, 48, and 72 h, respectively. The plant extract had higher activity than the essential oil with IC50 of 382.2 ± 13.6, 285.3 ± 5.7, and 218.9 ± 10.7 μg/mL for 24, 48, and 72 h treatment, respectively. In a comparison with previous studies on the anti-prostate cancer activity of the plant extract, E. arvense extract exhibited more activity against than Boswellia serrata extract [40], Scaphechinus mirabilis extract [41], and Corni fructus extract [42]. However, the anticancer activity of E. arvense extract was less than that of Linum usitatissimum extract against LNCaP cell line [30].

Figure 1 Effect of Equisetum arvense extract on the viability of LNCaP cells. The viability percentage was measured using MTT assay. LNCaP cells were treated with different concentrations of the extract for 24, 48, and 72 h.
Figure 1

Effect of Equisetum arvense extract on the viability of LNCaP cells. The viability percentage was measured using MTT assay. LNCaP cells were treated with different concentrations of the extract for 24, 48, and 72 h.

Figure 2 Effect of Equisetum arvense essential oil on the viability of LNCaP cells. The viability percentage was measured using MTT assay. LNCaP cells were treated with different concentrations of the extract for 24, 48, and 72 h.
Figure 2

Effect of Equisetum arvense essential oil on the viability of LNCaP cells. The viability percentage was measured using MTT assay. LNCaP cells were treated with different concentrations of the extract for 24, 48, and 72 h.

The diets, which are enriched in phenolic compounds, play a considerable role in preventing and treating prostate cancer [43,44]. According to our results, the extract of E. arvense presented a considerable cytotoxic effect on the LNCaP cell line. According to the previous reports, the presence of secondary metabolites such as polyphenols and flavonoids is the major reason for the ability of E. arvense extract to prevent the prostate cancer cell line. Among the phenolic and flavonoids reported for the extract of E. arvense, quercetin, luteolin, vanillic acid, caffeic acid, and ferulic acid reported as having considerable potential against different cancer cell lines [45,46,47]. Furthermore, the synergistic effect of polyphenols with chemotropic drugs is known as an effective strategy to treat cancer diseases [48,49].

A few studies have reported the anti-cancer activity of the plants from the Equisetum genus. In reported research, E. arvense exhibited a cytotoxic effect against the human leukemic cell line [50]. The ethanolic extract of E. arvense showed a cytotoxic effect on the human pancreatic carcinoma cell line [51]. The plant extract is also active against cervical, breast, and colorectal cell lines [12]. E. ramosissimum showed anticancer activity against three human melanoma cancer cell lines [39].

3.4 Detection of apoptosis by flow cytometry

Apoptosis and necrosis are known as the two main types of cell death. Apoptosis is programmed cell death. Apoptosis happens in two ways including (1) extrinsic pathway that is started by death receptor–ligand stimulation systems and (2) intrinsic pathway that takes place by DNA damage [3,6]. Figures 3 and 4 exhibit the flow cytometric analysis and the percentage for apoptosis by the extract of E. arvense. The prostate cancer cells were treated with E. arvense extract with concentrations of 25.0, 30.0, and 40.0 μg/mL, which were close to the obtained IC50 from the MTT assay. The results showed that the treated cells with E. arvense extract increased the apoptosis percentage considerably compared to the control. The highest result was calculated for the concentration of 40.0 μg/mL after 72 h with 31.6% apoptosis, while the minimum apoptosis (16.4%) was obtained for 25.0 μg/mL after 24 h.

Figure 3 Flow cytometric evaluation of induced apoptosis using Propidium iodide staining by Equisetum arvense extract in LNCaP cells at different times and concentrations. a1–4 after 24 h; b1–4 after 48 h; and c1–4 after 72 h (the vertical axial shows Histogram details, and the horizontal axial shows FL2-H subset).
Figure 3

Flow cytometric evaluation of induced apoptosis using Propidium iodide staining by Equisetum arvense extract in LNCaP cells at different times and concentrations. a1–4 after 24 h; b1–4 after 48 h; and c1–4 after 72 h (the vertical axial shows Histogram details, and the horizontal axial shows FL2-H subset).

Figure 4 PI-staining induced apoptosis on LNCaP cells. LNCaP cells were treated with different concentrations of Equisetum arvense extract for 24, 48, and 72 h.
Figure 4

PI-staining induced apoptosis on LNCaP cells. LNCaP cells were treated with different concentrations of Equisetum arvense extract for 24, 48, and 72 h.

4 Conclusions

The results of the present study revealed that thymol acetate, trans-carveol, thymol, and δ-element were the major components of E. arvense essential oil. The plant extract showed higher antioxidant activity than the essential oil and even the positive controls. The extract scavenged the free radical of DPPH with an IC50 of 15.2 ± 1.4 μg/mL. In the MTT assay, the plant extract prevented the growth of LNCaP as the selected prostate cancer cell line more than the plant essential oil with an IC50 of 25.2 ± 1.3 μg/mL after 72 h. The plant extract induced a 31.6% apoptosis in the cell line. According to the obtained results from the study, E. arvense extract can be used as herbal medicine for prostate cancer; however, further research especially in vivo evaluation should be carried out to evaluate the therapeutic potential of E. arvense against prostate cancer.

  1. Funding information: There is no external funding.

  2. Author contributions: Writing–original draft preparation, Hongyong Gu; data curation and software, Ting Yi; conceptualization and methodology, Pengxiu Lin; formal analysis, writing–review and editing, Jin Hu.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

  4. Ethical approval: The conducted research is not related to either human or animal use.

  5. Data availability statement: The data sets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Received: 2022-06-15
Revised: 2022-08-08
Accepted: 2022-08-21
Published Online: 2022-11-11

© 2022 Hongyong Gu et al., published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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https://doi.org/10.1515/chem-2022-0203
Keywords for this article
Equisetum arvense; thymol acetate; trans-carveol; prostate cancer; apoptosis
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

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  11. Bridging chiral de-tert-butylcalix[4]arenes: Optical resolution based on column chromatography and structural characterization
  12. Petrology and geochemistry of multiphase post-granitic dikes: A case study from the Gabal Serbal area, Southwestern Sinai, Egypt
  13. Comparison of the yield and purity of plasma exosomes extracted by ultracentrifugation, precipitation, and membrane-based approaches
  14. Bioactive triterpenoids from Indonesian medicinal plant Syzygium aqueum
  15. Investigation of the effects of machining parameters on surface integrity in micromachining
  16. The mesoporous aluminosilicate application as support for bifunctional catalysts for n-hexadecane hydroconversion
  17. Gamma-ray shielding properties of Nd2O3-added iron–boron–phosphate-based composites
  18. Numerical investigation on perforated sheet metals under tension loading
  19. Statistical analysis on the radiological assessment and geochemical studies of granite rocks in the north of Um Taghir area, Eastern Desert, Egypt
  20. Two new polypodane-type bicyclic triterpenoids from mastic
  21. Structural, physical, and mechanical properties of the TiO2 added hydroxyapatite composites
  22. Tribological properties and characterization of borided Co–Mg alloys
  23. Studies on Anemone nemorosa L. extracts; polyphenols profile, antioxidant activity, and effects on Caco-2 cells by in vitro and in silico studies
  24. Mechanical properties, elastic moduli, transmission factors, and gamma-ray-shielding performances of Bi2O3–P2O5–B2O3–V2O5 quaternary glass system
  25. Cyclic connectivity index of bipolar fuzzy incidence graph
  26. The role of passage numbers of donor cells in the development of Arabian Oryx – Cow interspecific somatic cell nuclear transfer embryos
  27. Mechanical property evaluation of tellurite–germanate glasses and comparison of their radiation-shielding characteristics using EPICS2017 to other glass systems
  28. Molecular screening of ionic liquids for CO2 absorption and molecular dynamic simulation
  29. Microwave-assisted preparation of Ag/Fe magnetic biochar from clivia leaves for adsorbing daptomycin antibiotics
  30. Iminodisuccinic acid enhances antioxidant and mineral element accumulation in young leaves of Ziziphus jujuba
  31. Cytotoxic activity of guaiane-type sesquiterpene lactone (deoxycynaropicrin) isolated from the leaves of Centaurothamnus maximus
  32. Effects of welding parameters on the angular distortion of welded steel plates
  33. Simulation of a reactor considering the Stamicarbon, Snamprogetti, and Toyo patents for obtaining urea
  34. Effect of different ramie (Boehmeria nivea L. Gaud) cultivars on the adsorption of heavy metal ions cadmium and lead in the remediation of contaminated farmland soils
  35. Impact of a live bacterial-based direct-fed microbial (DFM) postpartum and weaning system on performance, mortality, and health of Najdi lambs
  36. Anti-tumor effect of liposomes containing extracted Murrayafoline A against liver cancer cells in 2D and 3D cultured models
  37. Physicochemical properties and some mineral concentration of milk samples from different animals and altitudes
  38. Copper(ii) complexes supported by modified azo-based ligands: Nucleic acid binding and molecular docking studies
  39. Diagnostic and therapeutic radioisotopes in nuclear medicine: Determination of gamma-ray transmission factors and safety competencies of high-dense and transparent glassy shields
  40. Calculation of NaI(Tl) detector efficiency using 226Ra, 232Th, and 40K radioisotopes: Three-phase Monte Carlo simulation study
  41. Isolation and identification of unstable components from Caesalpinia sappan by high-speed counter-current chromatography combined with preparative high-performance liquid chromatography
  42. Quantification of biomarkers and evaluation of antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and cytotoxicity properties of Dodonaea viscosa grown in Saudi Arabia using HPTLC technique
  43. Characterization of the elastic modulus of ceramic–metal composites with physical and mechanical properties by ultrasonic technique
  44. GC-MS analysis of Vespa velutina auraria Smith and its anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities in vitro
  45. Texturing of nanocoatings for surface acoustic wave-based sensors for volatile organic compounds
  46. Insights into the molecular basis of some chalcone analogues as potential inhibitors of Leishmania donovani: An integrated in silico and in vitro study
  47. (1R,2S,5R)-5-Methyl-2-(propan-2-yl)cyclohexyl 4-amino-3-phenylbutanoate hydrochloride: Synthesis and anticonvulsant activity
  48. On the relative extraction rates of colour compounds and caffeine during brewing, an investigation of tea over time and temperature
  49. Characterization of egg shell powder-doped ceramic–metal composites
  50. Rapeseed oil-based hippurate amide nanocomposite coating material for anticorrosive and antibacterial applications
  51. Chemically modified Teucrium polium (Lamiaceae) plant act as an effective adsorbent tool for potassium permanganate (KMnO4) in wastewater remediation
  52. Efficiency analysis of photovoltaic systems installed in different geographical locations
  53. Risk prioritization model driven by success factor in the light of multicriteria decision making
  54. Theoretical investigations on the excited-state intramolecular proton transfer in the solvated 2-hydroxy-1-naphthaldehyde carbohydrazone
  55. Mechanical and gamma-ray shielding examinations of Bi2O3–PbO–CdO–B2O3 glass system
  56. Machine learning-based forecasting of potability of drinking water through adaptive boosting model
  57. The potential effect of the Rumex vesicarius water seeds extract treatment on mice before and during pregnancy on the serum enzymes and the histology of kidney and liver
  58. Impact of benzimidazole functional groups on the n-doping properties of benzimidazole derivatives
  59. Extraction of red pigment from Chinese jujube peel and the antioxidant activity of the pigment extracts
  60. Flexural strength and thermal properties of carbon black nanoparticle reinforced epoxy composites obtained from waste tires
  61. A focusing study on radioprotective and antioxidant effects of Annona muricata leaf extract in the circulation and liver tissue: Clinical and experimental studies
  62. Clinical comprehensive and experimental assessment of the radioprotective effect of Annona muricata leaf extract to prevent cellular damage in the ileum tissue
  63. Effect of WC content on ultrasonic properties, thermal and electrical conductivity of WC–Co–Ni–Cr composites
  64. Influence of various class cleaning agents for prosthesis on Co–Cr alloy surface
  65. The synthesis of nanocellulose-based nanocomposites for the effective removal of hexavalent chromium ions from aqueous solution
  66. Study on the influence of physical interlayers on the remaining oil production under different development modes
  67. Optimized linear regression control of DC motor under various disturbances
  68. Influence of different sample preparation strategies on hypothesis-driven shotgun proteomic analysis of human saliva
  69. Determination of flow distance of the fluid metal due to fluidity in ductile iron casting by artificial neural networks approach
  70. Investigation of mechanical activation effect on high-volume natural pozzolanic cements
  71. In vitro: Anti-coccidia activity of Calotropis procera leaf extract on Eimeria papillata oocysts sporulation and sporozoite
  72. Determination of oil composition of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L.) seeds under influence of organic fertilizer forms
  73. Activated partial thromboplastin time maybe associated with the prognosis of papillary thyroid carcinoma
  74. Treatment of rat brain ischemia model by NSCs-polymer scaffold transplantation
  75. Lead and cadmium removal with native yeast from coastal wetlands
  76. Characterization of electroless Ni-coated Fe–Co composite using powder metallurgy
  77. Ferrate synthesis using NaOCl and its application for dye removal
  78. Antioxidant, antidiabetic, and anticholinesterase potential of Chenopodium murale L. extracts using in vitro and in vivo approaches
  79. Study on essential oil, antioxidant activity, anti-human prostate cancer effects, and induction of apoptosis by Equisetum arvense
  80. Experimental study on turning machine with permanent magnetic cutting tool
  81. Numerical simulation and mathematical modeling of the casting process for pearlitic spheroidal graphite cast iron
  82. Design, synthesis, and cytotoxicity evaluation of novel thiophene, pyrimidine, pyridazine, and pyridine: Griseofulvin heterocyclic extension derivatives
  83. Isolation and identification of promising antibiotic-producing bacteria
  84. Ultrasonic-induced reversible blood–brain barrier opening: Safety evaluation into the cellular level
  85. Evaluation of phytochemical and antioxidant potential of various extracts from traditionally used medicinal plants of Pakistan
  86. Effect of calcium lactate in standard diet on selected markers of oxidative stress and inflammation in ovariectomized rats
  87. Identification of crucial salivary proteins/genes and pathways involved in pathogenesis of temporomandibular disorders
  88. Zirconium-modified attapulgite was used for removing of Cr(vi) in aqueous solution
  89. The stress distribution of different types of restorative materials in primary molar
  90. Reducing surface heat loss in steam boilers
  91. Deformation behavior and formability of friction stir processed DP600 steel
  92. Synthesis and characterization of bismuth oxide/commercial activated carbon composite for battery anode
  93. Phytochemical analysis of Ziziphus jujube leaf at different foliar ages based on widely targeted metabolomics
  94. Effects of in ovo injection of black cumin (Nigella sativa) extract on hatching performance of broiler eggs
  95. Separation and evaluation of potential antioxidant, analgesic, and anti-inflammatory activities of limonene-rich essential oils from Citrus sinensis (L.)
  96. Bioactivity of a polyhydroxy gorgostane steroid from Xenia umbellata
  97. BiCAM-based automated scoring system for digital logic circuit diagrams
  98. Analysis of standard systems with solar monitoring systems
  99. Structural and spectroscopic properties of voriconazole and fluconazole – Experimental and theoretical studies
  100. New plant resistance inducers based on polyamines
  101. Experimental investigation of single-lap bolted and bolted/bonded (hybrid) joints of polymeric plates
  102. Investigation of inlet air pressure and evaporative cooling of four different cogeneration cycles
  103. Review Articles
  104. Comprehensive review on synthesis, physicochemical properties, and application of activated carbon from the Arecaceae plants for enhanced wastewater treatment
  105. Research progress on speciation analysis of arsenic in traditional Chinese medicine
  106. Recent modified air-assisted liquid–liquid microextraction applications for medicines and organic compounds in various samples: A review
  107. An insight on Vietnamese bio-waste materials as activated carbon precursors for multiple applications in environmental protection
  108. Antimicrobial activities of the extracts and secondary metabolites from Clausena genus – A review
  109. Bioremediation of organic/heavy metal contaminants by mixed cultures of microorganisms: A review
  110. Sonodynamic therapy for breast cancer: A literature review
  111. Recent progress of amino acid transporters as a novel antitumor target
  112. Aconitum coreanum Rapaics: Botany, traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology, and toxicology
  113. Corrigendum
  114. Corrigendum to “Petrology and geochemistry of multiphase post-granitic dikes: A case study from the Gabal Serbal area, Southwestern Sinai, Egypt”
  115. Corrigendum to “Design of a Robust sliding mode controller for bioreactor cultures in overflow metabolism via an interdisciplinary approach”
  116. Corrigendum to “Statistical analysis on the radiological assessment and geochemical studies of granite rocks in the north of Um Taghir area, Eastern Desert, Egypt”
  117. Corrigendum to “Aroma components of tobacco powder from different producing areas based on gas chromatography ion mobility spectrometry”
  118. Corrigendum to “Mechanical properties, elastic moduli, transmission factors, and gamma-ray-shielding performances of Bi2O3–P2O5–B2O3–V2O5 quaternary glass system”
  119. Erratum
  120. Erratum to “Copper(ii) complexes supported by modified azo-based ligands: Nucleic acid binding and molecular docking studies”
  121. Special Issue on Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology (ABB 2021)
  122. Study of solidification and stabilization of heavy metals by passivators in heavy metal-contaminated soil
  123. Human health risk assessment and distribution of VOCs in a chemical site, Weinan, China
  124. Preparation and characterization of Sparassis latifolia β-glucan microcapsules
  125. Special Issue on the Conference of Energy, Fuels, Environment 2020
  126. Improving the thermal performance of existing buildings in light of the requirements of the EU directive 2010/31/EU in Poland
  127. Special Issue on Ethnobotanical, Phytochemical and Biological Investigation of Medicinal Plants
  128. Study of plant resources with ethnomedicinal relevance from district Bagh, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan
  129. Studies on the chemical composition of plants used in traditional medicine in Congo
  130. Special Issue on Applied Chemistry in Agriculture and Food Science
  131. Strip spraying technology for precise herbicide application in carrot fields
  132. Special Issue on Pharmacology and Metabolomics of Ethnobotanical and Herbal Medicine
  133. Phytochemical profiling, antibacterial and antioxidant properties of Crocus sativus flower: A comparison between tepals and stigmas
  134. Antioxidant and antimicrobial properties of polyphenolics from Withania adpressa (Coss.) Batt. against selected drug-resistant bacterial strains
  135. Integrating network pharmacology and molecular docking to explore the potential mechanism of Xinguan No. 3 in the treatment of COVID-19
  136. Chemical composition and in vitro and in vivo biological assortment of fixed oil extracted from Ficus benghalensis L.
  137. A review of the pharmacological activities and protective effects of Inonotus obliquus triterpenoids in kidney diseases
  138. Ethnopharmacological study of medicinal plants in Kastamonu province (Türkiye)
  139. Protective effects of asperuloside against cyclophosphamide-induced urotoxicity and hematotoxicity in rats
  140. Special Issue on Essential Oil, Extraction, Phytochemistry, Advances, and Application
  141. Identification of volatile compounds and antioxidant, antibacterial, and antifungal properties against drug-resistant microbes of essential oils from the leaves of Mentha rotundifolia var. apodysa Briq. (Lamiaceae)
  142. Phenolic contents, anticancer, antioxidant, and antimicrobial capacities of MeOH extract from the aerial parts of Trema orientalis plant
  143. Chemical composition and antimicrobial activity of essential oils from Mentha pulegium and Rosmarinus officinalis against multidrug-resistant microbes and their acute toxicity study
  144. Special Issue on Marine Environmental Sciences and Significance of the Multidisciplinary Approaches
  145. An insightful overview of the distribution pattern of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon in the marine sediments of the Red Sea
  146. Antifungal–antiproliferative norcycloartane-type triterpenes from the Red Sea green alga Tydemania expeditionis
  147. Solvent effect, dipole moment, and DFT studies of multi donor–acceptor type pyridine derivative
  148. An extensive assessment on the distribution pattern of organic contaminants in the aerosols samples in the Middle East
  149. Special Issue on 4th IC3PE
  150. Energetics of carboxylic acid–pyridine heterosynthon revisited: A computational study of intermolecular hydrogen bond domination on phenylacetic acid–nicotinamide cocrystals
  151. A review: Silver–zinc oxide nanoparticles – organoclay-reinforced chitosan bionanocomposites for food packaging
  152. Green synthesis of magnetic activated carbon from peanut shells functionalized with TiO2 photocatalyst for Batik liquid waste treatment
  153. Coagulation activity of liquid extraction of Leucaena leucocephala and Sesbania grandiflora on the removal of turbidity
  154. Hydrocracking optimization of palm oil over NiMoO4/activated carbon catalyst to produce biogasoline and kerosine
  155. Special Issue on Pharmacology and metabolomics of ethnobotanical and herbal medicine
  156. Cynarin inhibits PDGF-BB-induced proliferation and activation in hepatic stellate cells through PPARγ
  157. Special Issue on The 1st Malaysia International Conference on Nanotechnology & Catalysis (MICNC2021)
  158. Surfactant evaluation for enhanced oil recovery: Phase behavior and interfacial tension
  159. Topical Issue on phytochemicals, biological and toxicological analysis of aromatic medicinal plants
  160. Phytochemical analysis of leaves and stems of Physalis alkekengi L. (Solanaceae)
  161. Phytochemical and pharmacological profiling of Trewia nudiflora Linn. leaf extract deciphers therapeutic potentials against thrombosis, arthritis, helminths, and insects
  162. Pergularia tomentosa coupled with selenium nanoparticles salvaged lead acetate-induced redox imbalance, inflammation, apoptosis, and disruption of neurotransmission in rats’ brain
  163. Protective effect of Allium atroviolaceum-synthesized SeNPs on aluminum-induced brain damage in mice
  164. Mechanism study of Cordyceps sinensis alleviates renal ischemia–reperfusion injury
  165. Plant-derived bisbenzylisoquinoline alkaloid tetrandrine prevents human podocyte injury by regulating the miR-150-5p/NPHS1 axis
  166. Network pharmacology combined with molecular docking to explore the anti-osteoporosis mechanisms of β-ecdysone derived from medicinal plants
  167. Chinese medicinal plant Polygonum cuspidatum ameliorates silicosis via suppressing the Wnt/β-catenin pathway
  168. Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials for Energy, Environmental and Biological Applications - Part I
  169. Investigation of improved optical and conductivity properties of poly(methyl methacrylate)–MXenes (PMMA–MXenes) nanocomposite thin films for optoelectronic applications
  170. Special Issue on Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology (ABB 2022)
  171. Model predictive control for precision irrigation of a Quinoa crop
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