Analyzing the effects of Covid-19 pandemic on Turkish women workers in clothing sector
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Aylin Akşit
Abstract
Covid-19 pandemic, which has negatively affected all sectors and life, has also negatively influenced the clothing sector, which possesses a global supply chain. Within the clothing sector, which is a labor-intensive sector, mostly women workers are employed. Women workers’ issues, who already face work–life balance and occupational segregation problems in their work lives, have also been increased with the pandemic. In this context, this research aims to analyze the effects of Covid-19 pandemic on women workers in clothing sector. In accordance with the aim of the research, a survey is conducted on women workers, who are employed in Türkiye’s provinces, where clothing sector intensively operates. The obtained results are analyzed statistically and suggestions are made to the clothing enterprises on the basis of these results. According to the obtained results, Turkish women clothing workers, who participated in the survey, indicated that the increases that occurred in their physical and psychological problems are the most important issues that they faced during the Covid-19 pandemic. Besides, participants’ emotional behaviors, concerns, anxieties, hopelessness, sleeping issues, anger, and rages also increased.
1 Introduction
Clothing sector, which is a labor-intensive sector, has been negatively affected from Covid-19 pandemic, and has reflected these negative effects on its workers. The increased closures and restrictions due to the spreading pandemic have caused serious disruptions and deteriorations in the clothing supply chain, which is global, more complicated, and longer compared to other sectors’ supply chains. The supply chain, whose flow is destroyed, has caused closures of many factories and many workers to lose their jobs. Since clothing sector is labor-intensive sector, it provides employment to many workers and women workers constitute the huge part of these workers. Therefore, when the pandemic has negatively affected the clothing workers, women clothing workers have been the most affected ones.
In this context, this research aims to analyze the effects of Covid-19 pandemic on women workers in clothing sector. In other words, it aims to reveal how the women clothing workers, who possess different demographic properties, are affected from pandemic in Türkiye, which is one of the leading clothing exporters in the world. Besides, it aims to make suggestions to the clothing enterprises on the basis of research results. In accordance with the aim of the research and on the basis of information within the literature [1–22], the following hypotheses are suggested:
H1: The effects of Covid-19 pandemic on women clothing workers alter according to their marital status.
H2: The effects of Covid-19 pandemic on women clothing workers alter in accordance with having a child or not.
H3: The effects of Covid-19 pandemic on women clothing workers alter according to their education levels.
H4: The effects of Covid-19 pandemic on women clothing workers alter according to their income levels.
Turkish clothing sector is chosen because of its significance within the global clothing trade and due to its women employment rate. According to the data of World Trade Organization [23], Türkiye is the fifth biggest clothing exporter in the world and has taken 3.5% share of global clothing exports by 2022. Besides, Turkish clothing sector has actualized 19.9 billion dollars exports and only 2.7 billion dollars imports in 2022. The sector has taken 8% share from Türkiye’s general export in the same year, while creating 17.2 billion dollars net added value. On the other hand, according to the data of Turkish Statistical Institute [24], clothing sector has taken 14% from Türkiye’s manufacturing sector in terms of enterprise number, whereas it has taken 15% share in terms of employment. As it can be seen from the statistics, Turkish clothing sector continues to maintain its significance both in global clothing trade and in Turkish economy. Moreover, according to the data of Türkiye Social Security Institution [25], approximately 52% of the Turkish workers who are employed in clothing production by 2020 are women, whereas only 29% of the Turkish workers, who are employed in manufacturing sector (clothing sector is classified under manufacturing sector), are women.
There are many research studies in the literature, which investigate the issues women workers’ face within their work lives and the effects of these issues generally or on the basis of different sectors and therefore on the basis of clothing sector. There are also studies within the literature, which analyze the effects of Covid-19 pandemic on workers generally, or on the basis of different sectors or on the basis of clothing sector. The studies, which analyze the effects of pandemic on workers on the basis of clothing sector, either globally analyze or focus on a country (especially to South and Southeast Asian countries) [26–31]. Therefore, there is no any such study, which analyzes the effects of Covid-19 pandemic on women workers in clothing sector on the basis of Türkiye. Besides, this research reveals if the effects of pandemic on women clothing workers alter or not alter according to their education levels, their marital status, having a child or not, and their income levels. In this context, this research differs from other studies and contributes to the literature.
2 Theoretical framework
2.1 Issues that the women workers face and the effects of Covid-19 pandemic on women workers and women clothing workers
Gender equality means that women and men own equal rights and opportunities in every field of life and are treated equally. It states that, people’s rights, responsibilities, social status, and access to resources do not depend on their birth as woman or man. Women face with pressure, discrimination, and human rights violations throughout the world despite the gender equality principles and commitments that are stated in many international agreements. Gender inequality can be seen both at the qualifications and quantifications of job opportunities that are presented in business world. On average, men earn and promote to leader and manager positions more than women. In the business world, gender equality states right and treatment equality, wage equality, access to safe and healthy working conditions, equality in organization and collective bargaining, equality in career development, protection of maternity, and work–life balance which is fair for both women and men [32]. Equal employment opportunity is an individual right, which does not depend on race, gender, and marital status [1]. Covid-19 pandemic has contributed to the increase in these issues.
During Covid-19 pandemic, more women have lost their jobs and have worked in jobs where they are exposed to infection and psychological stress with regard to men. Similarly, more women have taken a break in their jobs due to the increased responsibilities and child care [33]. Besides, they have lost their income sources and mental and psychological health more quickly compared to men [2]. The concerns and anxieties that the women felt have increased with pandemic and also their care responsibilities have increased. Although the working conditions have worsened, the expectations of employers from their workers have not changed. Thus, many women have lost their physical and psychological health due to these conditions. Remote working conditions also have caused an increase in the workload, exhaustion sense, stress levels, and sense of loneliness [3]. The issues that the women workers have faced with during Covid-19 pandemic can be summarized as burnout syndrome, mental and psychological issues, increased housework, job loss fear (increased concerns for losing a job), deterioration of work–life balance, gender inequality, decreased financial independence, decreased communication, increased domestic violence and abuse [34].
The effects of Covid-19 pandemic on women clothing workers can be summarized as follows. Throughout the world, women clothing workers have lost their jobs, earnings, severance allowances, and savings. Many women workers have not been able to satisfy the basic needs of their households like food, rent, and health expenditures, because they have not even got their earnings for their completed works. Millions of families have faced with poverty and starvation [26–28,30,31]. Many women clothing workers’ housework and unpaid care work have increased during pandemic. This burden also has delayed some women clothing workers return to their jobs or has caused them to leave their jobs [26,30]. The numbers of women clothing workers, who face violence, have increased during pandemic due to causes like mobility restraints and status losses of men in the houses who lost their jobs. Pandemic also has negatively affected the participation of women clothing workers in decision mechanisms and senior management [26]. Pandemic has worsened working conditions of women clothing workers, has increased violation of rights, and has restricted their access to social aid supports. Besides, pandemic has increased the women clothing workers who work informally [26,29].
2.1.1 Work–life balance
Work–life balance, which is one of the most important issues that women workers face with, is defined as finding a life rhythm, which provides an opportunity for combining work life with other responsibilities and activities [4]. Gender culture within a society sometimes states contradictory definitions for working mothers [5]. If there is a common opinion within the society, which declares that men should be the breadwinner, working mothers are not welcomed. In these societies men are labeled as breadwinners, whereas women are expected to stay at home and look after kids and do housework. Women should quit their jobs as soon as they get married either they have an ordinary job or possess a perfect career. They can only work after their kids reach to an age that they will need less care. Therefore, women give up from having a child in order to exist in work life or arrange their work lives in accordance with having a child [6]. One of the most important moments in the life of a woman is when her first pregnancy is concurrent with a significant promotion. At this point, she has to decide whether to continue her career or prefer being a mother [7].
On the other hand, Covid-19 pandemic has significantly increased the heavy burden of working mothers [8]. Pandemic has caused a double increase in unpaid housework (meal preparation, cleaning, housework, looking after children, taking care of elder ones, etc.). Women have continued to carry this heavy burden [2,3,9]. Before the Covid-19 pandemic, 16.4 billion hours have been spent at unpaid housework throughout the world and two-thirds of these works have been actualized by women. Women have allocated more time to unpaid housework due to reasons such as closure of schools and daycare, disruption in public services related to elders and disabled ones, inability of employees, who work in housework, to continue their work and need to care for family members, who got sick [10].
2.1.2 Inequality in education
Inequality in education opportunities is seen as the basic reason of many inequalities. The restraints and inability of women reaching the educational opportunities in many countries is one of the main reasons of gender inequality [11]. Education raises awareness of women about life quality and standard of living and decreases their distrust feelings toward future [12]. Besides, it is determined that women, whose education levels are high, have fewer children, look after their children much better and their children’s participation rate in education is much more higher compared to women whose education levels are low [12–14]. The increment in education levels and cultural and religious factors cause an increase in women who decide not to have a child. The women, who delay having a child due to their work lives, involuntarily turn to be childless. Involuntarily childless women are more common among those whose education levels are higher and who possess a professional work life [1]. Education helps women for possessing higher positions in their work lives, therefore earning more and having economic freedom [12]. The women, whose education levels are high, do not work at ordinary jobs or do not stay at home for doing unpaid housework, instead they join the labor force as individuals, who plan their career and climb career stages [13]. Education has a significant role in the alteration of job opportunities that are provided to women [6]. Education level affects the participation ratio of women in labor force [15].
2.1.3 Occupational segregation and inequality in wages
Gender inequality in workplace is defined as the unfair distribution of job positions, which require power, prestige, and responsibility, between women and men and providing more positions, which require authority to men compared to women [15]. In this context, occupational segregation comes into life in two different ways as vertical and horizontal occupational segregation. Vertical occupational segregation is the employment of women in ordinary and unqualified jobs, whereas horizontal occupational segregation is the division of women and men to different occupations according to their gender [16]. Women are generally preferred to be employed in areas like teaching, care, service sector, and office work; however, men are usually employed in areas like maintenance, construction, and transportation. This situation can be given as an example for horizontal occupational segregation [19]. On the other hand, positions like board of directors, memberships, chief executive officers, in other words positions for top managers are usually fulfilled by men. So, this common situation is an example for vertical occupational segregation [1]. As it can be seen, occupational segregation is not a wanted situation because it causes women to earn less and not equally benefit from opportunities and advantages [16].
Economic segregation means that women and men, who possess equal productivity, do not earn the same wages [17]. The women and men, who have the same educational level and seniority and who are employed at the same or similar jobs, do not earn the same wages [18]. Women usually earn less than men do even if the employment period, possessed qualifications, occupational life, seniority, and age are taken into consideration [19]. All studies within the literature indicate that there is wage difference in favor of men [17]. Women still earn less than their male colleagues [20]. It is determined that there are wage differences due to gender inequality in many countries [17]. For example, men earn more than women in average in all G20 economies. Besides, women workers are generally employed at jobs in which less wage is paid [21].
Gender inequality in workplace has been increased more after Covid-19 pandemic. Lots of women workers have lost their jobs and incomes because they were employed at the sectors, which were badly affected from pandemic. During the pandemic (between 2019 and 2020) women employment has decreased by 4.2% globally, whereas men employment has decreased by 3% [3]. The global unemployment rate of women has occurred at 26% between March 2020 and September 2021, whereas global unemployment rate of men was at 20.4% during the same period of time. Similarly, in the same period, more women compared to men have left their jobs in order to look after others [22]. Covid-19 pandemic has caused an increase in unemployment rate of women, which was already more than men unemployment rate, in many G20 countries [21]. Even before Covid-19 pandemic women generally worked in low waged jobs, which require long working hours, which provide limited career opportunities, which carry risks in terms of occupational health and safety, and which possess high risk with regard to violence and harassment. Women workers, who have worked in hard conditions but at least have taken some payment, have lost their jobs or their working hours have been decreased or their working conditions have been worsened due to the effects of pandemic [3].
3 Methodology of the research
This research aims to analyze the effects of Covid-19 pandemic on women workers in clothing sector. In accordance with the aim of the research, a survey is conducted on women workers, who are employed in Türkiye’s provinces, where clothing sector intensively operates. Descriptive research design (It is a research, which uses a set of scientific methods and procedures to collect raw data and create data structures that describe the existing characteristics of a defined target population or market structure. Mostly, descriptive research designs are viewed as survey research methods for collecting quantitative data from large groups of people through the question/answer process [35].) is chosen for survey.
Before the survey study, sample size is calculated. According to the data of Türkiye Social Security Institution [25], 608,587 workers were employed in clothing production by 2020 and 314,505 of them were women workers. Sample size is calculated as 384 at 95% confidence interval with 5% error margin. The women workers, who constitute the sample, are determined according to simple random sampling.
The survey was conducted between April 2022 and September 2022 [36]. Face to face interview technique is used in the survey study. During women workers participation in the survey study, volunteerism principle is taken into consideration. Before starting the survey study, brief information about the research is given to the participants. Participants are chosen from clothing enterprises, which operate in İzmir, İstanbul, Mardin, Diyarbakır, and Batman provinces of Türkiye. According to the fashion and textile clustering project of Türkiye [37,38], these provinces are listed in the provinces, in which clothing enterprises are clustered and intensively operate; hence, these provinces are chosen. The shares of different provinces within the research sample are also determined according to simple random sampling.
Survey form consists of 10 main and 37 sub-questions. Ege University’s Ethical Board of Social and Human Sciences Scientific Research and Publication has ethically approved the survey on 29.09.2021 with 1094 protocol number. After conducting the survey, the obtained forms are evaluated and 400 survey forms are incorporated in the research. The used data evaluation methods are summarized as follows:
The obtained data are evaluated by using SPSS program.
Primarily, the reliability of the questionnaire is measured by calculating co-efficient Cronbach alfa.
Demographic properties and other multiple-choice questions are analyzed by frequency tables and descriptive statistics.
The Likert scaled questions, which analyze the effects of Covid-19 pandemic on women clothing workers, are analyzed by frequency tables and descriptive statistics.
The statements are evaluated with exploratory factor analysis and gathered into groups. Exploratory factor analysis is a multivariate method, which presents conceptually meaningful summarized data that are based on relations between the multiple variables. These summarized data, which are defined as factors, are renamed [39,40]. It is aimed to perform more meaningful and concise hypotheses tests (the tests that are actualized for revealing the differences and/or similarities between women clothing workers who possess different demographic properties) by actualizing exploratory factor analysis.
The differences and/or similarities between women clothing workers who possess different demographic properties are analyzed by independent-samples t-test or one-way ANOVA test.
The data, which are obtained after statistical analyses, are evaluated and interpreted.
4 Results
First, the questionnaire’s reliability is calculated and the reliability coefficient α is found to be 0.964. If the coefficient α is between 0.80 and 1.00, it is accepted that the scale is highly reliable [41]. According to this, the scale of the questionnaire is found to be highly reliable. Second, the participants’ demographic features are evaluated. It is determined that 77% of the women clothing workers, who participated in the survey, are aged between 18 and 44 (Table 1). Besides, 77% of the participants possess an education level at high school or below and 84% of them own 450 dollar or less monthly income. Moreover, 57% of the participants specify that they are married and 50% of them have a child. It can be indicated that most of the participants are low and medium-educated young women workers, who possess low income (Table 1).
Distribution of participants according to their demographic features
| Demographic | Frequency | Valid percentage | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Age | 18–25 | 110 | 27.5 |
| 26–33 | 92 | 23.0 | |
| 34–41 | 107 | 26.8 | |
| 42–49 | 73 | 18.3 | |
| 50 and over | 18 | 4.5 | |
| Education level | Primary school | 91 | 22.8 |
| Secondary school | 95 | 23.8 | |
| High school | 122 | 30.5 | |
| University | 90 | 22.5 | |
| Postgraduate | 2 | 0.5 | |
| Monthly income | 300 $ and below | 178 | 44.5 |
| 301–450 $ | 157 | 39.3 | |
| 451–600 $ | 40 | 10.0 | |
| 601–900 $ | 13 | 3.3 | |
| 901 $ and over | 12 | 3.0 | |
| Marital status | Single | 171 | 42.8 |
| Married | 229 | 57.3 | |
| Having a child or not | Having a child | 201 | 50.3 |
| Not having a child | 199 | 49.8 | |
About 48% of the participants work in İzmir, while 12% works in İstanbul and 40% works in Batman, Mardin, and Diyarbakır. Participants are employed in enterprises, which are located in provinces where Turkish clothing sector intensively operates. Around 66% of the enterprises, where participants work, are determined as large sized enterprises, whereas 25% of them are classified as medium-sized and 9% of them are classified as small-sized.
About 53% of the participants specify that they possess 6 years and more occupational experience (Table 2). In addition to this, 52% of them indicated that they benefit from short time working allowance during the pandemic and only 32% of them have used unpaid leave.
Distribution of participants according to their occupational features
| Occupational features | Frequency | Valid percentage | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Occupational experience | Less than 1 year | 39 | 9.8 |
| Between 1 and 5 years | 149 | 37.3 | |
| Between 6 and 10 years | 102 | 25.5 | |
| 11 years and more | 110 | 27.5 | |
| Short time working allowance | Yes | 209 | 52.3 |
| No | 191 | 47.7 | |
| Unpaid leave | Yes | 130 | 32.5 |
| No | 270 | 67.5 | |
Short time working allowance is an implementation, which provides an income support for the insured workers, for the period that they are not able to work. This support period cannot exceed 3 months in one enterprise. This implementation can be used under two different circumstances. First, it is used when weekly working hours are temporarily decreased by one-third ratio due to compelling reasons or general economic, sectoral, and regional crises. Second, it is used when the operations within an enterprise are totally or partially stopped for at least 4 weeks without looking for a continuity condition [42]. Short time working allowance in Türkiye was started in March 2020 in order to protect employment and was ended on first of July 2021 when the controlled normalization process started. Approximately 3.7 million workers have been benefited from short time working allowance between March 2020 and June 2021 [43].
The survey includes 28 statements, which analyze the effects of Covid-19 pandemic on women clothing workers. Participants are asked to select their agreement levels for each of these statements. In quinary Likert scale “I certainly agree” was coded as 5, “I agree” as 4, “I have no idea” or “I’m on the fence” as 3, “I don’t agree” as 2, and “I certainly don’t agree” as 1. The obtained findings are given in Table 3.
Descriptive statistics of the statements and the results of the exploratory factor analysis
| Factors | Statements | Rotated loadings | Average | Standard deviation | Averages of the factors |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Effects of Covid-19 pandemic on occupational segregation and inequality in wages | More women workers have lost their jobs during Covid-19 pandemic | 0.865 | 2.52 | 1. 307 | 2.56 |
| Number of women managers has decreased due to Covid-19 pandemic | 0.863 | 2.47 | 1.270 | ||
| Covid-19 pandemic has negatively affected the promotion of women workers | 0.855 | 2.57 | 1.229 | ||
| Number of hired women workers has decreased due to Covid-19 pandemic | 0.847 | 2.52 | 1.266 | ||
| Wages of women workers have decreased due to Covid-19 pandemic | 0.792 | 2.60 | 1.263 | ||
| Being married during Covid-19 pandemic has prevented my career | 0.750 | 2.51 | 1.317 | ||
| Having a child during Covid-19 pandemic has prevented my career | 0.733 | 2.70 | 1.395 | ||
| Covid-19 pandemic has increased gender inequality in my workplace | 0.729 | 2.37 | 1.287 | ||
| I could not be able to take the equivalent of my labor during Covid-19 pandemic | 0.717 | 2.46 | 1.238 | ||
| My wage has decreased during Covid-19 pandemic | 0.570 | 2.69 | 1.373 | ||
| My working hours have increased during Covid-19 pandemic | 0.562 | 2.61 | 1.335 | ||
| My relations with my colleagues have disrupted during Covid-19 pandemic | 0.511 | 2.68 | 1.380 | ||
| Effects of Covid-19 pandemic on women clothing workers’ physical and psychological health | My anger and rage have increased during Covid-19 pandemic | 0.833 | 3.10 | 1.341 | 3.10 |
| My hopelessness has increased during Covid-19 pandemic | 0.813 | 3.27 | 1.302 | ||
| My concerns and anxieties have increased during Covid-19 pandemic | 0.779 | 3.28 | 1.331 | ||
| My emotional behaviors have increased during Covid-19 pandemic | 0.775 | 3.22 | 1.312 | ||
| My health issues have increased during Covid-19 pandemic | 0.640 | 3.08 | 1.335 | ||
| My sleeping issues have increased during Covid-19 pandemic | 0.605 | 3.15 | 1.353 | ||
| I had to take psychological support during Covid-19 pandemic | 0.592 | 2.62 | 1.325 | ||
| Effects of Covid-19 pandemic on women clothing workers’ jobs | Covid-19 pandemic has worsened my working conditions | 0.771 | 2.94 | 1.335 | 2.97 |
| My job has become more exhausting during Covid-19 pandemic | 0.737 | 2.95 | 1.355 | ||
| Covid-19 pandemic has changed my working methods | 0.723 | 3.10 | 1.347 | ||
| Covid-19 pandemic has negatively affected my job performance | 0.553 | 2.90 | 1.383 | ||
| Effects of Covid-19 pandemic on women clothing workers’ work–life balance | My family issues have increased during Covid-19 pandemic | 0.798 | 2.60 | 1.313 | 2.84 |
| Covid-19 pandemic has caused me to dislike my job | 0.758 | 2.61 | 1.276 | ||
| Housework has taken more time during Covid-19 pandemic | 0.733 | 2.99 | 1.375 | ||
| Psychological pressure within the workplace has increased during Covid-19 pandemic | 0.618 | 2.89 | 1.355 | ||
| The closure of social facilities within my workplace during Covid-19 pandemic has negatively affected me | 0.481 | 3.13 | 1.376 |
According to the obtained results, women clothing workers, who participated in the survey, indicated that the increase in their physical and psychological problems are the most important issues that they faced during the Covid-19 pandemic. Besides, participants’ emotional behaviors, concerns, anxieties, hopelessness, sleeping issues, anger, and rages are increased. In addition to these, women clothing workers specify that they are negatively affected from the closure of social facilities within their workplaces, their working methods changed, and their health issues increased. Moreover, they specify that the housework take more time during the pandemic, their jobs become more exhausting, their working conditions are worsened, their job performances are negatively affected, and the psychological pressure within the workplace is increased.
Most of the participants indicate that being married or having a child during Covid-19 pandemic do not prevent their career. Besides, they do not believe that their wages are decreased, their relations with their colleagues are disrupted, their working hours are increased, and their family issues are increased. In addition to these they specify that they do not take psychological support during pandemic and they continue to like their jobs. Moreover, participants indicate that women workers’ wages are not decreased and their promotions are not prevented during pandemic. They do not believe that more women have lost their jobs during pandemic. Also, they indicate that number of women managers and number of hired women workers have not decreased during pandemic. Besides, they indicate that they can be able to take the equivalent of their labor during pandemic and pandemic do not increase gender inequality in their workplaces.
The statements, which analyze the effects of Covid-19 pandemic on women clothing workers, are gathered into four groups by using exploratory factor analysis. Exploratory factor analysis is actualized in order to obtain brief statements instead of 28 statements. It is found that the sample is suitable and reliable for factor analysis (Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin measure of sampling is equal to 0.954 and the significance of Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity is equal to 0.000). Principal component extraction was used for extracting factors with eigenvalues over 1 and the rotation of factor loading matrix was chosen as varimax. The cumulative variance of four factors is equal to 71.232% (Table 3). The loadings (scores) of the statements within Table 3 are taken from rotated component matrix (only one loading is lower than 0.50 and it is equal to 0.481). The obtained three factors are renamed as effects of Covid-19 pandemic on occupational segregation and inequality in wages, effects of Covid-19 pandemic on women clothing workers’ physical and psychological health, effects of Covid-19 pandemic on women clothing workers’ jobs, and effects of Covid-19 pandemic on women clothing workers’ work–life balance (Table 3). Afterward, hypotheses tests are actualized.
Four main hypotheses involve 16 sub-hypotheses due to 4 factors and 4 demographic features. All sub-hypotheses were tested at 95% confidence interval. According to the obtained results, six sub-hypotheses are accepted, while ten sub-hypotheses are rejected.
First sub-hypothesis with regard to the first main hypothesis is accepted (Table 4). According to this, “Covid-19 pandemic has caused occupational segregation and inequality in wages” is mostly indicated by women workers who are not married. Also, first sub-hypothesis with regard to the second main hypothesis is accepted (Table 4). According to this, “Covid-19 pandemic has affected women clothing workers’ jobs” is mostly stated by women workers who do not have a child.
Differences between the effects of Covid-19 pandemic on women clothing workers who are married or not and who have a child or not
| Hypothesis 1a: The effects of Covid-19 pandemic on occupational segregation and inequality in wages alter according to marital status of women clothing workers | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Marital status | N | Average | Standard deviation | t | df | p |
| Who are not married | 171 | 0.1317966 | 1.03115952 | 2.290 | 398 | 0.023 |
| Who are married | 229 | −0.0984158 | 0.96666446 | |||
| Hypothesis 2a: The effects of Covid-19 pandemic on women clothing workers’ jobs alter according to women clothing workers who have a child or not | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Having a child or not | N | Average | Standard deviation | t | df | p |
| Having a child | 201 | −0.1201107 | 0.99548064 | −2.429 | 398 | 0.016 |
| Not having a child | 199 | 0.1213178 | 0.99233179 | |||
Second sub-hypotheses with regard to the third main hypothesis are accepted (Table 5). According to this, “Covid-19 pandemic has caused occupational segregation and inequality in wages” is mostly indicated by women workers who graduated from high school or below. On the other hand, “Covid-19 pandemic has affected women clothing workers’ jobs” is mostly stated by women workers who graduated from university or above.
Differences between the effects of Covid-19 pandemic on women clothing workers who possess different education levels
| Hypothesis 3a: The effects of Covid-19 pandemic on occupational segregation and inequality in wages alter according to education levels of women clothing workers | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Education levels | N | Average | Standard deviation | t | df | p |
| High school or below | 308 | 0.0647325 | 1.01714311 | 2.526 | 164,370 | 0.012 |
| University or above | 92 | −0.2167131 | 0.91250505 | |||
| Hypothesis 3b: The effects of Covid-19 pandemic on women clothing workers’ jobs alter according to education levels of women clothing workers | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Education levels | N | Average | Standard deviation | t | df | p |
| High school or below | 308 | −0.1766731 | 0.94485951 | −6.824 | 398 | 0.000 |
| University or above | 92 | 0.5914708 | 0.95574631 | |||
Second sub-hypotheses with regard to the fourth main hypothesis are accepted (Table 6). According to this, “Covid-19 pandemic has caused occupational segregation and inequality in wages” is mostly indicated by women workers who possess monthly 450 $ income or less. On the other hand, “Covid-19 pandemic has affected women clothing workers’ jobs” is mostly stated by women workers who possess monthly 451 $ income or more.
Differences between the effects of Covid-19 pandemic on women clothing workers who possess different income levels
| Hypothesis 4a: The effects of Covid-19 pandemic on occupational segregation and inequality in wages alter according to income levels of women clothing workers | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Income levels | N | Average | Standard deviation | t | df | p |
| 450 $ or less | 335 | 0.0999732 | 1.02347663 | 6.157 | 130,469 | 0.000 |
| 451 $ or more | 65 | −0.5152463 | 0.66765920 | |||
| Hypothesis 4b: The effects of Covid-19 pandemic on women clothing workers’ jobs alter according to income levels of women clothing workers | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Income levels | N | Average | Standard deviation | t | df | p |
| 450 $ or less | 335 | −0.0734941 | 0.93609509 | −2.832 | 79,270 | 0.006 |
| 451 $ or more | 65 | 0.3787774 | 1.21956262 | |||
5 Discussion
When the obtained results are evaluated generally, it can be said that most of the participants are low and medium-educated young women workers, who possess low income. Generally women, whose socioeconomic levels are low, are employed in clothing sector; therefore it can be specified that the obtained research results are compatible with this situation.
According to the obtained results, women clothing workers, who participated in the survey, indicated that the increase in their physical and psychological problems are the most important issues that they faced during the Covid-19 pandemic. Besides, participants’ emotional behaviors, concerns, anxieties, hopelessness, sleeping issues, anger, and rages also increased. In addition to these, women clothing workers specify that they are negatively affected from the closure of social facilities within their workplaces, their working methods changed, and their health issues increased. Moreover, they specify that the housework take more time during the pandemic, their jobs become more exhausting, their working conditions are worsened, their job performances are negatively affected, and the psychological pressure within the workplace is increased. All these findings are compatible with the literature [2,3,8–10,33,34].
However, most of the women clothing workers do not believe that Covid-19 pandemic has many negative effects on them. They accept that the pandemic has negatively affected their physical and especially their psychological health. In addition to this, they also accept that their housework has increased and their working conditions have worsened during pandemic. However, they do not believe that these effects are very high. According to the literature [3,21,22,26–31] women clothing workers have negatively affected from Covid-19 pandemic. At this point, it should be indicated that intensive order cancellations, enterprise closures, and dismissals have been mostly seen in South and Southeast Asian countries. Turkish clothing sector has also negatively affected from the pandemic. However, this effect is much less than its South and Southeast Asian rivals. Therefore, the negative effects of Covid-19 pandemic on women clothing workers in Türkiye are limited.
In addition to these, the hypotheses of the research suggest that the effects of Covid-19 pandemic on women clothing workers alter according to their marital status, having a child or not, their education levels, and their income levels. Four main hypotheses involve 16 sub-hypotheses due to 4 factors and 4 demographic features and 6 sub-hypotheses are accepted, while 10 sub-hypotheses are rejected. According to the accepted sub-hypotheses results; “Covid-19 pandemic has caused occupational segregation and inequality in wages” is mostly indicated by women workers who are not married, who graduated from high school or below and who possess monthly 450 $ income or less. However, “Covid-19 pandemic has affected women clothing workers’ jobs” is mostly stated by women workers who do not have a child, who graduated from university or above and who possess monthly 451 $ income or more. Thus, it can be indicated that as the education and income level increased, the negative effects of Covid-19 pandemic on women clothing workers’ jobs also increased.
6 Conclusion
Covid-19 pandemic, which has negatively affected most of the sectors, has been more effective on some sectors. Clothing sector is also one of these sectors, which has been negatively affected. Besides, clothing sector employs lots of workers due to its labor-intensive structure and women workers constitute the huge part of these workers. In this context, when the pandemic has negatively affected the clothing workers, women clothing workers have been the most affected ones. At this point, this research aims to analyze the effects of Covid-19 pandemic on women workers in clothing sector. In accordance with the aim of the research, a survey is conducted on women workers, who are employed in Türkiye’s provinces, where clothing sector intensively operates. According to the obtained research results it can be said that the aim of the research is fulfilled, because the effects of Covid-19 pandemic on Turkish women clothing workers are revealed.
As it can be seen from the research results, Covid-19 pandemic has negatively affected Turkish women clothing workers just like their colleagues in other countries. The most negative impact of the pandemic on women clothing workers is deterioration of their physical and psychological health. Besides, their housework loads are increased and their working conditions are worsened. It is pleasing that the negative effects of pandemic on women clothing workers, who have to struggle with many different issues in their work lives, are limited.
Within the light of the obtained research results, clothing enterprises should provide health support to their women workers and especially they should provide psychological health support and lead their women workers to benefit from this support. Moreover, clothing enterprises should provide flexible working hours to their women workers and should improve their working conditions. Even, small changes like slightly increasing the number of allowed times and their duration and creating spacious and airy working environment will improve the working conditions. Besides, the clothing enterprises should demonstrate to their women workers, who are not married, possess low education level, and earn minimum wage, that they do not perform any occupational segregation and inequality in wages. In addition to this, the clothing enterprises should improve the working conditions of their women workers, who do not have a child, possess high education level and earn well, and should motivate them with promotion and perks.
This research analyzes the effects of Covid-19 pandemic on women workers in detail by focusing on the sector, pandemic, and women workers. Besides, the research reveals if the effects of pandemic on women workers alter according to their marital status, having child or not, their education, and income levels. In this context, this research differs from other studies and contributes to the literature. Moreover, it helps to raise the awareness of clothing enterprises and guides them with its obtained results and suggestions. In other words, it is a guide for clothing enterprises to be aware of the issues, which are faced by women workers, and take necessary precautions.
However, this research analyzes the effects of Covid-19 pandemic on women workers in clothing sector only on the basis of Türkiye, which is one of the leading clothing exporters in the world. Although Türkiye is one of the significant clothing players in the world, the research is conducted only in one country and this is the constraint of this research. Future research studies can be conducted in more than one country and they can focus on different countries. Thus, differences between the effects of pandemic on women workers in different countries can be revealed.
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Funding information: Authors state no funding involved.
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Author contributions: Aylin Aksit conducted the survey and contributed to the manuscript preparation. Seher Kanat carried out the statistical analyses, contributed to the manuscript preparation and implemented the revisions suggested by reviewers.
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Conflict of interest: Authors state no conflict of interest.
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Ethical approval: The conducted research is not related to either human or animals use.
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Data availability statement: The datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
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