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Structure and physical properties of BioPBS melt-blown nonwovens

  • Karolina Chmielewska-Pruska , Grzegorz Szparaga , Paweł Figiel and Michał Puchalski EMAIL logo
Published/Copyright: February 11, 2025
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AUTEX Research Journal
From the journal AUTEX Research Journal Volume 25 Issue 1

Abstract

In this study, the effect of melt-blown parameters on the properties of nonwovens manufactured from novel, commercially available biobased polybutylene succinate (BioPBS) was investigated. The research focused on the structure, surface, and mechanical properties. The parameters of processing, such as the air temperature (240 and 200°C) and die-to-collector distance (−40 cm), were evaluated in order to determine their impact on the prepared materials. Analyzing the effect of changes in the process parameters on individual fiber properties, it was noticed that the reduction of air temperature from 240 to 200°C results in an increase in the fiber diameter, which directly affects other physical properties such as apparent density and air permeability. In addition, the differences in the surface structure of nonwovens were determined. The investigation clearly shows that the obtained nonwovens can be characterized by various roughness sides with an insignificant impact on the friction and contact angle values. The mechanical tests suggest the influence of the supramolecular structure of PBS on the elongation and tenacity of the materials. The structure of the obtained nonwovens is different from the known characteristic nonwoven structure obtained by the melt-blown method from conventional polymers but can be useful in agricultural or horticultural applications.

Keywords: BioPBS; nonwovens; melt-blown; surface properties; mechanical test

1 Introduction

As consumption of plastics is expected to double in the next 20 years [1], the European Union in 2018 released the EU Strategy for Plastics in the Circular Economy to respond to challenges posed by plastic materials. This policy framework contains plans on how to overcome sustainability challenges by increasing the usage of bio-based and biodegradable or compostable plastics wherever such use is beneficial [1]. The bioplastic industry is an innovative and relatively new sector with huge potential in economy and ecology, but it currently represents only 1.5% of 390 million tons (MT) of plastic produced annually [2].

One of the markets where the consumption of plastics rapidly increases is agriculture, where plastic systems supporting the cultivation of plants are so-called “plasticulture” systems. Agroplastics, in the form of foils and nonwovens, are successfully used for the mulching and covering of tunnel structures or the production of pots for seedlings and strings for tying plants. A wide range of agroplastics is currently obtained from conventional, nondegradable polymers such as polyethylene and polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride, and poly-methyl-methacrylate. In European Union Countries, the demand for plastics in agriculture was estimated at 14 MT (4% global production) in 2021 [2]; therefore, this market is not the largest plastics user. Nevertheless, it generates almost as much waste because most of the products are single season use. According to the prognosis, agriculture research should also be focused on the development of environmentally friendly materials such as nonwovens obtained from biobased and biodegradable polymers [3].

Lately, one of the most researched, eco-friendly polymers is poly(butylene succinate) (PBS), and its processing and testing are investigated in this study. PBS was successfully presented commercially in 1993 under the trade name BionolleTM, and it was produced from petroleum derivatives by Showa Denko Company [4]. Polybutylene succinate is an aliphatic polyester consisting of monomer units –[O(CH2)4OOC(CH2)2CO] n –, synthesized by polycondensation of 1,4-butanediol and succinic acid. For years, it was produced from fossil sources, creating new opportunities to produce fully biodegradable packaging materials [5] or nonwovens for agriculture and horticulture [6,7]. Nowadays, the company is no longer producing BionolleTM [8]. The development of biotechnology over the last few decades has contributed to the development of substrates for the synthesis of PBS from biomass fermentation products by microorganisms, commercialized by the combined companies PTT Global Chemical Public Company Limited and Mitsubishi Chemical Corporation, under the trademark BioPBSTM. This possibility has led to the production of a well-known textile science biodegradable polymer, where conventional sources were replaced by renewable plant-based resources of completely natural origin [9,10]. This fact has made BioPBSTM one of the most promising polymers with a wide range of applications, including nonwovens [11].

PBS is a semicrystalline thermoplastic polymer with a melting point of approximately 115°C and a glass transition of −45 to −10°C. PBS has good thermal stability, which makes it suitable for thermal processabilities [10]. Depending on the crystallinity degree, PBS can be more stiff or ductile, but it is similar in physical and mechanical properties to conventional thermoplastics [12]. Many scientific studies allowed a complete characterization of PBS produced from conventional resources and analysis of its processing, product properties, and degradation conditions [13–16]. PBS is considered suitable for processing into films or injection molding, and is excellent to be processed with standard equipment using the melt-blown technique. Pratumpong et al. [17] studied the effect of the processing conditions of polybutylene succinate and polylactide (PLA) blend nonwovens using the melt-blown method. The authors tested the effect of changing air pressure and die-to-collector distance (DCD) on individual properties and found that increasing the air pressure and receiving distance resulted in the production of finer fibers. In addition, it was noted that with the selected process parameters, it was not possible to produce a complete nonwoven at DCD 15 cm. PBS is usually blended with PLA to enhance its toughness, and simple blending of small amounts of PBS into PLA matrix can increase elongation at break [10,18]. Tangnorawich et al. [11] studied PLA/PBS composites in different ratios. During analysis, they concluded that the addition of PBS enhanced the size of the fibers and affected the smoothing of the nonwoven surface.

The most valuable advantage of biodegradable polymers applied in agriculture is their ability to degrade in sufficient time to be used, depending on the application. Some calculations indicate that without the use of plastics in agriculture, over 60% of the crops would disappear [19]. Textile nonwoven structures are widely used in agriculture because of their flexibility, porosity, and air and water permeability [20,21]. To protect young plants from debilitating conditions, plastic-made coverages are used. Their main goal is to conserve humidity and stabilize soil temperature to improve the growth of plants and reduce weed infestation, which makes it possible to obtain higher-quality harvests are possible. The beneficial use of mulches to improve quality and yield has been confirmed in studies conducted by Kosterna et al. [22] and Siwek et al. [23]. The use of nonwovens made from PBS (BionolleTM® ) for direct covering proved to have a high impact on winter survival and gave the possibility to generate higher yields [24]. In a similar experiment, a degradable nonwoven made of PLA and PP with photodegradant was used. Tests showed that degradable PLA covers provided better conditions for plant growth, and its effect was compared with that of the PP agrotextile [25].

The aim of the study was to investigate the influence of the technological regime on the structural and mechanical properties of melt-blown nonwovens formed from novel commercially available, biobased, and biodegradable polymer – BioPBS. The main parameters of melt-blown technology, such as the air temperature and DCD, were changed in the extreme range. The complete analysis of microstructure, surface, and physical properties was conducted by using scanning electron microscopy, optical roughness analyzer, Kawabata Evaluation Systems – FB4 Surface Tester, and textile metrology methods according to ISO standards, respectively. The obtained results led to the discovery of both the technological limits of BioPBS processing by the melt-blown method, as well as the properties of the obtained nonwoven structures, which point to the huge potential in the designing and production of materials for horticulture and agriculture.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Nonwoven melt-blown technology

The nonwovens were obtained from the first commercially available bio-based BioPBS grade FZ71PM manufactured by PTT Mitsubishi Chemicals Corporation. In Figure 1, the melt flow rate (MFR) values, measured by Melt Flow Indexer MFI-A (Haanatek, UK) according to standard ISO 1133-1:2022 are presented.

Figure 1 MFR vs temperature profiles for BioPBS FZ71PM.
Figure 1

MFR vs temperature profiles for BioPBS FZ71PM.

Based on the estimated MFR values and preliminary tests (Patent application P.442079 – “Method of producing a hybrid membrane for applications in horticulture and agriculture, by nonwoven pneumothermal method”), the main and fixed parameters of the forming process, such as the temperature of the seven extrusion zones, die zone, and airflow intensity, were selected (Figure 2). Nonwovens were formed using a laboratory twin-screw extruder (ZAMAK, Poland).

Figure 2 Scheme of the melt-blown stand with the information about fixed melt-blown technological parameters of the prepared nonwovens [26].
Figure 2

Scheme of the melt-blown stand with the information about fixed melt-blown technological parameters of the prepared nonwovens [26].

The nonwovens were made in 20 variants, differing in the air flow temperatures (200 and 240°C), screw rotation speed (20 and 30 rpm), and DCD, in the range of 20–40 cm, as shown in Table 1. The range of variability of technological parameters was selected to include the boundary parameters below and above, which it was not possible to obtain a material with nonwoven properties.

Table 1

Variable technological parameters of the obtained nonwovens

Sample name S240-20-20 S240-20-25 S240-20-30 S240-20-35 S240-20-40 S240-30-20 S240-30-25 S240-30-30 S240-30-35 S240-30-40
Airflow temperature (°C) 240 240 240 240 240 240 240 240 240 240
Screw rotation speed (rpm) 20 20 20 20 20 30 30 30 30 30
DCD (cm) 20 25 30 35 40 20 25 30 35 40
Sample name S200-20-20 S200-20-25 S200-20-30 S200-20-35 S200-20-40 S200-30-20 S200-30-25 S200-30-30 S200-30-35 S200-30-40
Airflow temperature (°C) 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200
Screw rotation speed (rpm) 20 20 20 20 20 30 30 30 30 30
DCD (cm) 20 25 30 35 40 20 25 30 35 40

2.2 SEM microstructural analysis

The microstructural investigations of the nonwovens were carried out using scanning electron microscopy (Nova nanoSEM 230, FEI Company, Eindhoven, Netherlands). The studies were performed under low vacuum conditions using secondary electron detection and an electron beam of 10 keV energy. The SEM images were analyzed using ImageJ 1.42 software (NIH, LOCI, University of Wisconsin, USA), and the fiber diameters were determined. Statistical analysis was performed using OriginPro 2015 software (OriginLab Co., Northampton, USA) based on measuring 1,000 fiber diameters for each nonwoven sample.

2.3 Surface property analysis

The BioPBS nonwoven surface properties, such as friction and surface roughness, were analyzed using Kawabata Evaluation Systems – FB4 Surface Tester (Japan), a system developed for surface analysis of textile materials [27,28]. Roughness in the microscale was investigated using an optical microscope with the surface analyzer VHX-7000 (Keyence, UK). Additionally, the wettability of the obtained BioPBS nonwovens was analyzed by the sessile drop method and contact angle measurements.

2.4 Standardized test methods of nonwoven physical properties

The physical properties of the obtained BioPBS nonwovens were carried out under normal climate conditions (20°C, RH 65%) after 24 h sample conditioning, according to ISO 139:2005 standard. The mass per unit area was evaluated according to ISO 9073-1:2023 standard, using laboratory balance WD 310 (RADWAG, Poland) with an accuracy of 1 mg. The nonwoven thickness was measured using a thickness meter J-40 (Kontech, Poland) with an accuracy of 0.01 mm according to ISO 9073-2:1995 standard. Air permeability was measured according to the standard ISO 9073-15:2007 using Textest FX 3300-II (Switzerland) with an accuracy of 1 l/(m2/s).

2.5 Mechanical property analysis

The tensile strength and elongation of nonwovens were measured using an Instron 5544 (USA) tensile tester, according to ISO 9073-4:2021 standard. The measurement was carried out with a clamp distance of 200 mm and an extension speed of 100 mm/min. In addition, the resistance to mechanical penetration (ball bust procedure) was measured according to ISO 9073-5:2008, using a polished steel ball with a diameter of 25 mm and a downward speed of 300 mm/min until the specimen burst. The parameter recorded was the ball burst strength, and average data were calculated for each nonwoven.

3 Results and discussion

3.1 SEM microstructural analysis

The first part of the investigation was focused on the analysis of the influence of technological parameters on the microstructure of nonwovens, which determine the physical properties of the material. In Figure 3, the SEM images obtained for nonwovens made at extreme values of selected technological parameters are presented. The obtained nonwoven is characterized by unoriented fibers with various fiber diameters. The large fiber matrix was supplemented by thinner fibers, which is typical for the nonwoven formed by the melt-blown method [29]. Interestingly, the structure of the investigated materials was dense and the large depth of field of the electron microscope allows for the observation of the whole cross-section of the morphological structure in the surface view. The presented SEM images confirm the organoleptic evaluation, where the hand values of the obtained BioPBS materials were more similar to those of the foil than to the fluffy filtering nonwoven, which was usually obtained with this technique [30,31]. Moreover, the nonwoven side of the die/extruder is definitely rougher than the receiving collector side, where the material resembles a foil. The manufactured materials are characterized by interesting structures, which could be potentially applied in horticulture or agriculture as lightweight porous structures that are ready to replace conventional foil materials.

Figure 3 Example of SEM images recorded for the melt-blown nonwovens obtained at extreme values of the selected technological parameters.
Figure 3

Example of SEM images recorded for the melt-blown nonwovens obtained at extreme values of the selected technological parameters.

Additionally, the image analysis obtained using the ImageJ software allows one to determine the distribution of fiber diameters for all obtained nonwovens (Figure S1). The statistical analysis was performed using the OriginPro 2015 software based on 1,000 measurements for each nonwoven. The results of the determination of the fiber diameter distribution parameters, such as the mode (Mo), median (Me), mean value (x), and standard deviation (SD), are presented in Table 2. The significance of the difference between variants with a significance level of 0.05 was determined after the normality test Kolmogorov–Smirnov using Mood’s, ANOVA, and Tukey statistical tests.

Table 2

Statistical parameters of the fiber diameter distribution of the obtained nonwovens

Sample Mo (µm) Me (µm) X (µm) SD (µm) Sample Mo (µm) Me (µm) X (µm) SD (µm)
S240-20-20 16.9 16.2 17.7 9.2 S200-20-20 186.4 169.1 167.9 32.9
S240-20-25 10.2 17.6 18.1 8.6 S200-20-25 106.9 131.0 131.0 20.4
S240-20-30 11.5 19.2 21.4 11.1 S200-20-30 95.6 130.6 131.3 31.9
S240-20-35 18.3 20.4 20. 9 8.1 S200-20-35 98.1 117.5 118.9 24.7
S240-20-40 14.6 21.7 23.3 9.1 S200-20-40 99.8 99.3 98.7 27.5
S240-30-20 25 20.6 22.4 9.5 S200-30-20 130.0 147.4 148.6 34.4
S240-30-25 22.1 25. 6 27.6 11.9 S200-30-25 125.4 146.7 148.2 28.1
S240-30-30 6.7 26.0 28.7 14.8 S200-30-30 101.5 130.8 132.1 33.6
S240-30-35 26.9 29.0 33.5 22.8 S200-30-35 71.9 125.8 128.1 31.8
S240-30-40 14.1 29.2 33.2 20.3 S200-30-40 55.1 119.3 120.6 34.5

The fiber diameter distribution of nonwovens manufactured at an air temperature of 240°C despite DCD and screw rotation speed was characterized by non-normal distribution. Under these technological conditions, the fineness of fibers increased with increasing DCD, which is signaled by the increase of median and mean values. The median values for the samples formed with the screw rotation speeds of 20 and 30 rpm were in the range of 16–22 and 20–29 µm, respectively. Based on the mode values, the nonwoven with the thinnest fibers was the sample S240-30-30 (Mo = 6.7 µm), while the thickest fibers were observed for the sample S240-30-40.

Mood’s test showed a statistical analysis of significant differences between samples in the case of median values. ANOVA test with Tukey analysis of mean values shows that part of the samples can be characterized with insignificant differences of mean values at the significance level of 0.05. The similarity of mean values of the fiber diameter was confirmed between samples obtained under an airflow temperature of 240°C, a screw rotation speed of 20 rpm, and a DCD in the range of 20–35 cm. Nonwovens obtained under technological parameters where the DCD was 40 cm are characterized by significantly different mean values to the obtained under a lower distance. Similar statistical conclusions were obtained for a speed of 30 rpm, where the nonwoven received at a distance of 40 cm also differed significantly in terms of the mean value.

The nonwovens prepared at an airflow temperature of 200°C are characterized by different microstructures. In this case, the fiber diameter distribution of nonwovens was characterized by the normal distribution, despite the DCD and screw rotation speed. The mean value of the fiber diameter for these nonwovens was in the range of 120–168 µm, and the nonwoven with the thinnest fibers was sample S200-30-40 (Mo = 55.1 µm). Interestingly, under this technological regime, the fineness of fibers significantly decreased with increasing DCD, which is a different phenomenon that was observed for nonwovens formed under an airflow temperature of 240°C.

Analysis of differences between samples obtained using the ANOVA test and Tukey test concludes significant differences between samples, except for nonwovens formed at DCDs of 20 and 25 cm. Thus, the experiment indicates the significant influence of processing parameters, mainly the air temperature, on the microstructure of the final product and what may impinge on the properties of nonwoven fabrics, which will be considered in a later section of this article.

To summarize the SEM observations, it should be noted that the microstructure of the nonwovens consisted of non-oriented fibers, which was to be expected, with a significantly larger fiber diameter than in the case of melt-blown fibers obtained from conventional polymers [32,33]. The observed properties of the microstructure of nonwoven fabrics, in our opinion, are a result of the molecular structures of the polymer used, which should be modified in order to obtain a more fluffy nonwoven fabric with a lower fiber diameter, which, in fact, can be obtained by adding another aliphatic polyester – PLA [17]. Nevertheless, the microstructure obtained is interesting for the production of melt-blown nonwoven fabrics for mulching or potting, which would be a practical alternative for the textile industry, which, in the era of COVID-19, invested in the purchase of machines for the production of filtering respiratory protective devices.

3.2 Surface property analysis

The surface properties of the obtained nonwovens were characterized by four factors: surface roughness mean deviation (SMD) on the macroscopic scale, mean value of the coefficient of friction (MIU), arithmetic mean roughness (Ra) on the microscopic scale, and contact angle of wetting of water.

First, the SMD and MIU parameters were determined using the Kawabata Evaluation Systems – FB4 (KES-FB4) with the measurement at a 2 cm distance. The SMD factor is clearly reflected in the organoleptic test about the significant difference between the sides of nonwoven materials (Figure 4). The surface geometrical roughness in the macroscale is significantly higher from the die/extruder side than from the receiving collector side, where the surface is similar to the foil in touch. This phenomenon depends on the polymer properties such as thermal and viscosity properties. Therefore, the characteristic feature of the manufactured nonwoven material is its surface roughness and sensory feel to the touch, varying depending on the side of the material.

Figure 4 SMD of the studied nonwovens, measured in macroscale using the KES-FB4 system.
Figure 4

SMD of the studied nonwovens, measured in macroscale using the KES-FB4 system.

The analysis of the influence of technological parameters on SMD values shows that the geometrical roughness increases with increasing DCD, and it is observed on both sides of the nonwoven. This relationship is most clearly visible when nonwoven fabrics are formed at an air temperature of 240°C. In the case of applied air temperature 200°C, the main changes in the roughness are visible for the DCD between 25 and 30 cm. The most notable difference between the two sides of obtained materials is visible for nonwovens prepared at an air temperature of 200°C and a screw rotation speed of 30 rpm, whereas the smallest differences are visible for the nonwovens formed at 240°C and a screw rotation speed of 20 rpm. As seen in Figure 4, the increase of roughness measured in the macroscale for both sides of materials with increasing DCD is clearly visible. The other technological parameters also influence the roughness but it is difficult to express the correlation of these changes. Overview of all SMD values of the individual nonwovens results in average values of 11.6 and 1.6 μm for the die and collector sides, respectively. Overall, the roughest material is nonwoven 240/20/40, where the difference between the die and collector side was 15.8 µm.

In Figure 5, the influence of technological parameters on the mean value of the coefficient of friction (MIU) is shown. As presented, the results clearly show a noticeably smaller difference in the MIU values measured, depending on the side of the material. Friction is slightly lower on the collector side, but these differences are not as pronounced as in the case of the SMD parameter. An in-depth analysis of the results shows a similar effect of technological parameters on the obtained values as in the case of roughness. An increase in the coefficient of friction is visible with an increase in the screw rotation speed. The results obtained from the mean value of the coefficient of friction test indicate that in the case of the nonwoven structures tested, the topography of the surface has a less significant effect on friction than the surface properties of the PBS material. Despite the significant differences in roughness (average value: ∼11.6 µm), the differences in the friction coefficient are not much larger than the calculated standard deviation, and in a few cases, the differences are even smaller (see samples 240/20/30 and 200/20/30). The observed phenomenon is due to the relatively low roughness of the material, which was at a level of about 12 μm, and thus, the average coefficient of traction is mainly due to the surface properties of the polymer and not the fabricated product. The BioPBS nonwoven materials were characterized by a compact structure, not typical for melt-blown nonwovens, as shown in the case of SEM microstructure studies, but with a high potential for application in horticulture or agriculture use.

Figure 5 Mean values of coefficient of friction (MIU) of studied nonwovens, measured in macroscale using the KES-FB4 system.
Figure 5

Mean values of coefficient of friction (MIU) of studied nonwovens, measured in macroscale using the KES-FB4 system.

The next step of surface property investigation of the obtained BioPBS nonwovens was the analysis of roughness on a microscale by using a 3D laser scanning microscope based on the confocal principle. The arithmetic mean roughness (Ra) at a distance of 4 mm was estimated to investigate the influence of technological parameters on the topography of the obtained nonwovens in the microscale. In Figure 6, the influence of changes in the selected technological parameters on the Ra factor is presented. Similar to the SMD results, the influence of technological parameters on the Ra factor is clearly visible, as expected. The difference in the values was due to the methodology of measurements. The KES-FB4 system based on the application special probe had a contact point of at least 5 mm2, so the mechanical measurements gave lower and averaged values of roughness parameters. In the case of measurements of Ra factor using a 3D laser scanning microscope, the results depended on the light spot size, which could be focused on the micrometer diameter. In this study, both techniques were used so that the results would be comprehensive. The results, obtained using both roughness test methods, unanimously confirm the phenomenon related to the difference in roughness depending on the side of the material.

Figure 6 Arithmetic mean roughness (Ra) of the studied nonwovens, measured on a macroscale using a 3D laser scanning microscope.
Figure 6

Arithmetic mean roughness (Ra) of the studied nonwovens, measured on a macroscale using a 3D laser scanning microscope.

As shown in Figure 6, the maximum roughness of the surface and the maximum difference between sides were observed for the sample formed at an air temperature of 240°C, a screw rotation speed of 30 rpm, and a DCD of 40 cm. On the contrary, the minimum difference between the tested sides and the minimum Ra value was measured for the sample formed at an air temperature of 240°C, a screw rotation speed of 20 rpm, and a DCD of 20 cm.

The last surface analysis was the assessment of the wettability of obtained BioPBS nonwovens. In Figure 7, the results of the measurement of the contact angle are presented. According to the obtained results, it can be seen that the value of the contact angle decreases with increasing process air temperature. At the same time, it was also noted, similarly to the SMD and Ra factor measurements, that for materials obtained at 240°C, nonwoven fabric 240/20/20 has the lowest contact angle value, which corresponds to the conclusion that it has the roughest structure among the nonwoven fabrics. Moreover, this nonwoven has a significant difference between the die and collector side (29.1°), which is the highest of all prepared nonwoven. A similarity has also been observed in the surface properties of the 240/30/30 nonwoven fabric – the contact angle of both the die, and collector sides have a similar value, suggesting that the surface structure of the nonwoven fabric is similar. This conclusion corresponds to the SMD and Ra values estimated using KES-FB4 and 3D laser scanning microscope, respectively. It is worth noting that the overall contact angle values for nonwovens obtained at an air temperature of 200°C are higher than nonwovens obtained at an air temperature of 240°C. As it was stated in the SEM analysis, the obtained nonwovens have randomly distributed fibers; thus small pores were formed during processing, which have a significant impact on performances such as wettability and air permeability. Meng et al. [34] studied PLA/PBS melt-blown nonwovens microstructure and determined that, compared to the average pore size of pure PLA nonwovens, just 10 wt% PBS results in increased average pore size, which may be due to the increase in crystallinity. This phenomenon indicates that the properties of BioPBS and the microstructure formed during the processing of nonwoven fabrics have a significant impact on their end uses.

Figure 7 Results of contact angle measurements.
Figure 7

Results of contact angle measurements.

3.3 Physical properties of nonwovens

The physical properties of nonwovens, such as mass per unit area, thickness, apparent density, and air permeability, were estimated according to the ISO standards. These properties define the macrostructure of materials, which influences the application choices and possible further improvements. In Figure 8, the effect of the analyzed technological parameters on the thickness of BioPBS nonwovens is presented. There are two important parameters that affect the thickness of BioPBS nonwovens. First is the screw rotation speed: higher speed results in a higher amount of extruding polymer, and thicker products are obtained. The maximum thickness of nonwovens obtained under screw rotation speeds of 20 rpm was around 0.45 mm; in the case of 30 rpm, the thickness was increased up to 0.8 mm. The air temperature is also important; higher air temperature allows one to obtain thicker products. Moreover, the DCD proved to be an important parameter as well, and its increase resulted in a proportional increase in the thickness of the product. This observation is especially interesting considering Pratumpongs et al.’s [17] study on PBS melt-blown nonwovens, in which it was concluded that increasing DCD leads to a decrease in the thickness of the obtained nonwovens. This proves that all of the parameters of the manufacturing process have an extremely important influence on the end properties of the product.

Figure 8 The influence of melt-blown technological parameters on the thickness of the formed BioPBS nonwovens.
Figure 8

The influence of melt-blown technological parameters on the thickness of the formed BioPBS nonwovens.

Another estimated basic parameter is the mass per unit area (grams per square meter, GSM). According to the results presented in Figure 9, and statistical analysis by means of ANOVA and Tukey tests, only the screw rotation speed significantly influenced the mass per unit area. The nonwovens obtained at 20 rpm were characterized by the GSM at a level of 100 g/m2, while nonwovens obtained at 30 rpm were characterized by the GSM at a level of 150 g/m2. This result is unsurprising and typical for the melt-blown technology. The mass per unit area should depend only on the amount of extruding polymer, while all of the nonwovens were received in the same technological regimes, such as the collector rotary speed and the width of the spun.

Figure 9 The influence of melt-blown technological parameters on the grams per square meter and the apparent density of the formed BioPBS nonwovens.
Figure 9

The influence of melt-blown technological parameters on the grams per square meter and the apparent density of the formed BioPBS nonwovens.

Another parameter is the apparent density ( ρ A ), which is calculated from the estimated thickness (d) and GSM according to the formula

(1) ρ A = GSM d .

Because the thickness of the nonwoven varies as a function of all of the analyzed technological parameters, and the GSM is constant, thus the apparent density changes inversely proportional to the changes in thickness, which is expected according to the formula (1).

The last parameter analyzed was air permeability. This metrological factor depends primarily on the porosity of the product and the resulting potential internal capillaries that allow airflow. In Figure 10, the influence of selected technological parameters on the air transmissions through the BioPBS nonwovens is presented. The analysis additionally took into account the differences in the surface structures of the tested materials. As it clearly shows, the measurement from the rough side of the nonwoven is characterized by insignificant higher values. However, the air permeability of the investigated nonwovens changes in a similar way with the change of the selected technological parameters regardless of the testing side of the nonwoven. It is worth noting that a parameter such as air permeability is strictly dependent on the diameter of the fibers obtained during the nonwoven production process, which was previously studied in melt-blown PBS nonwovens [31,33]. Air permeability is dependent on the thickness of the fiber, which is directly dependent on the process parameters. This, therefore creates the possibility to model the desired characteristics of the materials obtained. A significant increase in air permeability can be clearly seen for nonwovens obtained at a higher screw rotation speed, where the extrusion speed affects fiber disorientation and hence the formation of larger pores. The relationship between the receiving distance of the nonwoven and its air permeability is also visible. The further the collector is placed, the thicker the nonwoven fabric is, and at the same time more permeable.

Figure 10 Influence of melt-blown technological parameters on the air permeability of the formed BioPBS nonwovens.
Figure 10

Influence of melt-blown technological parameters on the air permeability of the formed BioPBS nonwovens.

3.4 Mechanical properties

The last part of the presented investigation is the analysis of the effect of forming parameters on the mechanical properties of obtained nonwovens. The studied textile materials were characterized by the parameters tenacity and elongation. Tenacity is defined as a relation of measured maximum force at break or ball burst strength to the apparent density of the nonwoven [35]. The normalization by the apparent density parameter is particularly useful in the characterization of inhomogeneous materials on account of the changes in the thickness and mass per unit area. In Figure 11, the effect of the DCD and air temperature changes on the tenacity values (in relation to the maximum breaking force) of the studied nonwovens in the machine (MD) and traverse (TD) directions is presented.

Figure 11 Changes in the tenacity values as a function of the DCD and air temperatures of the nonwoven fabrics.
Figure 11

Changes in the tenacity values as a function of the DCD and air temperatures of the nonwoven fabrics.

As seen in Figure 11, tenacity values as a function of maximum force at break to apparent density differ depending on the air temperature maintained during nonwoven processing. For nonwovens obtained at 240°C, the tenacity values are higher compared to the nonwovens obtained at 200°C. In addition, there is one nonwoven with significantly higher tenacity values compared to others. It was obtained at an air temperature of 240°C, a screw rotation speed of 20 rpm, and a DCD of 35 cm – nonwoven 240/20/35, with the tenacity of 0.113 N/(kg/m3) in the machine direction, and 0.090 N/(kg/m3) in the transverse direction. It is worth mentioning that for nonwovens prepared at an air temperature of 240°C and a screw rotation speed of 30 rpm, there is a relation according to which tenacity of the nonwoven fabric initially decreases, reaching a minimum for the nonwoven fabric collected from 30 cm to 0.050 N/(kg/m3) and then significantly increases, reaching the highest value for the nonwoven fabric collected at 40 cm to 0.084 N/(kg/m3) in the machine direction. This relation is also visible in the transverse direction. The observed changes in the mechanical properties are a result of different morphologies obtained after the forming process, which results in an inhomogeneous fabric structure. However, for nonwovens obtained at an air temperature of 200°C, tenacity values are similar in the machine direction and transverse direction independent of the collecting distance. Based on these results, we can conclude that tenacity in terms of the relation between the apparent density and maximum breaking force of the prepared BioPBS nonwovens is strictly dependent on the forming conditions.

Taking into consideration the possible future applications of the studied nonwoven materials, the test of the resistance to mechanical penetration was performed. In Figure 12, the tenacity of the prepared nonwoven materials is defined as a relation of the measured ball burst strength to the apparent density of the nonwoven.

Figure 12 Changes in the tenacity values based on the ball burst test.
Figure 12

Changes in the tenacity values based on the ball burst test.

As seen in Figure 12, the tenacity values as a function of the maximum ball burst strength to apparent density differ depending on the air temperature maintained during nonwoven processing. This result is similar to the results for maximum breaking force tenacity; for nonwovens obtained at 240°C, the tenacity values are higher compared to the nonwovens obtained at 200°C. However, there is a significant difference in the durability; the most ball penetration resistant were nonwovens obtained at an air temperature of 240°C and a screw rotation speed of 30 rpm. The observed phenomenon could be the effect of better consolidation of the web at a higher temperature of air. The higher temperature gradient between the die and collector favors obtaining the material with higher strength with the higher orientation of the polymer structure of fibers. According to the measurement of fiber diameters, the forming of nonwoven at an air temperature of 240°C allows one to obtain fibers six times thicker than that formed at 200°C. Based on the mechanical properties, thus, it should be noted that thinner fibers are characterized by a more strongly oriented supramolecular structure, which can be the subject of further research.

The last mechanical parameter was elongation at break, measured for all nonwoven materials in machine and transverse directions, as presented in Figure 13. Taking into consideration the elongation at break measured in MD, a significant difference for nonwovens prepared at an air temperature of 240°C and a screw rotation of 20 rpm is visible. Nonwovens collected at 25 cm – 240/20/25 are twice more elastic (27.5%) than nonwovens obtained with the same processing parameters but collected at 40 cm – 240/20/40 (15.2%). The elasticity of nonwovens prepared at an air temperature of 200°C and a screw rotation speed of 30 rpm increases slightly, almost linearly, along with the deferral of collecting. It is worth mentioning that for fabrics prepared at an air temperature of 200°C and a screw rotation speed of 30 rpm and collected at 30 and 35 cm, elongation increases almost twice: 240/30/30 – 11.7% and 240/30/35 – 22.5%. Surprisingly, tests carried out in transverse directions revealed that nonwoven with the highest elasticity in the machine direction – 240/20/25, has the lowest value in the transverse direction – 10.8%. The influence on changing the collecting distance is clearly visible in nonwovens prepared at 200°C and a screw rotation speed of 30 rpm; elongation at break increases with the collecting distance. Overall, it was observed that all of the prepared nonwovens have relatively high elasticity in comparison to a similar study presented by Pratumpong et al. [17]. The observed changes in elongation at break are also a result of the physical properties of nonwoven materials, such as morphology and supramolecular ordering created during the technological process.

Figure 13 Changes in the elongation at break values of nonwoven fabrics manufactured at different processing parameters.
Figure 13

Changes in the elongation at break values of nonwoven fabrics manufactured at different processing parameters.

4 Conclusion

The aim of the study was to investigate the influence of the technological regime on the structure and mechanical properties of melt-blown nonwovens formed from the novel, commercially available, biobased aliphatic polyester – BioPBS. Various melt-blown nonwoven samples were prepared, and the purpose of the study was fulfilled by the complete analysis of the microstructure, surface, and physical properties. The performed studies allowed one to test the possibility of forming nonwovens from unmodified and unblended BioPBS using melt-blown technology and to estimate the limiting values of the selected technological parameters. The structure of the obtained nonwovens is different from the typical nonwoven structure obtained by the melt-blown method from conventional polymers but can be useful in agricultural or horticultural applications. Moreover, based on the conducted investigations, it is concluded that:

  • Changes in the parameters of the manufacturing process, such as the extrusion temperature, airflow temperature, screw rotation speed, and distance of the receiving collector from the forming head with die, have a significant impact on the properties of the obtained materials, as expected.

  • In the design of technological processes of forming melt-blown nonwovens from BioPBS, air temperature is important and should be in the range of 200–240°C. SEM studies with the image analysis clearly show that a decrease in the air temperature from 240 to 200°C results in an increase in the fiber diameter by an average of 110 µm. This parameter directly influences other physical properties, such as the thickness of the nonwoven fabric, apparent density, and air permeability.

  • The investigation of the mechanical properties, such as elongation at break and the tenacity on the ball burst test, clearly suggests the impact of supramolecular structures created during nonwoven formation. Based on the performed investigations, it should be noted that thinner fibers are characterized by a more strongly oriented supramolecular structure, which could be an important subject of further research.

  • The obtained nonwovens are characterized by different surface properties varying in roughness. In the analysis of surface properties, a correlation was observed between the results of SMD, and arithmetic mean roughness (Ra) analysis. The first analysis was performed on a macroscale and the second on a microscale, but both analyses confirm the results and the fact that the obtained nonwovens have two different structures depending on the sides. This observed phenomenon depended on the technological parameters and defined further possible applications. Notably, the roughness insignificantly affected the friction and contact angle measurements, which indicates the relevance of the physical and chemical properties of the polymer for these surface parameters.

  • The obtained BioPBS nonwovens, according to their physical characteristics, are significantly different than those formed from conventional polymers. In the authors opinion, it may be an interesting alternative for the conventional foils, which are often used in agriculture for mulching, tunnel coverings, and plant protection, but also represent a promising base for the production of other products, e.g., planting pots, seedling trays, and bags.

  • The obtained results led to the discovery of both the technological limits of BioPBS processing by the melt-blown method and the properties of the obtained nonwoven structures, which point to the huge potential in the designing and production of materials. Based on the current state of knowledge and considering that BioPBS is a novel biobased and biodegradable polymer, this research could be useful in the mentioned applications but also can be a basis for further research on nonwoven products made from biobased PBS, especially considering its degradation and behavior under different environmental conditions.

Acknowledgement

This study was completed while the first author was a Doctoral Candidate in the Interdisciplinary Doctoral School at the Lodz University of Technology, Poland. These studies were realized under statutory activity by the Lodz University of Technology. Institute Textiles Institute Poland I42/501-4-42-1-1.

  1. Funding information: Authors state no funding involved.

  2. Author contributions: Conceptualization, M.P.; methodology, K. Ch.-P. M. P., G. S.; formal analysis, K. Ch.-P.; investigation, K.-Ch.-P.; data curation, K.-Ch.-P. P. F.; writing – original draft preparation, K-Ch.-P.; writing – review and editing, K-Ch.-P., M.P.; visualization K.-Ch.-P., P. F.; supervision, M.P. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

  3. Conflict of interest: Authors state no conflict of interest.

  4. Ethical approval: The conducted research is not related to either human or animal use.

  5. Data availability statement: The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Received: 2024-06-07
Revised: 2024-11-28
Accepted: 2024-12-04
Published Online: 2025-02-11

© 2025 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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https://doi.org/10.1515/aut-2024-0023
Keywords for this article
BioPBS; nonwovens; melt-blown; surface properties; mechanical test
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  2. Study and restoration of the costume of the HuoLang (Peddler) in the Ming Dynasty of China
  3. Texture mapping of warp knitted shoe upper based on ARAP parameterization method
  4. Extraction and characterization of natural fibre from Ethiopian Typha latifolia leaf plant
  5. The effect of the difference in female body shapes on clothing fitting
  6. Structure and physical properties of BioPBS melt-blown nonwovens
  7. Optimized model formulation through product mix scheduling for profit maximization in the apparel industry
  8. Fabric pattern recognition using image processing and AHP method
  9. Optimal dimension design of high-temperature superconducting levitation weft insertion guideway
  10. Color analysis and performance optimization of 3D virtual simulation knitted fabrics
  11. Analyzing the effects of Covid-19 pandemic on Turkish women workers in clothing sector
  12. Closed-loop supply chain for recycling of waste clothing: A comparison of two different modes
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  29. Research on user behavior of traditional Chinese medicine therapeutic smart clothing
  30. Effect of construction parameters on faux fur knitted fabric properties
  31. The use of innovative sewing machines to produce two prototypes of women’s skirts
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