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Genetic diversity and population structure of Cinnamomum balansae Lecomte inferred by microsatellites

  • Bei Cui , Dinh Duy Vu EMAIL logo , Dinh Giap Vu , Thi Tuyet Xuan Bui , Siddiq Ur Rahman , Mai Phuong Pham , Minh Tam Nguyen , Van Sinh Nguyen , Syed Noor Muhammad Shah and Viet Ha Tran
Published/Copyright: April 5, 2022
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From the journal Open Life Sciences Volume 17 Issue 1

Abstract

Cinnamomum balansae Lecomte (Lauraceae), an economically important forest tree, is distributed in the tropical forests of central and northern Vietnam, which has been threatened in recent decades due to the destruction of its habitat and over-exploitation. The genetic diversity and population structure of the species have not been fully evaluated. We used a set of 15 microsatellites to analyze 161 adult trees from 9 different populations, representing the geographical distribution of C. balansae. Ninety-two different alleles were identified. Here our results showed a low genetic diversity level with an average H o = 0.246 and H e = 0.262, and a high level of genetic differentiation (F ST = 0.601). The bottleneck tests indicated evidence of a reduction in the population size of the two populations (TC and CP). Additionally, all three clustering methods (Bayesian analysis, principal coordinate analysis, and Neighbor-joining tree) were identified in the two genetic groups. The Mantel test showed a significant positive correlation between genetic distance and geographic distance (R 2 = 0.7331). This study will provide a platform for the conservation of C. balansae both in ex-situ and in-situ plans.

Keywords: bottleneck; C. balansae ; conservation; genetic variability; fragmentation

1 Introduction

Cinnamomum balansae Lecomte, a large and evergreen tree of the Lauraceae family, is distributed in the tropical forests of central and northern Vietnam [1,2,3,4]. It is found at an elevation above 200 m in secondary forests on the ancient alluvial rocks and granite that have low relief and gentle slopes. The species prefers precipitation of 800–2,500 mm and an annual mean temperature of 20–22°C [2,4]. C. balansae can reach a height of 30 m with a diameter of 85–90 cm at breast height. Flowers are small, greenish-yellow, and appear between March and May. Fruiting appears from April to July, with fruit and maturation occurring in October [2]. Its bark has oil and camphor. The fruit oil and fat are used to make soap. Wood is used for furniture. In the past few decades, this species has been over-exploited by local people and forestry enterprises [1]. Its habitats have been destroyed and degraded [5,6]. For that reason, C. balansae is listed as an endangered species in the IUCN Red List [7] and the Vietnam Red Data Book [1].

The adaptive and evolutionary potential of a species depends on its genetic diversity [8]. Conservation and management of a species require knowledge of its ecological characteristics and genetic variation within and between populations [9,10,11]. To obtain such information, particularly a better understanding of genetics, powerful and biological techniques are required [12,13]. Molecular markers such as allozyme [14], randomly amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) [15,16], and chloroplastic DNA [17] have been used to investigate the genetic diversity of species in the Lauraceae family. Microsatellites (SSRs) are widely distributed throughout the nuclear genome, displaying high polymorphism and reproducibility [18,19,20]. These markers have been widely used to study the Lauraceae species [21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29]. In the current study, microsatellites were used to assess the genetic diversity and population structure of C. balansae and provide a platform for effective conservation strategies of this species in Vietnam.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Plant materials

With Illumina sequencing for the development of microsatellites, we collected three plant tissues, including roots, leaves, and stems of C. balansae (one individual) from a wild population (Ba Vi National Park, Hanoi city). All sample tissues were immediately frozen in liquid nitrogen and stored at –80°C until RNA extraction.

To assess the genetic variation in and population structure of C. balansae, the study area for this species was carried out in nine sites, one each in Hanoi, Phu Tho, Tuyen Quang, Yen Bai, Son La, Hoa Binh, Ninh Binh, Thanh Hoa, and Nghe An, representing its natural range in Vietnam (Table 1, Figure 1). Sampling locations were recorded using a global positioning system (GPS). The inner bark from 161 adult trees was randomly sampled for 9 known populations in central and northern Vietnam. Samples were placed into plastic bags containing silica gel in the field and then transferred to the Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Vietnam-Russia Tropical Centre and stored at −30°C until DNA extraction.

Table 1

Geographical characteristics of the nine C. balansae populations used in this study

Populations Location Sample size Latitude (N) Longitude (E)
BV Ba Vi National Park, Ha Noi City (Northern Vietnam) 10 21°06′36″ 105°33′16″
DH Chan Mong commune, Doan Hung district, Phu Tho province (Northern Vietnam) 15 21°33′45″ 105°09′49″
SD Dong Bua commune, Son Duong district, Tuyen Quang province (Northern Vietnam) 19 22°10′15″ 105°20′10″
YB Van Lang Commune, Yen Binh district, Yen Bai province (Northern Vietnam) 12 21°41′52″ 104°59′39″
TC Chieng Bom Commune, Thuan Chau district, Son La province (Northern Vietnam) 16 21°38′87″ 103°53′52″
MC Tan Mai commune, Mai Chau district, Hoa Binh province (Northern Vietnam) 20 20°44′46″ 104°55′32″
CP Cuc Phuong National Park, Ninh Binh province (Central Vietnam) 21 20°21′06″ 105°35′57″
BE Ben En National Park, Thanh Hoa province (Central Vietnam) 21 19°58′08″ 105°45′57″
QH Tam Hop Commune, Quy Hop district, Nghe An province (Central Vietnam) 27 19°21′21″ 105°17′05″
Figure 1 Map showing the collection sites of nine populations of C. balansae in Vietnam.
Figure 1

Map showing the collection sites of nine populations of C. balansae in Vietnam.

2.2 DNA/RNA extraction, cDNA sequencing, and microsatellite loci identification

For Illumina sequencing, total RNA from each sample was isolated using the OmniPlant RNA Kit (DNase I) (www.cwbiotech.com). Both quantity and quality of total RNA were checked through Nanodrop ND-2000 spectrophotometer (Thermo Electron Corporation, USA) and Agilent 2100 Bioanalyzer. An equal amount of total RNA from each sample was pooled together and sent to Breeding Biotechnologies Co. Ltd for cDNA library construction and transcriptome sequencing using Illumina HiSeq™4000. Cleaned mRNA was used for cDNA library construction extracted from 200 µg total RNA using Oligo (dT). The cDNA first strand was prepared from random hexamers using mRNA as a template, and the other strands were from the buffer, dNTPs, RNase H, and DNA polymerase I, and then cleaned with AMPure XP beads. The cleaned double-stranded cDNA was subjected to terminal repair, the sequencing linker was ligated, and then the fragment size was selected with AMPure XP beads. The cDNA library was acquired by PCR enrichment. After validating the library on an Agilent 2100 Bioanalyzer, Breeding Biotechnologies Co., Ltd sequenced the cDNA libraries on an Illumina HiSeq™ 4000. The Trimmomatic v3.0 [30] was used for raw reads filtration. The reads showing adaptor contamination, length < 36 bp, and low-quality value (quality <20) higher than 15% were eliminated. Trinity [31] with default parameters were used for de novo assembly of the cleaned reads. Then, the TIGR Gene Indices clustering tool (TGICL) v2.1 [32] was used to cluster and eradicate redundant transcripts and identified unigenes for further analysis.

SSRs were detected in the Simple Sequence Repeat Identification Tool program (SSRIT, http://www.gramene.org/db/markers/ssrtool). Only unigenes longer than 1 kb were included in the EST-SSR detection. The parameters were set to detect perfect, di-, tri-, tetra-, penta-, and hexa-nucleotide motifs with a minimum of 6, 5, 5, 5, and 5 repeats, respectively. Identification of microsatellite loci showed simple sequence repeats and was deposited in GenBank.

Total genomic DNA was extracted from the samples using the Plant Genome DNA Extraction Kit (BioTeke, Beijing, China). The quality of total DNA was verified by 1% agarose gel electrophoresis and NanoDrop2000 (BioTeke Instruments, Winooski, VT, USA). The concentration was then diluted to 20 ng/µL and stored at −20°C.

2.3 Microsatellite amplification

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was performed in a 25 μL of reaction mixture containing 2.5 µL of template DNA, 12.5 µL of 2X Taq Master mix, 1 µL of each primer, and 8 µL of deionized water. All SSR primers were designed using Primer 5.0 software [33]. The main stated selection criteria for the screening of primers were as follows GC content of 45–55 with 55% as the optimum; primer length of 18–24 bp with 20 bp as the optimum length; annealing temperature from 55 to 65°C, with 60°C as the optimum temperature; and PCR product size ranging from 100 to 300 bp. Fifteen SSR polymorphic markers were used in the present study (Table 2). The PCR amplification was carried out on a Mastercycler X50s Eppendorf, under the following thermal cycler: initial denaturation at 94°C for 2 min, followed by 40 cycles consisting of 1 min at 94°C for denaturation, 30 s alignment at the annealing temperature for each primer pair at 55°C and 1 min at 72°C for extension, and 10 min at 72°C for final cycle to complete the extension of any remaining products before holding the samples at 4°C until they were analyzed. The amplification products were separated on 8% polyacrylamide gels in 1 × TAE buffer using the Cleaver Scientific electrophoresis system (UK) and visualized with GelRedTM 10000X. The sizes of the PCR products were detected and analyzed using GelAnalyzer software with a 20 bp DNA ladder (Invitrogen).

Table 2

Characteristics and genetic estimates for 15 SSR loci of C. balansae

Locus Primer sequence (5′–3′) Motif Size (bp) N a N p F IS F IT F ST N m GenBank code
V03 F: CCACCCCAATTCGATTATTG (AGCAGG)5(AGC)6 219 5 2 0.335 0.645 0.467 0.285 MN486375
R: CCAAGCAGCTTTACTCCACC
V07 F: GAGAGCTTCCAAAGCCACTG (CAC)5(CAT)5 234 6 3 0.635 0.864 0.626 0.149 MN486379
R: AAGAAGCCGACAAGCAAAAA
V08 F: AGGGATTTTGGAGATTTTGC (CTT)5(CCT)7 150 9 4 −0.130 0.239 0.327 0.515 MN486380
R: GGACGCCAAAACCAAATGTA
V11 F: TTTGAGGGAAATGGTTCCTG (TAG)5(TAA)6 194 6 2 −0.096 0.453 0.501 0.249 MN486383
R: TTGGGCCAAAACAAGAAGAC
V25 F: ACGAGTTTCCACCGATTACG (ATC)8 268 5 2 −0.024 0.992 0.992 0.002 MN486397
R: ACTCCTTTCAGCACCGATTG
V30 F: TTGTTAAAAACACCAACCCCA (TCA)8 200 5 2 −0.113 0.524 0.572 0.187 MN486402
R: CAGTGGGCCAAGTGTATCCT
V31 F: ACGTGAATGTGAATGGGGTT (AAC)9 189 5 1 0.219 0.851 0.809 0.059 MN486403
R: TAGGCAAAGACTCCGAAGGA
V33 F: ATTCGGGTCTCTCTCCCTGT (ACCA)6 249 8 2 0.220 0.620 0.513 0.237 MN486405
R: CTCTCTCGCTGTCTCTGCCT
V35 F: TGGAGAACAACTTTGGGAGG (GATG)6 119 7 2 −0.258 0.518 0.617 0.155 MN486407
R: TGTTCCATGTTACAGATACAG
V41 F: ATATGGTCCCAACTCCCTCC (ACCCA)5 203 8 4 0.289 0.808 0.729 0.093 MN486413
R: ACCGTCACCAGATCATCCAT
V51 F: TCCCAACTGGACGAAGTTCT (ATGACC)7 237 4 1 0.505 0.834 0.665 0.126 MN486423
R: TTTGCTCGCTGTTATGATGC
V75 F: ATCCTCCCAAGGACGCTTAT (CCT)7 133 7 3 0.287 0.625 0.473 0.278 MN486447
R: CCTTCAAGGAAAGAAGGGCT
V81 F: CACCACCTTCTCCTTCCAAA (CTC)7 234 4 2 −0.351 0.740 0.808 0.060 MN486453
R: TTGTTGGGGTCTCCAAACTC
V93 F: CGGACAATTTTCAGGGATGA (GTC)7 166 6 2 −0.096 0.594 0.630 0.147 MN486465
R: CCTGCATTCTAGATGCCTCC
V108 F: GAAAGAAGTTGGGGGAGGAG (TGA)7 209 6 3 −0.315 0.060 0.285 0.627 MN486480
R: GAATCGCGGAGATACGGATA
Mean 6.1 0.074 0.624 0.601 0.211

N a: number of alleles; N p: private alleles; F IS: inbreeding coefficient; F IT: coefficient of total inbreeding; F ST: genetic differentiation; N m: gene flow.

2.4 Data analysis

Genetic diversity was estimated using GenAlEx [34] based on SSR allele frequencies, including the number of alleles per locus (N a), effective alleles (N e), private alleles (N p), the proportion of polymorphic loci (P%), the coefficient of total inbreeding (F IT), the genetic differentiation (F ST), Nei’s genetic distances among the populations, the observed heterozygosities (H o), and the expected heterozygosities (H e). Gene flow between populations (N m) was calculated using the F ST value: N m = (1/F ST − 1)/4. The inbreeding coefficients (F IS) value was also calculated for each population by Fstat [35]. Tests for deviation from the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium at each locus and the linkage disequilibrium for each locus pairwise combination in each population were also performed by Genpop v.4.6 [36]. Arlequin v.3.0 [37] was used to perform an analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) for the estimation of genetic divergence as PhiPT, and its associated significance based on 10,000 permutations. Testing for recent bottleneck events for each population using Bottleneck v.1.2 [38] was applied with the stepwise mutation model (SMM) and two-phase model (TPM), and their significance was tested. The proportion of the SMM was set to 70% under default settings. The significance of these tests was evaluated by the one-tailed Wilcoxon signed-rank test.

Principal coordinate analysis (PCoA) was implemented based on G′ST values [39] using GenAlEx. Neighbor-joining (NJ) tree was constructed genetic relationships among populations based on a matrix of F ST values using Poptree2 [40]. Bayesian analysis of population structure was performed with Structure v.2.3.4 [41] to determine the optimal value of the genetic cluster (K). Setting the admixture model with correlated allele frequency and the ancestry models, 10 separate runs of the number of clusters (K) in the dataset were performed from 1 to 10 for each K value at 500,000 Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) repetitions and a 100,000 burn-in period. The optimal value of K was detected using Structure Harvester [42] based on the ∆K value by Evanno et al. [43].

A Mantel test [34] was applied to determine the relationships between genetic and geographic distances among the C. balansae populations based on 999 permutations.

3 Results

3.1 Genetic diversity

A total of 92 different alleles were detected from 15 SSR markers in C. balansae in the tropical forests of Vietnam. Allele numbers ranged from 4 (VD51 and VD81) to 9 (VD08), with an average of 6.1 (Table 2). Among these, 35 alleles were private. Loci VD08 and VD49 had the greatest number of private alleles (4). One private allele at 2 loci (VD31 and VD51), 3 private alleles at 3 loci (VD07, VD75, and VD108), and 2 private alleles at 8 remaining loci were recorded.

Genetic diversities for C. balansae populations are presented in Table 3. The average percentage of polymorphic loci was 68.15%, ranging from 60% in the 4 populations of BV, SL, TQ, and NA to 86.67% in the TH population. The average value of alleles (N a) per population was 1.9, ranging from 1.6 (SL) to 2.2 (YB and TH).

Table 3

Genetic diversity estimates nine populations of C. balansae

Population N N a N p N e P% H o H e F IS p value of bottleneck
TPM SMM
BV 10 1.7 2 1.5 60 0.267 0.275 0.003 0.049 ns
MC 20 1.8 4 1.4 73.33 0.260 0.253 −0.011 ns ns
DH 15 1.7 4 1.4 66.67 0.219 0.213 −0.028** ns ns
TC 16 1.6 1 1.5 60 0.250 0.267 0.073 0.014 0.014
SD 19 1.7 1 1.4 60 0.193 0.228 0.101 ns ns
YB 12 2.2 6 1.7 73.33 0.339 0.338 −0.051 0.042 ns
BE 21 2.2 6 1.4 86.67 0.270 0.253 −0.076 ns ns
CP 21 1.9 8 1.7 73.33 0.270 0.334 0.212* 0.0003 0.0002
QH 27 1.9 6 1.4 60 0.143 0.198 0.179 ns ns
Mean 1.9 1.5 68.15 0.246 0.262 0.025

N: sample size; p: percentage of polymorphic loci; N a: alleles per locus; N p: total number of private alleles; N e: effective alleles; H o and H e: observed and expected heterozygosities; F IS: inbreeding coefficient; *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01.

The highest number of private alleles (N p = 8) was detected in the CP population, followed by three populations of YB, BE, and QH with N p = 6, two populations of MC and DH with N p = 4, the BV population (N p = 2), and two populations (TC and SD) with N p = 1. The N e value varied from 1.4 in 5 different populations (MC, DH, SD, BE, and QH) to 1.7 (YB population), with an average of 1.5 alleles. The observed heterozygosity (H o) and expected heterozygosity (H e) averaged 0.246 (0.143–0.339) and 0.262 (0.198–0.338), respectively. The QH population had the lowest genetic diversity (H o = 0.143 and H e = 0.198) and the YB population had the highest values (H o = 0.339 and H e = 0.338). Five populations of BV, SD, TC, CP, and QH had positive F IS values, indicating an excess of homozygosity and inbreeding in these populations. The highest F IS value (0.212) was found in the CP population and was significant (p < 0.05). A significant deficit of heterozygosity was detected in two populations (TC and CP), based on the Bottleneck analysis under the TPM and SMM (p < 0.05), and suggested evidence of a bottleneck.

3.2 Population structure and Mantel test

The average F IT value was 0.624, ranging from 0.06 (VD108) to 0.992 (VD25), indicating a deficiency of heterozygosity in the populations (Table 2). The genetic differentiation among populations (F ST) varied from 0.285 (VD108) to 0.992 (VD25) with an average of 0.601, indicating high differentiation among all the populations and reflecting low gene flow (N m = 0.211). Our results of the AMOVA showed that the proportion of genetic variation among the populations was higher (74%) than within populations (Table 4). The PhiPT value and gene flow among populations were 0.744 and 0.086, respectively. The PhiPT value for the variation among populations was significant (p < 0.001).

Table 4

Analysis of molecular variance from nine populations of C. balansae

df* Sum of squares Variance components Proportion of variation (%) PhiPT value N m
Among populations 8 1307.8 13.592 74 0.744** 0.086
Within populations 102 477.5 4.681 26
Total 110 1785.3 18.273

df* degree of freedom; **p < 0.001.

The Mantel test revealed a significantly high correlation between genetic distance and geographical distance (R 2 = 0.7331) (Figure 2), indicating high genetic differentiation among populations.

Figure 2 Mantel test of genetic distance and geographical distance of nine C. balansae populations.
Figure 2

Mantel test of genetic distance and geographical distance of nine C. balansae populations.

Genetic clusters were distinguished through the NJ analysis by using Poptree2 and the PCoA based on G′ST values (Figure 3). Two different clusters were generated. The first cluster included three populations (CP, BE, and QH) in the central region, while the second included the remaining six populations (DH, SD, BV, MC, YB, and TC) in the northern region. An admixture model was performed to evaluate the population structure of the 161 individuals of C. balansae based on the Bayesian analysis using the Structure program. The results showed that the optimum number of genetic groups (K) was two, with the highest value of delta K (1,145.4) obtained from Structure Harvester might an optimum number of genetic clusters (Figure 4). Each individual in each population was assigned to one of the two genetic clusters. The ancestry coefficients of each individual and each population are shown in Figure 4. The red cluster represented all individuals from the populations of BV, MC, DH, TC, SD, and YB, while the green cluster represented CP and QH populations. All the individuals in the BE population were separated and closer to the red cluster than the green cluster.

Figure 3 Principal Coordinates (PCoA) (a) and NJ tree for nine populations of C. balansae with bootstrap values above branches (b).
Figure 3

Principal Coordinates (PCoA) (a) and NJ tree for nine populations of C. balansae with bootstrap values above branches (b).

Figure 4 The Delta K distribution graph (a) and bar plot of admixture assignment for nine C. balansae populations to cluster (K = 2 and highest ∆K value = 1145.4) based on Bayesian analysis (b).
Figure 4

The Delta K distribution graph (a) and bar plot of admixture assignment for nine C. balansae populations to cluster (K = 2 and highest ∆K value = 1145.4) based on Bayesian analysis (b).

4 Discussion

The genetic diversity of a species is often correlated with its history and ecology [44,45,46]. The genetic diversity is positively correlated with geographic distribution range and population size [47]. Species with widespread distribution, large population size, longevity, and outcrosses often maintain high genetic diversity compared to species with a narrow distribution [48]. Here our results indicated that C. balansae has low genetic diversity (H o = 0.246 and H e = 0.262) and high genetic differentiation among populations (F ST = 0.601), compared to other widespread species, such as C. camphora in South China (H o = 0.45 and H e = 0.44) [29], Albanian olive (H o = 0.75 and H e = 0.60) [49 and Eugenia dysenterica (H o = 0.545 and H e = 0.62) [50]. Although this species has a widespread distribution and long life, the decline in genetic diversity may be related to anthropogenic disturbances, such as deforestation, habitat degradation, and over-exploitation of C. balansae [51]. Furthermore, in the current study, positive F IS values were observed in the five populations of BV, TC, SD, CP, and QH, while the negative F IS values were found in the remaining four populations of MC, DH, YB, and BE. A heterozygosity deficit was determined by the Bottleneck analysis, which detected a reduction in the population size of C. balansae. Small populations might be the result of inbreeding, which can decrease genetic variation. However, the bottlenecks also show a rapid reduction in the population sizes of TC and CP in recent decades. A high level of genetic differentiation (F ST = 0.601) was determined, and reflected low gene flow (N m = 0.211) among C. balansae populations. This is in contrast to previous reports on widespread species, such as Dalbergia cochinchinensis (F ST = 0.23) [52] and Erythrophleum fordii Oliv (F ST = 0.18) [53]. The dispersal of pollen and seeds plays an important role in maintaining high genetic diversity within and low genetic differentiation among populations [54,55]. The large geographic distance between C. balansae populations may be responsible for high genetic differentiation. Moreover, habitat fragmentation can increase the isolation between populations. Thus, these suggested the geographic distance and habitat fragmentation as a barrier to restrict gene flow between populations. Population structure and genetic relationships are important for establishing the appropriate scale and subunits for species conservation and management [56]. The study also identified two genetic groups using NJ, Structure, and PCoA: one in northern Vietnam (DH, SD, BV, MC, YB, and TC populations), and the other in central Vietnam (BE, CP, and QH populations). The Mantel test shows that there are almost obvious geographical boundaries between the studied populations, and it indicated the effects of the geographic distance on the number of migrants per generation inferred from the studied loci. This suggests that past human activities can have a significant impact on the present population structure and genetic diversity of C. balansae in Vietnam. Thus, the best conservation strategy should be to establish an ex-situ conservation site for this species through collecting seeds, germinating, and cultivating seedlings. Collecting seeds from individuals of all the populations should be conducted so that random loss of genetic variability due to loss of individual ecotypes should be avoided and move towards new self-sustaining populations. The establishment of a new large population of C. balansae should provide new alleles, which might improve its fitness under different environmental stresses to prevent the gradual reduction in the population of C. balansae.

5 Conclusion

These results confirmed that C. balansae had low genetic diversity and high genetic differentiation among populations in the evergreen tropical forests. The nine populations of C. balansae were divided into two genetic groups related to the geographic distance. Our study will contribute to understanding the population history of this species and the genetic relationships among the C. balansae populations.

These authors contributed equally to this work and should be regarded as co-first authors.

tel: +84-977365689

Acknolwedgement

We thank E. Sterling (New York) and K. Koy (Berkeley) for providing the map.

  1. Funding information: This research was funded by the Graduate University of Science and Technology under grant number GUST.STS.ĐT2019-ST01, Basis project of Vietnam – Russia Tropical Center in 2019 and Project E 1.2 by Vietnam – Russia Tropical Centre.

  2. Author contributions: Cui B, Vu DD, Vu DG and Tran VH designed the study. Vu DD, Vu DG, Tran VH, Bui TTX, Pham MP, Nguyen MT and Nguyen VS collected samples in field works. Vu DD, Vu DG, Tran VH, Bui TTX, Pham MP, Nguyen MT implemented the molecular experiments. Cui B, Vu DD, Vu DG, Tran VH, Nguyen MT, Rahman SU and Shah SNM analyzed data and wrote the original draft of manuscript. All authors have read and approved the final manuscript.

  3. Conflict of interest: Authors state no conflict of interest.

  4. Data availability statement: The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Received: 2021-07-24
Revised: 2021-12-02
Accepted: 2022-01-03
Published Online: 2022-04-05

© 2022 Bei Cui et al., published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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https://doi.org/10.1515/biol-2022-0037
Keywords for this article
bottleneck; C. balansae; conservation; genetic variability; fragmentation
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Biomedical Sciences
  2. Effects of direct oral anticoagulants dabigatran and rivaroxaban on the blood coagulation function in rabbits
  3. The mother of all battles: Viruses vs humans. Can humans avoid extinction in 50–100 years?
  4. Knockdown of G1P3 inhibits cell proliferation and enhances the cytotoxicity of dexamethasone in acute lymphoblastic leukemia
  5. LINC00665 regulates hepatocellular carcinoma by modulating mRNA via the m6A enzyme
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  7. Concanavalin A-induced autoimmune hepatitis model in mice: Mechanisms and future outlook
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  12. Functional conservation and divergence in plant-specific GRF gene family revealed by sequences and expression analysis
  13. Application of the FLP/LoxP-FRT recombination system to switch the eGFP expression in a model prokaryote
  14. Biomedical evaluation of antioxidant properties of lamb meat enriched with iodine and selenium
  15. Intravenous infusion of the exosomes derived from human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells enhance neurological recovery after traumatic brain injury via suppressing the NF-κB pathway
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  20. Nutrition intervention in the management of novel coronavirus pneumonia patients
  21. circ-CFH promotes the development of HCC by regulating cell proliferation, apoptosis, migration, invasion, and glycolysis through the miR-377-3p/RNF38 axis
  22. Bmi-1 directly upregulates glucose transporter 1 in human gastric adenocarcinoma
  23. Lacunar infarction aggravates the cognitive deficit in the elderly with white matter lesion
  24. Hydroxysafflor yellow A improved retinopathy via Nrf2/HO-1 pathway in rats
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  27. A case report of CAT gene and HNF1β gene variations in a patient with early-onset diabetes
  28. Study on the mechanism of inhibiting patulin production by fengycin
  29. SOX4 promotes high-glucose-induced inflammation and angiogenesis of retinal endothelial cells by activating NF-κB signaling pathway
  30. Relationship between blood clots and COVID-19 vaccines: A literature review
  31. Analysis of genetic characteristics of 436 children with dysplasia and detailed analysis of rare karyotype
  32. Bioinformatics network analyses of growth differentiation factor 11
  33. NR4A1 inhibits the epithelial–mesenchymal transition of hepatic stellate cells: Involvement of TGF-β–Smad2/3/4–ZEB signaling
  34. Expression of Zeb1 in the differentiation of mouse embryonic stem cell
  35. Study on the genetic damage caused by cadmium sulfide quantum dots in human lymphocytes
  36. Association between single-nucleotide polymorphisms of NKX2.5 and congenital heart disease in Chinese population: A meta-analysis
  37. Assessment of the anesthetic effect of modified pentothal sodium solution on Sprague-Dawley rats
  38. Genetic susceptibility to high myopia in Han Chinese population
  39. Potential biomarkers and molecular mechanisms in preeclampsia progression
  40. Silencing circular RNA-friend leukemia virus integration 1 restrained malignancy of CC cells and oxaliplatin resistance by disturbing dyskeratosis congenita 1
  41. Endostar plus pembrolizumab combined with a platinum-based dual chemotherapy regime for advanced pulmonary large-cell neuroendocrine carcinoma as a first-line treatment: A case report
  42. The significance of PAK4 in signaling and clinicopathology: A review
  43. Sorafenib inhibits ovarian cancer cell proliferation and mobility and induces radiosensitivity by targeting the tumor cell epithelial–mesenchymal transition
  44. Characterization of rabbit polyclonal antibody against camel recombinant nanobodies
  45. Active legumain promotes invasion and migration of neuroblastoma by regulating epithelial-mesenchymal transition
  46. Effect of cell receptors in the pathogenesis of osteoarthritis: Current insights
  47. MT-12 inhibits the proliferation of bladder cells in vitro and in vivo by enhancing autophagy through mitochondrial dysfunction
  48. Study of hsa_circRNA_000121 and hsa_circRNA_004183 in papillary thyroid microcarcinoma
  49. BuyangHuanwu Decoction attenuates cerebral vasospasm caused by subarachnoid hemorrhage in rats via PI3K/AKT/eNOS axis
  50. Effects of the interaction of Notch and TLR4 pathways on inflammation and heart function in septic heart
  51. Monosodium iodoacetate-induced subchondral bone microstructure and inflammatory changes in an animal model of osteoarthritis
  52. A rare presentation of type II Abernethy malformation and nephrotic syndrome: Case report and review
  53. Rapid death due to pulmonary epithelioid haemangioendothelioma in several weeks: A case report
  54. Hepatoprotective role of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-α in non-cancerous hepatic tissues following transcatheter arterial embolization
  55. Correlation between peripheral blood lymphocyte subpopulations and primary systemic lupus erythematosus
  56. A novel SLC8A1-ALK fusion in lung adenocarcinoma confers sensitivity to alectinib: A case report
  57. β-Hydroxybutyrate upregulates FGF21 expression through inhibition of histone deacetylases in hepatocytes
  58. Identification of metabolic genes for the prediction of prognosis and tumor microenvironment infiltration in early-stage non-small cell lung cancer
  59. BTBD10 inhibits glioma tumorigenesis by downregulating cyclin D1 and p-Akt
  60. Mucormycosis co-infection in COVID-19 patients: An update
  61. Metagenomic next-generation sequencing in diagnosing Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia: A case report
  62. Long non-coding RNA HOXB-AS1 is a prognostic marker and promotes hepatocellular carcinoma cells’ proliferation and invasion
  63. Preparation and evaluation of LA-PEG-SPION, a targeted MRI contrast agent for liver cancer
  64. Proteomic analysis of the liver regulating lipid metabolism in Chaohu ducks using two-dimensional electrophoresis
  65. Nasopharyngeal tuberculosis: A case report
  66. Characterization and evaluation of anti-Salmonella enteritidis activity of indigenous probiotic lactobacilli in mice
  67. Aberrant pulmonary immune response of obese mice to periodontal infection
  68. Bacteriospermia – A formidable player in male subfertility
  69. In silico and in vivo analysis of TIPE1 expression in diffuse large B cell lymphoma
  70. Effects of KCa channels on biological behavior of trophoblasts
  71. Interleukin-17A influences the vulnerability rather than the size of established atherosclerotic plaques in apolipoprotein E-deficient mice
  72. Multiple organ failure and death caused by Staphylococcus aureus hip infection: A case report
  73. Prognostic signature related to the immune environment of oral squamous cell carcinoma
  74. Primary and metastatic squamous cell carcinoma of the thyroid gland: Two case reports
  75. Neuroprotective effects of crocin and crocin-loaded niosomes against the paraquat-induced oxidative brain damage in rats
  76. Role of MMP-2 and CD147 in kidney fibrosis
  77. Geometric basis of action potential of skeletal muscle cells and neurons
  78. Babesia microti-induced fulminant sepsis in an immunocompromised host: A case report and the case-specific literature review
  79. Role of cerebellar cortex in associative learning and memory in guinea pigs
  80. Application of metagenomic next-generation sequencing technique for diagnosing a specific case of necrotizing meningoencephalitis caused by human herpesvirus 2
  81. Case report: Quadruple primary malignant neoplasms including esophageal, ureteral, and lung in an elderly male
  82. Long non-coding RNA NEAT1 promotes angiogenesis in hepatoma carcinoma via the miR-125a-5p/VEGF pathway
  83. Osteogenic differentiation of periodontal membrane stem cells in inflammatory environments
  84. Knockdown of SHMT2 enhances the sensitivity of gastric cancer cells to radiotherapy through the Wnt/β-catenin pathway
  85. Continuous renal replacement therapy combined with double filtration plasmapheresis in the treatment of severe lupus complicated by serious bacterial infections in children: A case report
  86. Simultaneous triple primary malignancies, including bladder cancer, lymphoma, and lung cancer, in an elderly male: A case report
  87. Preclinical immunogenicity assessment of a cell-based inactivated whole-virion H5N1 influenza vaccine
  88. One case of iodine-125 therapy – A new minimally invasive treatment of intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma
  89. S1P promotes corneal trigeminal neuron differentiation and corneal nerve repair via upregulating nerve growth factor expression in a mouse model
  90. Early cancer detection by a targeted methylation assay of circulating tumor DNA in plasma
  91. Calcifying nanoparticles initiate the calcification process of mesenchymal stem cells in vitro through the activation of the TGF-β1/Smad signaling pathway and promote the decay of echinococcosis
  92. Evaluation of prognostic markers in patients infected with SARS-CoV-2
  93. N6-Methyladenosine-related alternative splicing events play a role in bladder cancer
  94. Characterization of the structural, oxidative, and immunological features of testis tissue from Zucker diabetic fatty rats
  95. Effects of glucose and osmotic pressure on the proliferation and cell cycle of human chorionic trophoblast cells
  96. Investigation of genotype diversity of 7,804 norovirus sequences in humans and animals of China
  97. Characteristics and karyotype analysis of a patient with turner syndrome complicated with multiple-site tumors: A case report
  98. Aggravated renal fibrosis is positively associated with the activation of HMGB1-TLR2/4 signaling in STZ-induced diabetic mice
  99. Distribution characteristics of SARS-CoV-2 IgM/IgG in false-positive results detected by chemiluminescent immunoassay
  100. SRPX2 attenuated oxygen–glucose deprivation and reperfusion-induced injury in cardiomyocytes via alleviating endoplasmic reticulum stress-induced apoptosis through targeting PI3K/Akt/mTOR axis
  101. Aquaporin-8 overexpression is involved in vascular structure and function changes in placentas of gestational diabetes mellitus patients
  102. Relationship between CRP gene polymorphisms and ischemic stroke risk: A systematic review and meta-analysis
  103. Effects of growth hormone on lipid metabolism and sexual development in pubertal obese male rats
  104. Cloning and identification of the CTLA-4IgV gene and functional application of vaccine in Xinjiang sheep
  105. Antitumor activity of RUNX3: Upregulation of E-cadherin and downregulation of the epithelial–mesenchymal transition in clear-cell renal cell carcinoma
  106. PHF8 promotes osteogenic differentiation of BMSCs in old rat with osteoporosis by regulating Wnt/β-catenin pathway
  107. A review of the current state of the computer-aided diagnosis (CAD) systems for breast cancer diagnosis
  108. Bilateral dacryoadenitis in adult-onset Still’s disease: A case report
  109. A novel association between Bmi-1 protein expression and the SUVmax obtained by 18F-FDG PET/CT in patients with gastric adenocarcinoma
  110. The role of erythrocytes and erythroid progenitor cells in tumors
  111. Relationship between platelet activation markers and spontaneous abortion: A meta-analysis
  112. Abnormal methylation caused by folic acid deficiency in neural tube defects
  113. Silencing TLR4 using an ultrasound-targeted microbubble destruction-based shRNA system reduces ischemia-induced seizures in hyperglycemic rats
  114. Plant Sciences
  115. Seasonal succession of bacterial communities in cultured Caulerpa lentillifera detected by high-throughput sequencing
  116. Cloning and prokaryotic expression of WRKY48 from Caragana intermedia
  117. Novel Brassica hybrids with different resistance to Leptosphaeria maculans reveal unbalanced rDNA signal patterns
  118. Application of exogenous auxin and gibberellin regulates the bolting of lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.)
  119. Phytoremediation of pollutants from wastewater: A concise review
  120. Genome-wide identification and characterization of NBS-encoding genes in the sweet potato wild ancestor Ipomoea trifida (H.B.K.)
  121. Alleviative effects of magnetic Fe3O4 nanoparticles on the physiological toxicity of 3-nitrophenol to rice (Oryza sativa L.) seedlings
  122. Selection and functional identification of Dof genes expressed in response to nitrogen in Populus simonii × Populus nigra
  123. Study on pecan seed germination influenced by seed endocarp
  124. Identification of active compounds in Ophiopogonis Radix from different geographical origins by UPLC-Q/TOF-MS combined with GC-MS approaches
  125. The entire chloroplast genome sequence of Asparagus cochinchinensis and genetic comparison to Asparagus species
  126. Genome-wide identification of MAPK family genes and their response to abiotic stresses in tea plant (Camellia sinensis)
  127. Selection and validation of reference genes for RT-qPCR analysis of different organs at various development stages in Caragana intermedia
  128. Cloning and expression analysis of SERK1 gene in Diospyros lotus
  129. Integrated metabolomic and transcriptomic profiling revealed coping mechanisms of the edible and medicinal homologous plant Plantago asiatica L. cadmium resistance
  130. A missense variant in NCF1 is associated with susceptibility to unexplained recurrent spontaneous abortion
  131. Assessment of drought tolerance indices in faba bean genotypes under different irrigation regimes
  132. The entire chloroplast genome sequence of Asparagus setaceus (Kunth) Jessop: Genome structure, gene composition, and phylogenetic analysis in Asparagaceae
  133. Food Science
  134. Dietary food additive monosodium glutamate with or without high-lipid diet induces spleen anomaly: A mechanistic approach on rat model
  135. Binge eating disorder during COVID-19
  136. Potential of honey against the onset of autoimmune diabetes and its associated nephropathy, pancreatitis, and retinopathy in type 1 diabetic animal model
  137. FTO gene expression in diet-induced obesity is downregulated by Solanum fruit supplementation
  138. Physical activity enhances fecal lactobacilli in rats chronically drinking sweetened cola beverage
  139. Supercritical CO2 extraction, chemical composition, and antioxidant effects of Coreopsis tinctoria Nutt. oleoresin
  140. Functional constituents of plant-based foods boost immunity against acute and chronic disorders
  141. Effect of selenium and methods of protein extraction on the proteomic profile of Saccharomyces yeast
  142. Microbial diversity of milk ghee in southern Gansu and its effect on the formation of ghee flavor compounds
  143. Ecology and Environmental Sciences
  144. Effects of heavy metals on bacterial community surrounding Bijiashan mining area located in northwest China
  145. Microorganism community composition analysis coupling with 15N tracer experiments reveals the nitrification rate and N2O emissions in low pH soils in Southern China
  146. Genetic diversity and population structure of Cinnamomum balansae Lecomte inferred by microsatellites
  147. Preliminary screening of microplastic contamination in different marine fish species of Taif market, Saudi Arabia
  148. Plant volatile organic compounds attractive to Lygus pratensis
  149. Effects of organic materials on soil bacterial community structure in long-term continuous cropping of tomato in greenhouse
  150. Effects of soil treated fungicide fluopimomide on tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) disease control and plant growth
  151. Prevalence of Yersinia pestis among rodents captured in a semi-arid tropical ecosystem of south-western Zimbabwe
  152. Effects of irrigation and nitrogen fertilization on mitigating salt-induced Na+ toxicity and sustaining sea rice growth
  153. Bioengineering and Biotechnology
  154. Poly-l-lysine-caused cell adhesion induces pyroptosis in THP-1 monocytes
  155. Development of alkaline phosphatase-scFv and its use for one-step enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for His-tagged protein detection
  156. Development and validation of a predictive model for immune-related genes in patients with tongue squamous cell carcinoma
  157. Agriculture
  158. Effects of chemical-based fertilizer replacement with biochar-based fertilizer on albic soil nutrient content and maize yield
  159. Genome-wide identification and expression analysis of CPP-like gene family in Triticum aestivum L. under different hormone and stress conditions
  160. Agronomic and economic performance of mung bean (Vigna radiata L.) varieties in response to rates of blended NPS fertilizer in Kindo Koysha district, Southern Ethiopia
  161. Influence of furrow irrigation regime on the yield and water consumption indicators of winter wheat based on a multi-level fuzzy comprehensive evaluation
  162. Discovery of exercise-related genes and pathway analysis based on comparative genomes of Mongolian originated Abaga and Wushen horse
  163. Lessons from integrated seasonal forecast-crop modelling in Africa: A systematic review
  164. Evolution trend of soil fertility in tobacco-planting area of Chenzhou, Hunan Province, China
  165. Animal Sciences
  166. Morphological and molecular characterization of Tatera indica Hardwicke 1807 (Rodentia: Muridae) from Pothwar, Pakistan
  167. Research on meat quality of Qianhua Mutton Merino sheep and Small-tail Han sheep
  168. SI: A Scientific Memoir
  169. Suggestions on leading an academic research laboratory group
  170. My scientific genealogy and the Toronto ACDC Laboratory, 1988–2022
  171. Erratum
  172. Erratum to “Changes of immune cells in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma treated by radiofrequency ablation and hepatectomy, a pilot study”
  173. Erratum to “A two-microRNA signature predicts the progression of male thyroid cancer”
  174. Retraction
  175. Retraction of “Lidocaine has antitumor effect on hepatocellular carcinoma via the circ_DYNC1H1/miR-520a-3p/USP14 axis”
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