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Green synthesis, biomedical effects, and future trends of Ag/ZnO bimetallic nanoparticles: An update

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Nanotechnology Reviews
From the journal Nanotechnology Reviews Volume 14 Issue 1

Abstract

Nanomaterials possess unique properties that make them highly valuable in biomedical applications. However, traditional physical and chemical synthesis methods suffer from significant drawbacks, including high energy consumption, environmental pollution, and inconsistent performance. In contrast, green synthesis offers an eco-friendly, cost-effective, and sustainable alternative, making it an emerging research focus in nanomaterial development. The green synthesis of plant-derived silver/zinc oxide (Ag/ZnO) bimetallic nanoparticles has gained considerable attention due to their promising biomedical applications. This review systematically examines the green synthesis, characterization, and biomedical potential of plant-derived Ag/ZnO bimetallic nanoparticles. The goal is to provide a comprehensive framework for advancing eco-friendly synthesis techniques, optimizing nanoparticle properties, and facilitating their practical application in biomedicine. This systematic review adhered to the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) guidelines. A comprehensive analysis of peer-reviewed studies published up to November 18, 2024, was conducted, focusing on the green synthesis, physicochemical properties, and biomedical applications of Ag/ZnO bimetallic nanoparticles. A structured literature search was performed across Web of Science, Scopus, PubMed, Cochrane Library, and ScienceDirect using Boolean operators to combine key terms such as “green synthesis,” “Ag/ZnO nanoparticles,” and “biomedical applications.” This approach ensured systematic and comprehensive coverage of the research topic. This review examines the green synthesis and therapeutic potential of bimetallic nanoparticles, focusing on their production using plant extracts and other biological methods. It also evaluates the hazards and biological consequences associated with their widespread presence in biological tissues. Researchers have conducted various studies on Ag/ZnO bimetallic nanoparticles using physical, chemical, and biological synthesis methods, exploring their green synthesis approaches, physicochemical properties, structural characteristics, and safety in vivo and the environment. Among these methods, biosynthesis, particularly plant-based synthesis, has emerged as the most effective and sustainable strategy. Plant-derived Ag/ZnO bimetallic nanoparticles exhibit exceptional characteristics and performance, making them highly effective for biomedical, antibacterial, therapeutic, and environmental applications. Their modified morphology further enhances their functional properties, significantly improving their efficacy across multiple disciplines. Nanoparticles synthesized through green synthesis methods hold great potential for the development of novel antibacterial drugs. The market for Ag/ZnO nanoparticles has expanded significantly, evolving into a major economic sector. With the growing demand for applications, plant-derived nanoparticles require rigorous experimentation and large-scale research to support vaccine development and advancements in human health. Plant-based synthesis offers a sustainable and economically viable alternative for nanoparticle production, reducing dependence on chemically synthesized materials. Therefore, extensive and in-depth research on plant-synthesized bimetallic Ag/ZnO nanoparticles is essential to overcome the limitations associated with chemically synthesized nanoparticles. This research will provide a scientific foundation for their broader applications and contribute to human health and environmental safety.

Keywords: green synthesis; biological methods; silver/zinc oxide; bimetallic nanoparticles; biomedical applications

Abbreviations

ROS

reactive oxygen species

[Emim]PF6

1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium hexafluorophosphate

A-549

adenocarcinomic human alveolar cells

Ag/ZnO

silver/zinc oxide

DNA

deoxyribonucleic acid

DPPH

2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl

FDA

food and drug administration

HCT-116

Hhuman colorectal carcinoma

HeLa

human cervical carcinoma cell

HepG-2

human hepatoma growth

MCF-7

Michigan cancer fCancer Foundation-7

MTT

3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide

NA

nucleic acid

NPs

nanoparticles

NPs-NA

nanoparticles conjugated with nucleic acid

PBMC

peripheral blood mononuclear cells

RNA

ribonucleic acid

ROS

reactive oxygen species

SERS

surface- enhanced Rraman scattering

TEM

transmission electron microscopye

UV

ultraviolet rays

1 Introduction

Nanotechnology is an emerging and rapidly evolving field with wide-ranging applications across biomedicine catalysis, electronics, environmental science, and energy production. The unique physicochemical properties of nanomaterials – such as their high surface area, small particle size, and high surface energy – make them highly versatile and efficient for various applications. Among nanomaterials, bimetallic nanoparticles, which contain two different metallic elements, have gained significant attention due to their enhanced functional properties. In particular, Ag/ZnO bimetallic nanoparticles have become a hot research topic in recent years due to their synergistic effects and promising applications [1]. Ag/ZnO bimetallic nanoparticles demonstrate outstanding potential in both biomedical and agricultural fields, benefiting from the antibacterial properties of silver (Ag) and the photocatalytic activity of zinc oxide (ZnO). The combination of these two elements significantly enhances antimicrobial efficiency. Silver nanoparticles destroy bacterial cell membranes by releasing Ag ions (Ag⁺), leading to cell lysis and inhibition of microbial growth, while zinc oxide nanoparticles generate reactive oxygen species (ROS) under ultraviolet (UV) light, facilitating photocatalytic sterilization [2,3]. This synergistic mechanism significantly inhibits bacterial proliferation and biofilm formation, overcoming the problem of drug resistance in single-component materials. Beyond antimicrobial applications, Ag/ZnO bimetallic nanoparticles have demonstrated remarkable capabilities in biosensing and diagnostics. For instance, the ZnO@Ag microarray chip, when integrated with surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) technology, has achieved highly sensitive pathogen detection with 100% accuracy [4]. This system enables real-time identification and in situ inactivation of bacteria such as Staphylococcus aureus, offering an innovative approach to preventing and controlling foodborne diseases. In terms of multi-target therapy, Ag/ZnO bimetallic nanoparticles have shown great potential in the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases by inhibiting β-amyloid protein aggregation, which is linked to Alzheimer’s disease, regulate acetylcholinesterase activity, a key enzyme in neuronal function, and reduce oxidative stress by scavenging ROS, thereby protecting neural cells from damage. These findings highlight the broad therapeutic potential of Ag/ZnO bimetallic nanoparticles, paving the way for their future use in biomedical engineering, disease diagnostics, and environmental applications. However, growing awareness of environmental protection and the implementation of stricter environmental regulations, the green synthesis of nanomaterials, and their safe application in biological and environmental systems have become key areas of research. Chemically synthesized nanoparticles, when produced through biological methods that adhere to sustainable principles, are considered environmentally safe. The biosynthetic production of nanoparticles for industrial and agricultural applications has gained global recognition due to its eco-friendly nature. Recent advancements in nanobiotechnology have significantly improved the safety profile of nanoparticles, ensuring their practical use across various sectors. One of the primary objectives of nanotechnology is the synthesis of nanoparticles with precise sizes and morphologies, making them more effective for technological and healthcare applications. However, physical and chemical synthesis methods often present major challenges, including high costs and environmental hazards, particularly when producing nanoparticles with specific properties and structural accuracy [5,6]. Studies indicate that nanobiotechnology has advanced to the point where scientists can harness biomolecules (e.g., proteins, lipids, secondary metabolites, and metals) from living organisms (particularly plants) to develop green nanomaterials. Among these biomolecules, metals play a crucial role in the synthesis of environmentally friendly nanomaterials. In the field of nanomaterial development, the application of bimetallic nanoparticles has gained widespread attention due to their enhanced functional properties. Ag/ZnO bimetallic nanoparticles, in particular, have demonstrated significant potential across multiple domains, including industry, healthcare, and environmental applications [7,8]. This review explores the green synthesis, characterization, and biomedical applications of Ag/ZnO bimetallic nanoparticles. Additionally, it examines the emerging trends in green synthesis techniques and their potential applications, providing theoretical and technical insights to support the sustainable design and integration of nanomaterials in precision medicine.

2 Green synthesis methods

The synthesis of bimetallic nanoparticles can be categorized into two primary approaches (Figure 1):

  1. Top-down methods: Top-down approaches involve physically reducing bulk bimetallic materials to the nanoscale through destructive techniques such as mechanical grinding, laser ablation, or photolithography. This physical reduction process is terminology-aligned with “physical approaches.”

  2. Bottom-up methods: Bottom-up approaches focus on atomic/molecular-level assembly, where bimetallic precursors are converted into nanoparticles via chemical or biological pathways [9].

Figure 1 Bimetallic NP synthesis approach.
Figure 1

Bimetallic NP synthesis approach.

The synthesis of bimetallic nanoparticles can be categorized into three primary approaches:

  1. Physical synthesis: This method involves achieving reduction, dispersion, and structural control of metal components through mechanical energy (e.g., ball milling), electromagnetic energy (e.g., laser ablation), or thermal energy. Key advantages include high efficiency, eco-friendly processes, and scalable production potential.

  2. Chemical synthesis: Techniques such as photochemistry, chemical reduction, micellar synthesis, and electrochemistry are employed. These methods are renowned for operational convenience, high precision in nanoparticle engineering, and favorable post-synthesis processability.

  3. Biological synthesis (Green method): A sustainable approach utilizing plant extracts or microbial systems (e.g., bacteria and fungi) for nanoparticle formation. Plant-mediated synthesis is particularly highlighted for its low-cost, eco-friendly nature, and absence of toxic byproducts [10].

Research has shown that physical, chemical, and biological methods have different characteristics and exhibit advantages and disadvantages in the synthesis and application of bimetallic nanoparticles (Table 1). Chemical and physical methods are mainly used to reduce compounds in aqueous solutions, which can be used to prepare pure and stable nanoparticles. They are commonly used methods for synthesizing bimetallic nanoparticles. However, these synthesis processes are labor-intensive, expensive, and often accompanied by the production of hazardous or toxic substances. Therefore, it is crucial to explore safer, greener, and more environmentally friendly synthesis methods and procedures.

Table 1

A comparative analysis of the advantages and disadvantages across methodologies in the synthesis of Ag/ZnO bimetallic NPs

Item method Physical method Chemical method Biological method (green synthesis) Ref.
Advantages High purity and controllability High yield, controllable morphology, and low cost Environmentally friendly, low toxicity, and energy-saving [9,10]
Disadvantages High cost, low yield, and poor uniformity Toxicity risk, complex post-processing, and environmental pollution Poor repeatability, low efficiency, and difficult particle size control [11]
Applicable scenarios High-purity scientific research demand Industrial production and precise morphology control Applications in biomedical and environmental fields [9,82]
Core challenges High cost and difficulty in large-scale production Environmental pollution and toxicity risks Lack of repeatability and controllability [4,86]
Priority selection criteria Paying attention to purity Pursuing efficiency Priority environmental protection [8,50]

The green synthesis method (a.k.a. biological method), which involves employing plants and microorganisms as bioreactors to fabricate nanoparticles, represents an innovative approach that demonstrates remarkable potential and multifaceted benefits in nanotechnology applications. The green method utilizes plant-derived compounds and their secondary metabolites as reducing agents and stabilizers to synthesize nanoparticles with a certain size, good stability, uniform particle size, and no toxic by-products produced during the synthesis process. The principle of sustainable chemical environmental protection is to reduce the leakage of harmful substances used in the production of nanomaterials. From this, it can be seen that the green synthesis methods meet the requirements of sustainable industrial development and have broad application prospects, making them a current research hotspot. Among various methods for synthesizing bimetallic nanoparticles, green synthesis methods have received widespread attention due to their advantages of harmlessness and wide applications [11].

The green synthesis method uses microorganisms (e.g., bacteria, fungi, yeast), algae (Padina gymnospora), and plants to achieve the reduction of precursor salts, thereby synthesizing nanoparticles with diverse sizes and shapes. Research has shown that plants are the most effective and have greater advantages than any other material because of their wide practicality, low cost, and, most importantly, they are safe for both living organisms and the environment. The plant synthesis method is a type of green synthesis method that uses plant extracts as reducing agents and coating agents to synthesize metal nanoparticles. This is a pollution-free, low-energy, and high-efficiency green and environmentally friendly method. This method is not only environmentally friendly but also utilizes various natural components in plants (e.g., polyphenols, flavonoids, terpenes, and alkaloids) to play a reducing and stabilizing role in the synthesis process [12].

In plant-based synthesis methods, the selection of plant species and their parts used is crucial. Different plants and their parts contain diverse phytochemicals, bioactive substances, and allelochemicals, which perform distinct roles in the synthesis process. Consequently, the characteristics of the synthesized nanoparticles vary (Table 2).

Table 2

A summary of plant species used in the green synthesis of NPs, their biological roles, and the characteristics of the resultant NPs

Plant species Used parts Extract components Biological roles Shape/size of NPs (nm) Ref.
Glycine max (L.) Merr, Pisum sativum L. Seed Tyrosine, polyphenol, protein, etc. The extract not only reduces Ag⁺ and Zn²⁺ but also regulates the lattice structure of ZnO through amino groups, forming heterojunctions Nanorod/10–50 [12,41]
Prunus cerasifera Leaf Polyphenols and flavonoids The extract acts as a green reducing agent and stabilizer, reducing Ag⁺ and Zn²⁺ and self-assembling them into bimetallic structures NPs/nanorod/20–100 [26,27]
Hyptis suaveolens, Aegle marmelos Leaf Catechins, chlorogenic acid, tannic acid, etc. Extract, as a reducing agent and stabilizer, can synergistically reduce Ag⁺ and Zn²⁺ and act as a surface coating agent to prevent particle aggregation NPs/30–50 [23,27]
Astragalus membranaceus, Ginkgobiloba L. Root or leaf Polysaccharide, flavonoid, saponin, etc. Astragaloside IV and ginkgolide have strong reducibility, which can simultaneously reduce Ag⁺ and Zn²⁺and enhance the photocatalytic activity of the composite material NPs/nanosheet/10–100 [29]
Eichhornia crassipes Stem or leaf Cellulose nanofiber, polyphenol, and flavonoid Cellulose nanofibers are used as carriers to load Ag/ZnO NPs through electrostatic adsorption, forming functional composite materials NPs/50–100 [13,15]
Macrocystis pyrifera, Ascophyllum Nodosum Frond Alginate, fucoxanthin, polyphenol, etc. Sodium alginate is commonly used for synthesizing Ag/ZnO hollow microspheres or core–shell structures. Its high viscosity properties can stabilize NPs and regulate their shape NPs/nanosheet/20–80 [82]
Spirulina Frond Protein, polysaccharide, carotenoid, etc. The natural polysaccharides and proteins of spirulina can serve as both reducing agents and stabilizers, promoting the uniform recombination of Ag and ZnO in hydrothermal methods, forming spherical or rod-shaped structures Nanosphere/nanorod/<30 [50]
Phyllanthus emblica Fruit Quercetin, polyphenol, tannic acid, vitamin C, etc. Acidic environment promotes metal ion reduction, while polyphenols regulate particle shape (e.g., spherical or sheet-like) Nanosheet/nanosheet/<30 [60]
Ocimum sanctum L. Leaf Polyphenols, flavonoids, and terpenoids The extract reduces Ag⁺ and Zn²⁺ ions, stabilizes nanoparticles, and prevents aggregation NPs/20–100 [5,21]
Moringa oleifera Lam. Leaf Chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid, vitamin C, etc. Extracts act as efficient reducing agents, promoting bimetallic synergistic effects and enhancing catalytic or antibacterial properties NPs/20–80 [6,21]
Artemisia argyi Whole plant or leaf Flavonoid and terpenoid The extract promotes the elongation of ZnO nanorods and regulates their shape into a uniform rod-shaped structure NPs/nanosheet/20–50 [26]
Hibiscus syriacus L. Leaf or petal Polyphenol (tannic acid) The extract inhibits the growth of ZnO thin films and promotes the formation of NPs Nanosphere/50–100 [13]
Piper nigrum, Bergenia pacumbis Root, stem, or fruit Alkaloid and flavonoid The extract reduces Ag⁺ through multiple pathways and enhances the photocatalytic performance of Ag/ZnO composite materials Nanorod/50–100 [15]

The specific process of synthesizing bimetallic nanoparticles using plants (Figure 2) includes three primary stages:

  1. Selection of plant species and parts: Plants with established medicinal value are typically selected, such as Prunus cerasifera, Phyllanthus emblica, Artemisia argyi, Citrus aurantium leaves, and Brassica juncea. The secondary metabolites in these plants – flavonoids, terpenoids, and phenolic compounds – are critical for nanoparticle synthesis.

  2. Extraction and synthesis: Active phytochemicals (e.g., polyphenols, flavonoids, and organic acids) are isolated from plant matrices (roots, stems, and leaves) and combined with metal salt solutions. Under controlled reaction conditions, these compounds reduce metal ions and mediate nanoparticle formation through bioreduction mechanisms.

  3. Characterization: Nanoparticle morphology, size distribution, and crystallinity are characterized using UV–visible absorption spectroscopy, TEM, and other methods [13].

Figure 2 Roadmap for the green synthesis of Ag/ZnO bimetallic NPs.
Figure 2

Roadmap for the green synthesis of Ag/ZnO bimetallic NPs.

Plant extracts offer distinct advantages in the synthesis of metal nanoparticles, making them an ideal choice for green synthesis approaches. They contain a variety of bioactive compounds, such as polyphenols, flavonoids, terpenes, and alkaloids, which act as natural reducing and stabilizing agents during nanoparticle formation. Plant extracts used as reducing and coating agents will not cause environmental pollution even when exposed to the environment. Their use in biological nanoparticle synthesis enables the production of metal nanoparticles that are safer for human applications, particularly in biomedicine and healthcare. In summary, plant-based synthesis provides a sustainable, environmentally friendly, and safe alternative to conventional methods, while the diverse bioactive compounds present in plant extracts contribute to enhanced nanoparticle stability and functionality, expanding their potential applications [5,14].

Research on the synthesis of nanoparticles from plants has been advancing rapidly in recent years, leading to significant achievements not only in the antibacterial, antioxidant, and anticancer fields but also in environmental protection and groundwater pollution remediation. This method remains environmentally friendly while also leveraging the natural bioactive compounds found in plants, offering a broad range of application prospects.

Plant extracts, containing various secondary metabolites such as phytochemicals, bioactive substances, and plant allelochemicals, actively facilitate the biological synthesis of metal nanoparticles through their unique biochemical properties [15,16]. The green synthesis approach enables the production of uniformly sized Ag/ZnO alloy nanoparticles using plants. Additionally, by mixing precursor salts with plant extracts, which serve as both reducing and stabilizing agents, Ag/ZnO bimetallic nanoparticles can be easily synthesized in a beaker. This process offers a sustainable and environmentally friendly alternative for metal nanoparticle synthesis while also enhancing their catalytic activity [17,18].

With the growing recognition of the importance of plant-based synthesis of Ag/ZnO bimetallic nanoparticles, numerous studies have explored extracts derived from various plant parts (e.g., roots, stems, leaves, flowers, and seeds). Research findings indicate that biomolecules such as steroids, flavonoids, saponins, alkaloids, and secondary metabolites possess the ability to reduce precursor salts and facilitate the synthesis of Ag/ZnO nanoparticles [19]. Since the beginning of the twenty-first century, plant-synthesized Ag/ZnO bimetallic nanoparticles have attracted significant attention, leading to the exploration of various plant species for nanoparticle synthesis [20]. The use of plant-derived extracts in bimetallic nanoparticle synthesis presents a highly suitable and sustainable approach, whereas synthetic procedures relying on toxic and hazardous compounds pose serious environmental risks once harmful chemicals enter ecosystems. Beyond its environmental benefits, incorporating plant materials into the synthesis process enhances nanoparticle consistency and flexibility [16,21]. Specifically, using peeled tuber crops from the Solanum genus, such as potatoes, offers an efficient alternative, as their starch-rich composition facilitates nanoparticle formation. Studies have shown that phytochemicals or secondary metabolites, including phenols, flavonoids, alkaloids, steroids, and saponins, can act as natural reducing and capping agents, enabling the synthesis of nanoparticles with diverse sizes and morphologies [22].

Morphological studies have shown that phytochemicals play a crucial role in controlling the size, shape, and distribution of nanoparticles. In addition to biological factors, physical and chemical conditions, such as temperature and pH levels, also significantly influence nanoparticle morphology [23]. A recent study investigated the effects of pH and temperature on the biosynthesis of Ag/ZnO bimetallic nanoparticles, aiming to determine the optimal synthesis conditions. The findings revealed that at a lower pH value (pH 6) and 150°C, the nucleation rate is highest, leading to the formation of a large number of zinc oxide nuclei while simultaneously delaying ZnO lattice growth. In contrast, at a higher pH (pH 12) and the same temperature (150°C), the nucleation rate decreases, allowing for faster ZnO lattice expansion. This variation in Zn²⁺ and OH⁻ ion concentrations influences the thermal energy of the system, which in turn affects nanoparticle formation [11,24]. These findings suggest that reaction temperature plays a critical role in determining the size and shape of Ag/ZnO bimetallic nanostructures, making precise control of synthesis parameters essential for achieving the desired nanoparticle characteristics.

3 Green synthesis characteristics

Different plants can synthesize nanoparticles of different metals (e.g., silver, gold, iron, and copper), and this phenomenon is called “plant-mediated green synthesis.” Various metal nanoparticles synthesized using the plant-mediated method exhibit some differences, which are closely related to the metabolic characteristics of plants, the types of bioactive molecules they contain, and the reducing ability of metal ions (Table 3). Different plants contain different bioactive components (e.g., phenols, terpenes, and alkaloids), which can affect the formation mechanism of metal nanoparticles. For example, Ocimum sanctum is commonly used for the synthesis of silver nanoparticles, while tea trees are used for the synthesis of gold nanoparticles, and Phyllanthus emblica is used for the synthesis of other metal nanoparticles. The differences in synthesis mechanisms result in different morphologies of nanoparticles (e.g., spherical, rod-shaped, and sheet-like), which can affect their performance and applications. For example, silver nanoparticles are used for antibacterial purposes, gold nanoparticles are used for sensors or drug delivery, and iron nanoparticles are used for environmental remediation. Furthermore, Au nanoparticles synthesized using curcumin have better biocompatibility and are suitable for medical uses. Therefore, metal nanoparticles synthesized by different plants have different properties and applications [25].

Table 3

Comparison of the activity of green-synthesized Ag/ZnO NPs with analogous metal/metal oxide NPs

Nanomaterials Green synthesis method Main activity and performance Applied fields Ref.
Ag/ZnO bimetallic NPs Plant extract (tyrosine), hydrothermal method Antibacterial: it can effectively inhibit Escherichia coli (mic = 15 μg/ml) and Staphylococcus aureus (mic = 20 μg/ml) Antibacterial dressing [73,87]
Pollutant degradation
SERS detection: the surface plasmon resonance effect of Ag nanosheets can detect 10-7 M of 4-aminothiophenol Biosensing
ZnO NPs Reduction of metal ions by phytochelatins\polyphenol Antibacterial: the inhibition rate of Gram-positive bacteria (e.g., Staphylococcus aureus) is >90%, which depends on Zn²⁺ release and ROS generation Antibacterial coating [62]
Diabetes therapy
TiO₂NPs Plant extracts (e.g., apple pomace) Sensing: pH-sensitive TiO₂ is used for Intelligent packaging and detection of food freshness Environmental remediation [36,64]
Intelligent food packaging
CeO₂NPs Hydrothermal method combined with natural biopolymers (e.g., chitosan) Antioxidant: clears superoxide anions (O₂⁻) and hydroxyl radicals (˙OH) with an efficiency of over 90% Antioxidants [36,50]
Biomaterials
Antibacterial: inhibits Escherichia coli by generating ROS
NiO/MnO₂ bimetallic NPs Mint or peel extract reduces metal ions Enhances the sensitivity of detecting antibiotics (e.g., cefaclor) via spectrophotometry to 0.01 μg/mL Analysis and detection [32,40]
Energy storage
Ag NPs Plant extracts (Euphorbia leaves and sugar beet concentrates) reduce silver nitrate Cytotoxicity: inducing G2/M phase arrest and apoptosis in lung cancer cells (A549) Anticancer [33,78]
ROS generation: destroys cell membrane/lysosome membrane, inhibits DNA repair Antioxidant
Au NPs Plant extracts (e.g., tea and coffee) reduce chloroauric acid Inhibit the Ras/Akt signaling pathway Anticancer [35,69]
Enhance the effect of photothermal/photodynamic therapy Sensing
Fe₂O₃ NPs Thymus mongolicus extract reduces ferric nitrate It decomposes dye (methylene blue) with a decomposition rate of 61% Antibacterial agents [79,84]
Antibacterial: inhibits Staphylococcus aureus Environmental remediation

Green-synthesized Ag/ZnO bimetallic nanoparticles are considered novel materials characterized by their nanoscale dimensions. Their small size, large specific surface area, and high surface energy give them unique physicochemical properties and biological activity, distinguishing them from conventionally synthesized materials. The biological activity of these nanoparticles is primarily reflected in their exceptional biocompatibility and therapeutic potential in medical applications.

The green synthesis of Ag/ZnO bimetallic nanoparticles relies on the use of plant extracts (e.g., Aegle marmelos leaf extract), microorganisms (e.g., bacteria, fungi, and yeast), and ionic liquids (e.g., [Emim]PF₆) as natural reducing and stabilizing agents. By precisely controlling the reaction conditions, including the extract concentration, pH, and temperature, researchers can effectively regulate the morphology and size of the nanoparticles, facilitating the production of high-performance nanomaterials with enhanced properties [26].

The plant-based synthesis method is an innovative approach to produce bimetallic nanoparticles with diverse sizes and morphologies. This method enables the formation of various nanostructures, including cubes, tetrahedra, octahedra, rhombic dodecahedra, spheres, and irregular crystalline shapes, making Ag/ZnO bimetallic nanoparticles highly versatile for biomedical applications [27].

The Ag/ZnO bimetallic nanoparticles synthesized using plant extracts exhibit comparable physicochemical properties to those produced through chemical synthesis involving silver and zinc oxide salts [28]. Leveraging plants for direct nanoparticle synthesis offers significant advantages, as plants can naturally absorb silver and zinc oxide, reduce them into nanoparticles, and store them in a reusable form for environmentally friendly applications.

One of the notable applications of plant-synthesized Ag/ZnO nanoparticles is their use as antibacterial agents in wound healing, with coffee-derived Ag/ZnO nanoparticles showing particular efficacy. Additionally, these nanoparticles are non-toxic to plants, as they do not interfere with plant growth or development. Compared to chemically synthesized nanoparticles, plant-derived Ag/ZnO nanoparticles tend to form smaller and more stable aggregates, ensuring greater dispersion and bioavailability. Although their size typically ranges between 1 and 100 nm, smaller Ag/ZnO nanoparticles are particularly desirable for medical, agricultural, and industrial applications due to their enhanced functionality and reactivity [3,29].

Extensive research has been conducted on the synthesis and application of metal nanoparticles, with bimetallic nanoparticles demonstrating superior optical, catalytic, and biological properties compared to their monometallic counterparts. Ag/ZnO nanoparticles have been widely studied as a key component of bimetallic nanomaterials, offering enhanced functionality and efficiency [30,31]. These Ag/ZnO nanoparticles exhibit dual functionality and high-value applications, making them useful for drug development, disease diagnostics and treatment, nanotherapies, and photocatalysis. Their ability to interact with light and produce vibrant colors makes their performance highly promising and innovative in both biomedical and industrial applications. Although bimetallic Ag/ZnO nanoparticles can be synthesized through physical and chemical methods, researchers have shown a growing interest in plant-based synthesis, as it provides an eco-friendly and biologically compatible approach for nanoparticle production [9,32].

The diversity of metal nanoparticles synthesized by plants provides a natural “green toolbox” for nanotechnology, but its application requires selecting suitable plant–metal combinations based on specific needs and solving controllability and scalability issues through interdisciplinary research (botany, materials science, and engineering). The development of this field may drive innovation in nanomedicine, agriculture, environmental science, etc.

4 Biomedical applications

With the continuous development of nanotechnology, bimetallic Ag/ZnO nanoparticles, as a new type of material, are increasingly being applied in the biomedical field. Bimetallic Ag/ZnO nanoparticles play an important role in medical treatment, biosensing, bioimaging, and other fields (Figure 3).

Figure 3 Effects and mechanisms of Ag/ZnO bimetallic NPs from plants in biomedical applications.
Figure 3

Effects and mechanisms of Ag/ZnO bimetallic NPs from plants in biomedical applications.

4.1 Anti-inflammatory effects

Plant-derived Ag/ZnO bimetallic nanoparticles exhibit significant potential in anti-inflammatory applications, offering diverse preparation methods, well-defined anti-inflammatory mechanisms, excellent biocompatibility and safety, and broad therapeutic prospects. These nanoparticles are primarily synthesized through solvothermal, microwave-assisted, and ultrasound-assisted methods, utilizing plant extracts as both reducing and stabilizing agents to produce biocompatible nanoparticles with strong anti-inflammatory properties. With their broad application potential in anti-inflammatory therapy, these nanoparticles can be administered orally, topically, or directly to inflamed areas, thereby minimizing drug-induced damage to healthy tissues. Additionally, the natural components in plant-derived nanoparticles contribute to enhancing patient acceptance and compliance, making them a promising alternative for safer and more effective anti-inflammatory treatments [33,34].

The anti-inflammatory mechanism of plant-derived Ag/ZnO bimetallic nanoparticles is believed to operate through multiple pathways. These nanoparticles may exert anti-inflammatory effects by disrupting bacterial cell walls and generating ROS, leading to pathogen elimination and reduced inflammation. They may also modulate immune system function, thereby alleviating inflammatory responses. By inhibiting the expression of inflammatory factors and reducing the release of inflammatory mediators, they contribute to suppressing excessive inflammation. Additionally, their antioxidant properties and free radical scavenging abilities help mitigate oxidative stress-induced tissue damage, further enhancing their therapeutic potential [35].

Future research should focus on further elucidating the anti-inflammatory mechanisms of bimetallic nanoparticles from two key perspectives. First, molecular and cellular biology approaches should be employed to conduct in-depth studies on the underlying mechanisms of their anti-inflammatory activity. Second, the interaction between nanoparticles and inflammation-related signaling pathways should be explored to uncover new strategies for nanodrug development and targeted therapeutic applications [36].

4.2 Antioxidant effects

Plant-derived Ag/ZnO bimetallic nanoparticles have been shown to exhibit inherent antioxidant properties, distinguishing them from conventional metal nanoparticles. DPPH radical assays have demonstrated that in comparison to ascorbic acid, a standard antioxidant, the synthesized nanoparticles exhibit concentration-dependent antioxidant activity, with EC50 values of 25.3 ± 1.2 μg/mL, compared to 18.7 ± 0.9 μg/mL for ascorbic acid. These findings are consistent with previous research and suggest that Ag/ZnO nanoparticles may induce oxidative damage through ROS overproduction, which could contribute to their phytotoxic effects in plant systems. The oxidative damage caused by metal oxide nanoparticles may play a key role in their phytotoxicity, impacting plant health [37].

Ag/ZnO bimetallic nanoparticles exhibit an efficient antioxidant effect through a synergistic catalytic mechanism: the photocatalytic property of ZnO decomposes ROS, while Ag promotes electron transfer to scavenge free radicals. Meanwhile, Ag/ZnO can activate endogenous antioxidant enzymes (e.g., SOD), forming a dynamic defense network. Compared with traditional antioxidants, their advantages lie in multi-target regulation (inhibiting ROS generation + enhancing self-defense) and long-term sustained release (nanostructure-controlled release of Ag⁺/Zn²⁺), as well as lower toxicity and suitability for complex biological environments [6].

Additionally, color changes in solution have been observed following nanoparticle formation, further indicating their interaction with biological systems. Studies have shown that plant-derived nanomaterials, formed through the combination of silver and zinc oxide, enhance antioxidant capacity and demonstrate anti-proliferative effects by eliminating free radicals [38,39]. Compared to single-metal silver or zinc oxide nanoparticles, bimetallic Ag/ZnO nanoparticles synthesized using Trigonella foenum-graecum L. exhibit significantly stronger antioxidant properties. Due to these potent antioxidant effects, Ag/ZnO nanoparticles have potential therapeutic applications in treating complex diseases, including liver disorders and cancer.

4.3 Antibacterial effects

Research has shown that plant-derived Ag/ZnO bimetallic nanoparticles effectively inhibit microbial reproduction by killing microorganisms, demonstrating greater antibacterial activity than single-metal nanoparticles [40]. These bimetallic nanoparticles exhibit strong antibacterial effects against Micrococcus luteus and Escherichia coli, attributed to their small size and photocatalytic properties. Additionally, they have demonstrated antibacterial activity against a wide range of bacterial strains, including S. aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Bacillus subtilis, and Klebsiella pneumoniae [41,42]. Their broad-spectrum antimicrobial properties make them highly effective against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, leading to their frequent use in studies on nanomaterial-microorganism interactions. The higher surface area-to-volume ratio of Ag/ZnO nanoparticles enables them to generate more ROS, which contributes to their antibacterial mechanisms. However, anionic species, such as hydroxides and superoxides, accumulate on bacterial cell walls, disrupting membrane integrity and causing structural damage. This disruption leads to the release of intracellular contents, ultimately resulting in cell death. Additionally, compounds like hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) can interfere with cellular respiratory enzymes, further compromising bacterial viability. The rough surface texture of Ag/ZnO nanoparticles enhances their ability to damage bacterial cell walls, increasing plasma membrane permeability to Ag⁺ and ZnO ions, which exert toxic effects on bacterial cells. Compared to other nanoparticles, such as titanium oxide/zinc oxide nanoparticles, Ag/ZnO nanoparticles exhibit superior antibacterial efficacy, making them more effective antimicrobial agents [43,44].

4.4 Anticancer effect

In anti-tumor therapy, the anti-cancer activity of Ag/ZnO nanoparticles is primarily observed through their ability to inhibit tumor cell proliferation, induce apoptosis, and regulate the tumor microenvironment. These nanoparticles are emerging as a promising therapeutic approach for tumor treatment and prevention. Although plant-derived Ag/ZnO bimetallic nanoparticles have not yet been widely applied in the treatment of human cancers, studies indicate their potential efficacy against various types of cancers, including ovarian, liver, pancreatic, and lung cancers [10,45]. However, further research is necessary to fully understand their mechanisms and therapeutic effectiveness. One particularly promising area of study is the potential effectiveness of Ag/ZnO nanoparticles against brain gliomas. The presence of the blood–brain barrier presents a significant challenge in glioma treatment, often limiting the effectiveness of conventional therapies. Ag/ZnO nanoparticles, due to their unique physicochemical properties, may offer a novel approach to overcoming this barrier and enhancing drug delivery to brain tumors. The bimetallic Ag/ZnO nanoparticles synthesized from Chonemorpha fragrans extract have demonstrated notable results in toxicity studies. Their in vitro cytotoxic effects have been evaluated against MCF-7 (breast cancer), HCT-116 (colon cancer), and A-549 (lung cancer) cell lines, with results indicating that nanoparticle toxicity is dose-dependent. Practical testing has confirmed that as the nanoparticle concentration increases, cell viability significantly decreases. Additionally, the rate of cell death follows the order MCF-7 > HCT-116 > A-549, suggesting varying levels of sensitivity among different cancer cell lines [46]. Compared to larger-sized nanoparticles, plant-derived Ag/ZnO nanoparticles with specific nanoscale dimensions exhibit greater anticancer efficacy. This enhanced effectiveness is attributed to the unique properties of green-synthesized nanoparticles, as plant extracts function as both reducing and stabilizing agents during the synthesis. Studies have also shown that bimetallic nanoparticles significantly inhibit the growth of HepG2 liver cancer cells, demonstrating their therapeutic potential. Cancer cells differ from normal cells, particularly in terms of metabolic processes, which makes them more susceptible to nanoparticle-induced cytotoxicity. Research has further indicated that nanoparticles containing Zn²⁺ cations within cancer cells can generate ROS, ultimately leading to cellular destruction and apoptosis [47].

The cytotoxic effects of Ag/ZnO bimetallic nanoparticles on cancer cells are largely attributed to the zinc oxide component, which alters histone methylation by generating free radicals, while the silver component promotes programmed cell death (apoptosis). Due to their enhanced cellular absorption and inhibitory effects, plant-derived Ag/ZnO nanoparticles exhibit stronger toxicity against HepG2 liver cancer cells than normal cells such as NIH-3T3 fibroblasts. These nanoparticles have also demonstrated potent cytotoxic effects against human cervical cancer (HeLa) cells, efficiently penetrating cancer cell membranes and generating ROS that ultimately lead to cell death [3,48]. Studies have shown that Ag/ZnO nanoparticles synthesized from Justicia adhatoda cause greater cellular damage due to the electrostatic interaction between positively charged silver and zinc metal ions and the negatively charged cancer cell membranes. This property enhances their efficacy as anticancer agents, making them a promising alternative for cancer treatment [49]. In vitro cytotoxicity tests have evaluated plant-derived Ag/ZnO nanoparticles against various human cancer cell lines, including breast cancer (MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231), colon cancer (HCT-15), lung cancer (A-549), and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). The highest cytotoxic activity was observed at a concentration of 25 μg/mL, indicating strong anticancer potential. Further cell viability tests using the A-549 lung cancer cell line examined the toxicity of biologically capped Ag/ZnO nanoparticles at different doses (0.05, 0.1, and 0.2 mg/mL). The results showed that concentrations up to 0.1 mg/mL did not cause significant harm to healthy cells, suggesting a potential therapeutic window for these nanoparticles [50,51]. Research conducted by Rad et al. confirmed that low concentrations of Ag/ZnO nanoparticles induce dose-dependent cytotoxicity, effectively triggering cancer cell apoptosis. Another study examined the toxicity of Ag/ZnO bimetallic nanoparticles in ovarian cancer (SKOV-3) and cervical cancer (HeLa) cell lines, revealing that exposure to 2.0 mg/mL of Ag/ZnO nanoparticles for 48 h resulted in significant anticancer activity against both HeLa and SKOV-3 cell lines at varying concentrations [52,53].

4.5 Potential against Leishmania spp.

In tropical regions, leishmaniasis remains a life-threatening disease, prompting the development of new technologies that have shown promising therapeutic outcomes. Various biosynthetic metal and oxide nanoparticles are being practically applied to combat this disease. MTT assay results indicate that plant-derived Ag/ZnO bimetallic nanoparticles exhibit superior activity against tropical Leishmania parasites compared to single-metal ZnO nanoparticles, highlighting their enhanced antiparasitic potential [54,55]. Reports suggest that spherical Ag/ZnO bimetallic nanoparticles synthesized from Mirabilis jalapa leaf extract possess significant leishmanicidal activity, further supporting their therapeutic application. Mosquito-borne diseases, including dengue fever, malaria, and leishmaniasis, contribute to an estimated 600,000 deaths annually worldwide. While research has explored the application of bimetallic Ag/ZnO nanoparticles against Leishmania parasites, their potential as anti-dengue and anti-malarial agents remains largely unexplored, necessitating further investigation into their broader antimicrobial and antiparasitic applications [56,57].

Mechanisms: The antileishmanial activity of Ag/ZnO bimetallic nanoparticles is achieved through synergistic multi-pathway mechanisms, including physical membrane disruption, biochemical damage from released metal ions, ROS-induced oxidative stress, and immune-enhancing effects.

  1. Intrinsic antimicrobial properties: Both Ag and ZnO possess inherent antimicrobial effects. Silver nanoparticles (Ag NPs) release Ag⁺ ions, which cause microbial cell membrane damage, DNA fragmentation, and enzyme inactivation. Zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) generate ROS, triggering oxidative stress and disrupting cellular structures, ultimately impairing parasite viability.

  2. Synergistic effects of the bimetallic nanostructure: The combination of Ag and ZnO enhances antimicrobial efficacy through synergistic interactions. ZnO nanoparticles stabilize Ag nanoparticles, prolonging their activity, while their combined interaction amplifies ROS production, making them more effective against Leishmania parasites.

  3. Host cell penetration and parasite disruption: Since Leishmania parasites primarily infect macrophages, Ag/ZnO nanoparticles must penetrate host cells to reach the intracellular parasites. The nanoparticles interact with the parasite’s cell membrane, increasing membrane permeability, which leads to content leakage. Simultaneously, the released Ag⁺ and Zn²⁺ ions disrupt parasitic metabolic enzymes, impair mitochondrial function, and block energy production, leading to parasite death [58,59,60].

In conclusion, ROS generation plays a critical role in the antileishmanial mechanism. Excessive ROS levels induce lipid peroxidation, protein and nucleic acid oxidation, and severe cellular damage, ultimately resulting in parasite death. Bimetallic Ag/ZnO nanoparticles generate higher ROS levels than single-metal nanoparticles, leveraging multiple ROS-generation pathways to enhance lethality. Additionally, these nanoparticles activate macrophage immune responses, further promoting parasite clearance and strengthening the host’s defense mechanisms.

4.6 Drug delivery uses

The primary goal of drug delivery is to transport therapeutic agents to specific target sites, minimizing damage to surrounding healthy cells, which remains a fundamental principle in biology and medical science. By utilizing the surface exchange properties of green-synthesized nanoparticles, biomolecules such as carbohydrates, proteins, phenols, receptors, and drugs can interact with plant-derived Ag/ZnO bimetallic nanoparticles. This interaction enhances the biological functionality of these nanoparticles, making them highly applicable in targeted drug delivery systems [61,62]. The ability of Ag/ZnO bimetallic nanoparticles to target and selectively kill cancer cells through endocytosis, an active targeting mechanism, makes them promising candidates for cancer treatment. Their exceptional assembly properties – stemming from their high surface area – enable them to bind with various biomolecules and therapeutic compounds. Additionally, Ag/ZnO nanoparticles synthesized from plant extracts can be absorbed or transported by natural biomolecules, serving as efficient drug carriers that facilitate precise drug delivery to designated sites [63]. The biological stability of biosynthesized Ag/ZnO bimetallic nanoparticles further supports their potential as drug carriers. Compared to conventional FDA-approved anticancer drugs, plant-derived Ag/ZnO nanoparticle-based delivery systems exhibit enhanced therapeutic efficacy, largely due to their improved targeting capability. The optimal performance of these drug delivery systems can be attributed to the synergistic targeting effects of bimetallic nanoparticles, which enhance permeability and bioavailability, ultimately improving drug effectiveness [14,64]. By analyzing the biocompatibility of plant-derived Ag/ZnO nanoparticles, it becomes evident that these nanoparticles hold significant potential as effective carriers for targeted drug delivery in future biomedical applications.

4.7 Molecular detection and biosensing applications

Bimetallic nanoparticles have excellent sensing performance and can be used to construct high-sensitivity biosensors for detecting biological materials (e.g., biomarkers and pathogens). Silver zinc oxide bimetallic nanoparticles can achieve the detection and quantitative analysis of biomolecules by recognizing specific biomolecules (e.g., proteins and DNA). In addition, bimetallic nanoparticles can achieve real-time monitoring and early warning of diseases by integrating into biosensors to provide strong support for clinical decision-making.

Biomacromolecules (e.g., nucleic acids and proteins) have been widely recognized as a coating application of Ag/ZnO alloy nanoparticles, indicating that the binding of bimetallic nanoparticles to biomolecules is similar to that of DNA and RNA. Meanwhile, this genetic material can bind to complementary chains, and NPs-NA can be used for molecular recognition of NA in solution [65]. In addition, starting from the sequence of specific molecular sites (e.g., proteins, cells, organs, and organisms), the self-assembly ability of NA improves their recognition efficiency. The applied program for identifying Ag/ZnO bimetallic nanoparticles can be widely used to detect multiple deoxyribonucleic acid sequences for detecting mutations in the nucleotide sequence [8,66]. At present, the applications of silver zinc oxide bimetallic nanoparticles in the field of biosensing mainly include high-sensitivity molecular detection, bacterial detection, cancer biomarker detection, myocardial infarction gene detection, antibiotic detection, etc.

4.8 Other uses

Beyond their biomedical and therapeutic applications, plant-derived Ag/ZnO bimetallic nanoparticles offer additional functionalities, including biological imaging, bone integration, and infection prevention [67]. In biological imaging, these bimetallic nanoparticles exhibit unique optical, magnetic, and electrical properties, making them highly effective contrast agents for enhancing the clarity and contrast of medical images. Additionally, their ability to facilitate multimodal imaging allows for the combination of different imaging techniques, such as optical imaging and magnetic resonance imaging, providing more comprehensive diagnostic information for early disease detection and treatment.

Beyond imaging applications, Ag/ZnO bimetallic nanoparticles synthesized from propolis extract have demonstrated significant potential in wound healing therapy, accelerating the regeneration of damaged tissues. Similarly, Ag/ZnO nanoparticles synthesized from cherry plum (Prunus cerasifera) have shown effectiveness in pollutant degradation and in vitro sterilization, offering eco-friendly solutions for environmental and biomedical applications [22,68].

5 Future trends

As an emerging class of materials, bimetallic nanoparticles are gaining increasing significance in the biomedical field, largely due to their unique physicochemical properties. These properties make them highly promising for applications in antibacterial treatments, drug delivery, biological imaging, and cancer therapy. The integration of bimetallic nanoparticles in biomedical research and clinical applications spans multiple disciplines, including physics, biochemistry, botany, and medicine [69,70,71]. Future research should continue exploring their mechanisms and application value, aiming to enhance medical treatment efficacy and biological research.

In recent years, scientists have focused extensively on bimetallic Ag/ZnO nanoparticles, investigating their photochemical and photophysical properties, as well as their diverse applications. These plant-derived nanosystems have demonstrated significant potential as chemical sensors, particularly in detecting biological and environmental changes [72,73]. Additionally, the functionalization of Ag/ZnO nanoparticles with amino acids and coumarin has enabled their use in sensor-based applications both in vivo and in vitro. Under these conditions, Ag/ZnO nanoparticles offer significant advantages, particularly in targeted drug delivery and protein activity regulation [74].

Although this review has outlined the synthesis and characteristics of Ag/ZnO nanoparticles, its primary focus is on the use of plant extracts and environmentally friendly biological methods to achieve synthesis and therapeutic potential while also assessing the hazards and biological consequences associated with these nanoparticles [75].

Given the extensive research on stress responses of single and bimetallic nanoparticles in living organisms, further investigations are needed to understand nanoparticle accumulation in tissues and organelles, such as chloroplasts and mitochondria. The quantity, structural organization, research duration, nanoparticle formulation, and exposure type (chronic vs acute treatment) all influence the biological stress response, highlighting the necessity for comprehensive evaluation [76,77]. While extensive studies have been conducted on the biochemical, genetic, and toxicological properties of heavy and hazardous metals, similar research on bimetallic nanoparticles remains scarce. A critical emerging research topic involves the impact of bimetallic nanoparticles on interactions between living organisms and their physical environments. Conducting experiments under natural conditions, rather than controlled laboratory settings, is essential to obtain accurate and objective results [78]. Additionally, this review identifies a lack of studies on genetic variability in response to bimetallic nanoparticle exposure. Different varieties, hybrids, and mutants of the same species may exhibit varying responses to the same nanoparticle concentrations, an area that warrants greater scientific attention. Given the potential entry of single-metal and bimetallic nanoparticles into the food chain, their long-term impact on human health must be carefully assessed. This area of research is crucial, as scientists must meticulously examine nanoparticle absorption kinetics, accumulation, and migration within biological systems. Further studies in this direction will provide new insights into the applications, effects, and potential risks of bimetallic nanoparticles in living organisms and ecosystems [79,80,81].

6 Conclusion

This review has highlighted the significant value and impact of bimetallic nanoparticles in therapeutics and medicine while also examining the latest developments in their biomedical applications. The primary focus has been on the green synthesis and therapeutic potential of these nanoparticles, particularly those synthesized from plant extracts and other biological methods. Additionally, the hazards and consequences of their widespread presence in biological tissues have been carefully analyzed. With the growing recognition of plant-based synthesis of Ag/ZnO bimetallic nanoparticles, biosynthesis techniques are receiving increasing attention. Researchers have extensively studied extracts from various plant parts, including roots, stems, leaves, flowers, seeds, rhizomes, stem bark, and buds. Findings indicate that these plant-derived extracts contain bioactive molecules, such as saponins, flavonoids, steroids, alkaloids, and secondary metabolites, which effectively reduce precursor salts and facilitate the synthesis of Ag/ZnO bimetallic nanoparticles.

It is well established that secondary metabolites, particularly polyphenols, act as ROS scavengers. When used as coating agents for Ag/ZnO bimetallic nanoparticles, these compounds limit ROS production, thereby preventing cellular damage and DNA degradation. Due to their widespread applications in medical, biological, environmental, and industrial fields, bimetallic Ag/ZnO nanoparticles continue to attract substantial research interest.

Notably, the extract of Trigonella foenum-graecum L. contains a high concentration of antioxidants, including phenolic acids, flavonoids, and vitamins. This has enabled the synthesis of bimetallic Ag/ZnO nanoparticles with enhanced antioxidant capacity, making them more effective for biomedical applications. Given their rising importance in nanomedicine and their biocompatibility with living tissues, plant-derived Ag/ZnO bimetallic nanoparticles are expected to play a crucial role in various healthcare and industrial applications. Due to their potent biological activity and biocompatibility, plant-derived Ag/ZnO bimetallic nanoparticles are anticipated to be highly effective antimicrobial agents. Their green synthesis makes them an ideal candidate for developing novel antibacterial drugs, with the market for bimetallic Ag/ZnO nanoparticles expanding rapidly into a major economic sector. The growing demand for plant-derived nanoparticles necessitates careful experimentation and large-scale research, particularly in the areas of vaccine development and human health applications. Plant-based synthesis offers a sustainable and economically viable approach for the production of Ag/ZnO bimetallic nanoparticles, providing environmental and health benefits over chemically synthesized alternatives. Moving forward, extensive and in-depth research is needed to overcome existing challenges associated with chemically synthesized bimetallic nanoparticles. This will establish a scientific foundation for optimizing their applications, ensuring that plant-derived Ag/ZnO bimetallic nanoparticles can effectively contribute to human health and technological advancements.

7 Prospects

Plant-derived Ag/ZnO bimetallic nanoparticles have demonstrated extensive application potential and significant value in the biomedical field (Figure 4). They have not only contributed to the development of novel therapeutic approaches and enhanced treatment effectiveness but have also provided new solutions for complex and difficult-to-treat diseases. Additionally, these nanoparticles have advanced medical diagnostics and monitoring, improving diagnostic accuracy, enabling real-time disease monitoring and evaluation, and supporting early disease detection and prevention [82,83]. Beyond their clinical applications, bimetallic nanoparticles have accelerated medical research, fostering interdisciplinary collaboration and enabling scientists to gain deeper insights into biological processes. Their development has also helped train a new generation of medical professionals with interdisciplinary expertise. More importantly, while driving technological advancements, careful consideration has been given to ethical and social values, ensuring legality, compliance, and patient safety while promoting social equity and advancing medical ethics [84,85]. Looking ahead, plant-based Ag/ZnO bimetallic nanoparticles hold tremendous potential in biomedicine, with ongoing technological advancements expected to drive significant breakthroughs in several key areas: (i) Optimization and Innovation of Therapeutic Technologies: Further optimization of nanoparticle size, shape, and surface properties, along with the development of more advanced drug delivery systems, will enable more precise and effective treatments, ultimately improving patient outcomes and quality of life. (ii) Advancement of Diagnostic and Monitoring Technologies: Integrating bimetallic nanoparticles with cutting-edge sensor technologies and artificial intelligence (AI) algorithms will enable real-time, highly accurate disease monitoring and evaluation. This will provide physicians with more comprehensive diagnostic data, supporting personalized treatment strategies and improving patient care. (iii) Expansion of Interdisciplinary Research: With growing interdisciplinary collaboration, research on plant-derived Ag/ZnO bimetallic nanoparticles will expand into nanomedicine, biotechnology, and bioinformatics, fostering technological innovation and accelerating advancements in biomedicine. (iv) Enhancement of Ethical and Regulatory Frameworks: As the application of bimetallic nanoparticles continues to evolve, greater emphasis must be placed on ethics and regulatory compliance to ensure the safe and legal integration of these technologies into clinical practice. Strengthening patient safety measures and ethical standards will be essential for their responsible and sustainable use [86,87,88].

Figure 4 Potential advantages of Ag/ZnO bimetallic nanoparticles synthesized from plants in biomedical applications.
Figure 4

Potential advantages of Ag/ZnO bimetallic nanoparticles synthesized from plants in biomedical applications.

In summary, plant-derived Ag/ZnO bimetallic nanoparticles hold tremendous promise in the biomedical field, with the potential to make groundbreaking contributions to human health. However, to fully realize their benefits, it is essential to proactively address challenges, continuously refine technological innovations, and strengthen regulatory and ethical frameworks. By doing so, plant-based Ag/ZnO nanoparticles will continue to drive scientific progress and medical advancements, shaping the future of nanomedicine and healthcare.

# These authors contributed equally to this work and should be considered first co-authors. Binzhou Vocational College and Chuxiong Normal University are the first co-affiliations and have made equal contributions as a first affiliation.

Acknowledgments

The authors express their gratitude to the Chuxiong Normal University for financial support. The authors also thank Ms. Shengai Zhang, Ms. Yiwei Ma, Ms. Haiyan Yang, and Ms. Jia Chen for their important contributions to preparing this manuscript.

  1. Funding information: This study was funded by Yunnan Education Department Research Foundation (Project: Analysis of the drought tolerance mechanism of the characteristic plant, Melaleuca alternifolia Cheel, in the low heat valley of the Lvzhijiang River. No.: 2024J0981) and the Science and Technology Guidance Program Project of China General Chamber of Commerce (Project: Inhibitory effect of the extract from hemp stem bark fiber on Trichophyton rubrum. No.: 2024-8).

  2. Author contributions: SAZ: conceptualization, writing – original draft, investigation, and methodology. JC: conceptualization, writing – original draft, investigation, and methodology. YWM: methodology, resources, and software. QHZ: investigation, data curation, and resources. BJ: project administration, methodology, and formal analysis. MLY: validation and software. NY: investigation and resources. ALY: investigation, formal analysis, and validation. YYW: writing – review & editing, methodology, and funding acquisition. HYY: writing – review & editing, methodology, and funding acquisition. QQS: investigation and manuscript editing. CHZ: conceptualization and methodology. JC is the first co-author and has made equal contributions. CXNU is the first co-affiliation and has made equal contributions as a first affiliation. All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and approved its submission.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.

  4. Data availability statement: Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.

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Received: 2024-11-21
Revised: 2025-03-24
Accepted: 2025-06-03
Published Online: 2025-06-30

© 2025 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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https://doi.org/10.1515/ntrev-2025-0186
Keywords for this article
green synthesis; biological methods; silver/zinc oxide; bimetallic nanoparticles; biomedical applications
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Research Articles
  2. MHD radiative mixed convective flow of a sodium alginate-based hybrid nanofluid over a convectively heated extending sheet with Joule heating
  3. Experimental study of mortar incorporating nano-magnetite on engineering performance and radiation shielding
  4. Multicriteria-based optimization and multi-variable non-linear regression analysis of concrete containing blends of nano date palm ash and eggshell powder as cementitious materials
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  14. A numerical analysis of heat and mass transfer in water-based hybrid nanofluid flow containing copper and alumina nanoparticles over an extending sheet
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  39. Hybridization of biocomposites with oil palm cellulose nanofibrils/graphene nanoplatelets reinforcement in green epoxy: A study of physical, thermal, mechanical, and morphological properties
  40. Design and preparation of micro-nano dual-scale particle-reinforced Cu–Al–V alloy: Research on the aluminothermic reduction process
  41. Spectral quasi-linearization and response optimization on magnetohydrodynamic flow via stenosed artery with hybrid and ternary solid nanoparticles: Support vector machine learning
  42. Ferrite/curcumin hybrid nanocomposite formulation: Physicochemical characterization, anticancer activity, and apoptotic and cell cycle analyses in skin cancer cells
  43. Enhanced therapeutic efficacy of Tamoxifen against breast cancer using extra virgin olive oil-based nanoemulsion delivery system
  44. A titanium oxide- and silver-based hybrid nanofluid flow between two Riga walls that converge and diverge through a machine-learning approach
  45. Enhancing convective heat transfer mechanisms through the rheological analysis of Casson nanofluid flow towards a stagnation point over an electro-magnetized surface
  46. Intrinsic self-sensing cementitious composites with hybrid nanofillers exhibiting excellent piezoresistivity
  47. Research on mechanical properties and sulfate erosion resistance of nano-reinforced coal gangue based geopolymer concrete
  48. Impact of surface and configurational features of chemically synthesized chains of Ni nanostars on the magnetization reversal process
  49. Porous sponge-like AsOI/poly(2-aminobenzene-1-thiol) nanocomposite photocathode for hydrogen production from artificial and natural seawater
  50. Multifaceted insights into WO3 nanoparticle-coupled antibiotics to modulate resistance in enteric pathogens of Houbara bustard birds
  51. Synthesis of sericin-coated silver nanoparticles and their applications for the anti-bacterial finishing of cotton fabric
  52. Enhancing chloride resistance of freeze–thaw affected concrete through innovative nanomaterial–polymer hybrid cementitious coating
  53. Development and performance evaluation of green aluminium metal matrix composites reinforced with graphene nanopowder and marble dust
  54. Morphological, physical, thermal, and mechanical properties of carbon nanotubes reinforced arrowroot starch composites
  55. Influence of the graphene oxide nanosheet on tensile behavior and failure characteristics of the cement composites after high-temperature treatment
  56. Central composite design modeling in optimizing heat transfer rate in the dissipative and reactive dynamics of viscoplastic nanomaterials deploying Joule and heat generation aspects
  57. Double diffusion of nano-enhanced phase change materials in connected porous channels: A hybrid ISPH-XGBoost approach
  58. Synergistic impacts of Thompson–Troian slip, Stefan blowing, and nonuniform heat generation on Casson nanofluid dynamics through a porous medium
  59. Optimization of abrasive water jet machining parameters for basalt fiber/SiO2 nanofiller reinforced composites
  60. Enhancing aesthetic durability of Zisha teapots via TiO2 nanoparticle surface modification: A study on self-cleaning, antimicrobial, and mechanical properties
  61. Nanocellulose solution based on iron(iii) sodium tartrate complexes
  62. Combating multidrug-resistant infections: Gold nanoparticles–chitosan–papain-integrated dual-action nanoplatform for enhanced antibacterial activity
  63. Novel royal jelly-mediated green synthesis of selenium nanoparticles and their multifunctional biological activities
  64. Direct bandgap transition for emission in GeSn nanowires
  65. Synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles with different morphologies using a microwave-based method and their antimicrobial activity
  66. Numerical investigation of convective heat and mass transfer in a trapezoidal cavity filled with ternary hybrid nanofluid and a central obstacle
  67. Halloysite nanotube enhanced polyurethane nanocomposites for advanced electroinsulating applications
  68. Low molar mass ionic liquid’s modified carbon nanotubes and its role in PVDF crystalline stress generation
  69. Green synthesis of polydopamine-functionalized silver nanoparticles conjugated with Ceftazidime: in silico and experimental approach for combating antibiotic-resistant bacteria and reducing toxicity
  70. Evaluating the influence of graphene nano powder inclusion on mechanical, vibrational and water absorption behaviour of ramie/abaca hybrid composites
  71. Dynamic-behavior of Casson-type hybrid nanofluids due to a stretching sheet under the coupled impacts of boundary slip and reaction-diffusion processes
  72. Influence of polyvinyl alcohol on the physicochemical and self-sensing properties of nano carbon black reinforced cement mortar
  73. Advanced machine learning approaches for predicting compressive and flexural strength of carbon nanotube–reinforced cement composites: a comparative study and model interpretability analysis
  74. Artificial neural network-driven insights into nanoparticle-enhanced phase change materials melting for heat storage optimization
  75. Optical, structural, and morphological characterization of hydrothermally synthesized zinc oxide nanorods: exploring their potential for environmental applications
  76. Structural, optical, and gas sensing properties of Ce, Nd, and Pr doped ZnS nanostructured thin films prepared by nebulizer spray pyrolysis method
  77. The influence of nano-size La2O3 and HfC on the microstructure and mechanical properties of tungsten alloys by microwave sintering
  78. 10.1515/ntrev-2025-0187
  79. Review Articles
  80. A comprehensive review on hybrid plasmonic waveguides: Structures, applications, challenges, and future perspectives
  81. Nanoparticles in low-temperature preservation of biological systems of animal origin
  82. Fluorescent sulfur quantum dots for environmental monitoring
  83. Nanoscience systematic review methodology standardization
  84. Nanotechnology revolutionizing osteosarcoma treatment: Advances in targeted kinase inhibitors
  85. AFM: An important enabling technology for 2D materials and devices
  86. Carbon and 2D nanomaterial smart hydrogels for therapeutic applications
  87. Principles, applications and future prospects in photodegradation systems
  88. Do gold nanoparticles consistently benefit crop plants under both non-stressed and abiotic stress conditions?
  89. An updated overview of nanoparticle-induced cardiovascular toxicity
  90. Arginine as a promising amino acid for functionalized nanosystems: Innovations, challenges, and future directions
  91. Advancements in the use of cancer nanovaccines: Comprehensive insights with focus on lung and colon cancer
  92. Membrane-based biomimetic delivery systems for glioblastoma multiforme therapy
  93. The drug delivery systems based on nanoparticles for spinal cord injury repair
  94. Green synthesis, biomedical effects, and future trends of Ag/ZnO bimetallic nanoparticles: An update
  95. Application of magnesium and its compounds in biomaterials for nerve injury repair
  96. Micro/nanomotors in biomedicine: Construction and applications
  97. Hydrothermal synthesis of biomass-derived CQDs: Advances and applications
  98. Research progress in 3D bioprinting of skin: Challenges and opportunities
  99. Review on bio-selenium nanoparticles: Synthesis, protocols, and applications in biomedical processes
  100. Gold nanocrystals and nanorods functionalized with protein and polymeric ligands for environmental, energy storage, and diagnostic applications: A review
  101. An in-depth analysis of rotational and non-rotational piezoelectric energy harvesting beams: A comprehensive review
  102. Advancements in perovskite/CIGS tandem solar cells: Material synergies, device configurations, and economic viability for sustainable energy
  103. Deep learning in-depth analysis of crystal graph convolutional neural networks: A new era in materials discovery and its applications
  104. Review of recent nano TiO2 film coating methods, assessment techniques, and key problems for scaleup
  105. Antioxidant quantum dots for spinal cord injuries: A review on advancing neuroprotection and regeneration in neurological disorders
  106. Rise of polycatecholamine ultrathin films: From synthesis to smart applications
  107. Advancing microencapsulation strategies for bioactive compounds: Enhancing stability, bioavailability, and controlled release in food applications
  108. Advances in the design and manipulation of self-assembling peptide and protein nanostructures for biomedical applications
  109. Photocatalytic pervious concrete systems: from classic photocatalysis to luminescent photocatalysis
  110. Beyond science: ethical and societal considerations in the era of biogenic nanoparticles
  111. Corrigendum
  112. Corrigendum to “Synthesis and characterization of smart stimuli-responsive herbal drug-encapsulated nanoniosome particles for efficient treatment of breast cancer”
  113. Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials for Carbon Capture, Environment and Utilization for Energy Sustainability - Part III
  114. Efficiency optimization of quantum dot photovoltaic cell by solar thermophotovoltaic system
  115. Exploring the diverse nanomaterials employed in dental prosthesis and implant techniques: An overview
  116. Electrochemical investigation of bismuth-doped anode materials for low‑temperature solid oxide fuel cells with boosted voltage using a DC-DC voltage converter
  117. Synthesis of HfSe2 and CuHfSe2 crystalline materials using the chemical vapor transport method and their applications in supercapacitor energy storage devices
  118. Special Issue on Green Nanotechnology and Nano-materials for Environment Sustainability
  119. Influence of nano-silica and nano-ferrite particles on mechanical and durability of sustainable concrete: A review
  120. Surfaces and interfaces analysis on different carboxymethylation reaction time of anionic cellulose nanoparticles derived from oil palm biomass
  121. Processing and effective utilization of lignocellulosic biomass: Nanocellulose, nanolignin, and nanoxylan for wastewater treatment
  122. Wound healing activities of sulfur nanoparticles of Allium cepa extract embedded in a nanocream formulation: in vitro and in vivo studies
  123. Retraction
  124. Retraction of “Aging assessment of silicone rubber materials under corona discharge accompanied by humidity and UV radiation”
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