Home Reductive behavior of nickel and iron metallization in magnesian siliceous nickel laterite ores under the action of sulfur-bearing natural gas
Article Open Access

Reductive behavior of nickel and iron metallization in magnesian siliceous nickel laterite ores under the action of sulfur-bearing natural gas

  • Zhien He , Bo Li EMAIL logo and Yonggang Wei
Published/Copyright: February 15, 2024
Download Article (PDF)
Become an author with De Gruyter Brill
Submit Manuscript Author Information
High Temperature Materials and Processes
From the journal High Temperature Materials and Processes Volume 43 Issue 1

Abstract

This study is a process for the preparation of advanced nickel–iron alloys by selective reduction of nickel-poor laterite ores using a variety of reducing agents. The first part of the experiment was the reduction of nickel laterite ore using natural gas; the reduction yielded mostly nickel metal and a small amount of iron forming fine nickel–iron particles. Fine nickel–iron particles are formed through the reduction of nickel and a small amount of iron oxides. These particles are dispersed and embedded within silicates. Additionally, H2S present in natural gas reacts with iron oxide, resulting in the formation of FeS. This, in turn, forms a low melting point eutectic with Fe, which reduces surface tension and promotes the growth and aggregation of nickel–iron particles. This study aimed to investigate the effects of various parameters such as roasting temperature, roasting time, natural gas concentration, and nickel laterite pellet on the formation and aggregation of ferronickel particles in low-grade nickel laterite ores. The results showed that the optimum reduction parameters were achieved at 900°C, 120 min, 40% natural gas concentration, and 40–60 mesh nickel laterite size, with roasting temperature being the most important factor followed by natural gas concentration, roasting time, and nickel laterite pellet. Using these parameters, the metallization rates of Ni and Fe were found to be as high as 95.3 and 8.5%, respectively.

Keywords: laterite nickel ore; metallization rate; ferrous sulfide

1 Introduction

Nickel, a crucial non-ferrous metal with strategic importance, finds extensive applications in a range of sectors, including stainless steel manufacturing, battery materials production, electroplating, catalyst synthesis, and magnetic-sensitive materials development [1,2,3]. It has earned the moniker of “industrial vitamin” in the field of metals and materials chemistry. The majority of nickel consumption, approximately 85%, is attributed to stainless steel production, while electroplating and batteries account for 6 and 5%, respectively. Due to the rapid growth of the stainless steel industry, the demand for nickel has significantly increased [4,5,6]. Currently, globally proven nickel ores are primarily divided into two types – nickel sulfide ore and nickel laterite ore [7,8]. Unfortunately, the over-exploitation of nickel sulfide resources in recent years has led to the gradual depletion of these resources. As a result, the demand for nickel has increased dramatically. As one of the most important sources of nickel, laterite nickel ore accounts for more than 70% of the world’s nickel reserves, but nickel production only accounts for about 40% [9,10]. The research on the electrometallurgical process of low-grade laterite nickel ore has, therefore, become a significant international metallurgical challenge at present.

Low-grade laterite nickel ore is characterized by high silica-magnesium content, low nickel grade, and complex ore phase, which makes the wet smelting process too costly to deal with. As a result, the pyrometallurgical process has emerged as a more economically efficient method for its production and utilization [11]. In terms of energy conservation and carbon reduction, the traditional use of carbon-based reductants results in significant CO2 emissions. Meanwhile, the incorporation of hydrogen (H2) and methane (CH4) as selective reductants for low-grade laterite nickel ore can reduce CO2 emissions in comparison to carbon-based reductants for the production of an equivalent amount of nickel metal. Furthermore, the use of CH4 as a reductant can generate significant amounts of valuable gaseous by-products during the reduction process of H2 and CO gas mixtures. H2 is considered the most ideal reductant for these purposes [12]. However, the reduction process can become expensive due to the difficulty of transporting and storing hydrogen, which is why methane becomes a potential alternative reductant. A significant amount of research has focused on gas-based reduction of laterite nickel ore [13,14]. Studies on the reduction of low-grade nickel laterite ore by hydrogen under different conditions have shown that the nickel oxide in the ore can be almost completely reduced by low-temperature hydrogen reduction [15]. Additionally, part of the iron in the ore can be reduced to metallic iron with nickel, forming a nickel–iron alloy, while the majority of the iron is reduced to FeO.

Natural gas is a clean and environmentally friendly energy source that produces minimal amounts of harmful substances and dust when burned [16], making it a high-quality option for energy consumption. It also produces significantly fewer carbon dioxide and nitrogen oxide emissions compared to other fossil fuels. Additionally, developing natural gas reduction technology for nickel laterite processing offers several advantages, including improved reduction efficiency [17,18]. Another benefit of natural gas as a reductant is that it typically contains trace amounts of sulfur (0.5–7%) [19], which can be utilized as an additive to enhance the reduction process. This is an important consideration that has been extensively researched. Sulfur additives are one of the most significant additives [20,21,22]. Sulfur is known to enhance the reduction process in nickel laterite processing by promoting the aggregation and growth of ferronickel particles. Additionally, the formation of Fe–FeS eutectic during the reduction process contributes to the aggregation of ferronickel particles [23,24,25,26]. Studies have shown that the utilization of additives, such as Na2S, FeO, and FeS, can effectively enhance the growth of ferronickel grains during nickel laterite processing. The addition of Na2S significantly increased the size of NiFe grains, relative to the other types of additives tested. This is attributed to the formation of the regional liquid phase, which facilitates the aggregation and growth of ferronickel grains. Moreover, the content of the liquid phase in the slag is modified by Na2S and FeO additives, while FeS affects the composition of the metal [27]. Thermodynamic analysis has revealed that at high temperatures, FeS is a stable phase for sulfur. To investigate the microstructure evolution and phase transformation of sulfur on metallic iron growth, reduction experiments were conducted. The reduction process was observed to occur in three stages. During the first stage, liquid FeS was observed, and Fe particles were generated around the pores. In the second stage, Fe was wetted and covered by the liquid phase (Fe–FeS). Finally, during the third stage, Fe particles migrated towards uniformity in the liquid phase, and gradually transformed and aggregated into spherical shapes [28]. Thus, it has been found that natural gas can effectively promote the grain growth of nickel–iron alloy without the need for additional accelerators during the reduction process of nickel laterite.

In view of the low grade and complex structure of nickel laterite–magnesium–silicon ore, the method of “preheating and drying of nickel laterite ore–multiple reductant selective reduction-high temperature preparation of nickel–iron alloy” was proposed. The new method of “high-temperature preparation of nickel–iron alloys” investigates the extraction of nickel and iron from low-grade laterite magnesium-silicon nickel ores. This new method takes advantage of the favorable reduction properties of natural gas and sulfur, and most of the nickel–iron in the reduction product is nickel metal and iron oxides, and then the iron oxide reduction is controlled to control the nickel–iron grade in the alloy. The objective of this reduction study is to further investigate the mechanism by which natural gas affects the aggregation and growth of nickel and iron particles during the reduction of laterite silica–magnesite.

2 Experimental

2.1 Materials

The experimental raw material used was laterite nickel ore sourced from Yuanjiang, Yunnan Province, China. This particular deposit is a faceted nickel silicate weathering crust deposit, with a Ni grade of 0.82%, Fe at 9.67%, SiO2 at 37.4%, and MgO at 31.5%. This is a typical silica-magnesium type lateritic nickel ore. The raw ore was ground into a fine powder using a vibrating mill and then sieved through a 100 mesh screen in order to obtain particles with a diameter of less than 0.15 mm. After drying, the sample was thoroughly mixed and subjected to chemical analysis, resulting in the main chemical composition as presented in Table 1. The table indicates that the sample composition is typical of low-grade Silica-Magnesium laterite nickel ore. The high percentages of MgO and SiO2, which constitute 68.9% of the total mass, suggest the presence of numerous impurities. This ore is not conducive to wet metallurgical smelting. The high levels of oxide impurities significantly increase acid consumption, making the cost exceed the benefit. Therefore, pyrometallurgy is a more appropriate way to smelt this type of laterite nickel ore. X-Ray diffraction (XRD) method (Cu–Kα ray source, voltage of 35 kV, current of 20 mA, scanning speed of 10°/min, the diffraction angle (2θ) was scanned from 10° to 90°) analysis was conducted to determine the main phase composition of the laterite nickel ore, and the results are presented in Figure 1. The analysis revealed that the predominant mineral composition comprises serpentine [Mg3Si2O5(OH)4] and SiO2 [29], which is consistent with the findings in Table 1. The metallic elements, namely Fe and Ni, it replaces magnesium in serpentine mainly in the form of homogeneity and is diffusely distributed in the mineral structure. Hence, the diffraction peaks of Fe and Ni could not be detected in the XRD pattern due to the poor crystallinity of the mineral.

Table 1

Main chemical composition of nickel laterite raw ore

Composition TFe Ni Co Al2O3 MgO CaO SiO2
Content (wt%) 9.67 0.82 0.03 0.01 31.50 0.03 37.40
Figure 1 XRD Pattern of raw laterite nickel ore.
Figure 1

XRD Pattern of raw laterite nickel ore.

The reducing agent used in this experiment is natural gas, whose chemical composition is shown in Table 2, and the main component is CH4. The source of natural gas is Sichuan industrial natural gas, and the experimental gas is formulated with main components 97% CH4, 1.5% H2S, and equilibrium gas 1.5% N2 according to the actual natural gas composition. In the initial experiment, the flow rate of natural gas was 0.02 L·min−1, and nitrogen was 0.04 L·min−1.

Table 2

Gas chemical composition

Composition CH4 H2S N2
Content (wt%) 97 1.5 1.5

2.2 Research method

Based on the mineralogical properties of laterite nickel ore, a new method called “preheated drying of silica-magnesium laterite nickel ore - natural gas reduction” has been proposed. The method involves several steps. (1) The laterite nickel ore is crushed and screened by passing it through a vibrating mill for 3 min and then through a 100 mesh sieve. (2) The mixed nickel laterite powder is placed into a cylindrical mold with an inner diameter of 2 cm and pressed for 3 min at 18 MPa to obtain flake nickel laterite pressed products. (3) The flake nickel laterite is granulated and subjected to secondary screening by crushing it in a mortar and passing it through 20 mesh, 40 mesh, 60 mesh, 80 mesh, and 100 mesh sieves to obtain nickel laterite granules of different sizes. (4) Reduction roasting: The nickel laterite particles were placed into a column crucible and positioned in the heating zone of a vertical tube furnace (CHY-1700). Nitrogen gas was introduced to exhaust the air in the furnace, and natural gas was used to adjust the methane gas volume concentration through the nitrogen flow rate. (5) Analysis of nickel and iron metallization rates: The metallization rate of nickel–iron was determined by dioxime gravimetry (GB/T 223.25-1994) and titration of titanium trichloride and potassium dichromate (GB/T 8638.6-1988). The trend change of nickel and iron metallization and the phase of products were analyzed using XRD and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). A schematic diagram of the specific experimental setup is shown in Figure 2. The experimental exhaust also contains toxic hydrogen sulfide gas, which is handled by introducing the exhaust into a certain concentration of copper sulfate solution. Hydrogen sulfide is used to reduce the emission of hydrogen sulfide gas by reacting with copper sulfate to produce a copper sulfide precipitate.

Figure 2 Schematic diagram of the experimental setup for natural gas reduction of nickel laterite.
Figure 2

Schematic diagram of the experimental setup for natural gas reduction of nickel laterite.

2.3 Calculation of metallization ratio

  1. The content of metallic nickel, metallic iron, all nickel, and all iron in the reduction product is calculated.

  2. Nickel and iron metallization rate is calculated by the following formula:

γ Ni = M Ni / T Ni ,

γ Fe = M Fe T Fe .

In the formula: γ Ni is the metallization rate of nickel. T Ni is the total nickel content, and M Ni is the metallic nickel content; γ Fe is the metallization rate of Fe. T Fe is the total iron content, and M Fe is the metallic iron content.

The metallization rate of nickel:

The nickel content in Ni–Fe alloy was determined by the dioxime gravimetric method. The sample was heated and dissolved with saturated KClO3–HNO3 solution and then added with sodium tartrate solution. Under constant agitation, the solution of dioxime was added to make Ni2+ precipitate with dioxime, separate it from other elements, filter and wash it into a clean beater, add ammonium purpurate indicator, and titrate with EDTA standard titration solution until the solution changed from yellow to purple as the end point. The nickel content is then calculated.

The metallization rate of iron

The content of iron in Ni–Fe alloy was determined by titration of titanium trichloride and potassium dichromate. In HCl medium, Fe3 + was reduced to blue color by TiCl3 with Na2WO4 as an indicator and then titrated with K2Cr2O7, a standard solution with sodium diphenylamine sulfonate as an indicator, to calculate the iron content.

3 Results and discussion

In the selective reduction process of low-grade Yuanjiang laterite nickel ore, thermodynamic calculations of the resulting reactions are briefly discussed, the ranges of some parameters of the subsequent reactions are determined, and experiments on the effects of reduction temperature, reduction time, natural gas concentration and laterite nickel ore particle pellet on the metallic nickel and iron recovery and ore microstructure are carried out. The optimum reduction conditions for the selective reduction process of low-grade Yuanjiang laterite nickel ore were determined based on the best results of the nickel metallization rate in the concentrate.

3.1 Thermodynamic analysis

The mineral phase composition of clay nickel ore is complex and can usually be seen as consisting of oxides such as nickel oxide, iron oxide, and magnesium oxide. Methane and hydrogen sulfide gases in natural gas can react with mineral raw materials, as shown in Table 3.

Table 3

Equations for the reaction between natural gas and materials occurring

Reaction equation ΔG θ (J·mol−1)
(1) CH4(g) = 2H2(g) + C ΔG θ = 91044 − 110.67T
(2) 3NiO + CH4(g) = 3Ni + CO(g) + 2H2O(g) ΔG θ = 196004 − 357.1T
(3) Fe2O3 + CH4(g) = 2Fe + CO(g) + 2H2O(g) ΔG θ = 288863 − 334.52T
(4) Fe2O3 + 3H2S(g) = 2FeS + S + 3H2O(g) ΔG θ = −72818 − 4.9T
(5) NiO + C = Ni + CO(g) ΔG θ = 126600 − 178.08T
(6) 3Fe2O3 + C = 2Fe3O4 + CO(g) ΔG θ = 120000 − 218.46T
(7) Fe3O4 + C = 3FeO + CO(g) ΔG θ = 207510 − 217.62T
(8) FeO + C = Fe + CO(g) ΔG θ = 158970 − 160.25T
(9) NiO + CO(g) = Ni + CO2(g) ΔG θ = −48325 + 1.92T
(10) 3Fe2O3 + CO(g) = 2Fe3O4 + CO2(g) ΔG θ = −52131 − 41.0T
(11) Fe3O4 + CO(g) = 3FeO + CO2(g) ΔG θ = 35380 − 40.10T
(12) FeO + CO(g) = Fe + CO2(g) ΔG θ = −22800 + 24.26T
(13) NiO + H2(g) = Ni + H2O(g) ΔG θ = −15050 − 87.06T
(14) 3Fe2O3 + H2(g) = 2Fe3O4 + H2O(g) ΔG θ = −15547 − 74.40T
(15) Fe3O4 + H2(g) = 3FeO + H2O(g) ΔG θ = 71940 − 73.62T
(16) FeO + H2(g) = Fe + H2O(g) ΔG θ = 23430 − 16.16T
(17) C + CO2(g) = 2CO(g) ΔG θ = 170707 − 174.47T
(18) CO(g) + H2O(g) = H2(g) + CO2(g) ΔG θ = −304591 + 28.14T
(19) C + H2O(g) = H2(g) + CO(g) ΔG θ = 140248 − 146.36T

The relationship between the standard Gibbs free energy and temperature for reactions 1–4 is shown in Figure 3. As can be seen from Figure 3, reaction 1 is the pyrolysis reaction of methane in natural gas, and the theoretical pyrolysis temperature is 549.16°C. It can be seen from reaction 2 and reaction 3 methane reduction of nickel–iron oxide that the Gibbs free energy of reaction 2 is smaller than that of reaction 3 at the same temperature. It shows that nickel oxide is more easily reduced than iron oxide in the same temperature range. Reaction 4 is the reaction of hydrogen sulfide and iron oxide in natural gas, and it can be seen from its Gibbs free energy that ΔG ＜0, and the reaction can be spontaneous. The ferrous sulfide produced by the reaction can form low-melting-point co-crystals with iron, thus promoting the polymerization and growth of nickel–iron.

Figure 3 Gibbs free energy for the direct reaction of natural gas with materials.
Figure 3

Gibbs free energy for the direct reaction of natural gas with materials.

Figure 4 shows the Gibbs free energy and temperature curves of the intermediates C, CO, and H2 reacting with nickel–iron oxides. The oxidation-nickel reduction reactions of reactions 5, 9, and 13 are spontaneous over a range of reaction temperatures. For iron oxide reduction, the reaction conforms to the step-by-step reduction law of iron oxide: when the temperature is less than 570°C, the reduction is in the order of Fe2O3 → Fe3O4 → Fe. When the temperature is greater than 570°C, it is reduced in the order of Fe2O3 → Fe3O4 → FeO → Fe. However, in the reaction of 12 and 16, when CO reduces ferrous oxide at >840 K, ΔG >0, which is unfavorable to the reaction. The reduction of ferrous oxide by H2 is also unfavorable at temperatures <1,450 K, where ΔG >0. Under thermodynamic conditions, the reduction of nickel–iron oxides by CO and H2 may produce a large amount of ferrous oxide.

Figure 4 Gibbs free energy for indirect reactions of (a) C, (b) CO, and (c) H2 with materials.
Figure 4

Gibbs free energy for indirect reactions of (a) C, (b) CO, and (c) H2 with materials.

3.2 Effect of temperature on the metallization rate of nickel and iron in laterite nickel ore

The rate of reduction roasting of laterite nickel ore is primarily affected by the roasting temperature. High temperatures will cause the methane in natural gas to crack, producing carbon, which can hinder nickel reduction. For the reduction experiment, an initial natural gas concentration of 20%, a roasting time of 90 min, a laterite ore dosage t of 15 g, and a particle size range of 40–60 mesh were used. These experimental conditions yielded the results shown in Figure 5.

Figure 5 Effect of roasting temperature on the metallization rate of nickel and iron in laterite nickel ore.
Figure 5

Effect of roasting temperature on the metallization rate of nickel and iron in laterite nickel ore.

Figure 5 shows that the roasting temperature has a significant effect on the metallization rate of nickel. With the increase of roasting temperature, nickel metallization was the first to increase and then decrease, when the temperature increased from 700 to 900°C, the nickel metallization rate reached the highest 71.4%, and after 900°C, the nickel metallization rate showed a decreasing trend. This is because serpentine is decomposed into magnesium olivine [(Ni, Mg)3 Si2O5 (OH)4 → (Mg, Ni) SiO3 + (Mg, Ni)2 SiO4 + H2O], and its extensive formation at 1,000°C has a significant effect on the reduction of nickel–iron. The XRD analysis of the laterite nickel ore at various temperatures ranging from 700 to 1,100°C is illustrated in Figure 6. As depicted in the figure, the peak of magnesia olivine in XRD at 1000°C exhibited a significantly higher intensity compared to that at 800°C and 900°C, indicating that the generation of magnesia olivine was greater at 1,000°C. Moreover, the Fe metallization rate exhibited an upward trend from 700°C to 1,100°C, reaching 5.3% at 1,100°C. These results suggest that selecting the appropriate roasting temperature is crucial in increasing the metallization rate of Ni. Consequently, the optimal roasting temperature was found to be 900°C.

Figure 6 XRD Analysis of laterite nickel ore at different temperatures.
Figure 6

XRD Analysis of laterite nickel ore at different temperatures.

3.3 Effect of time on the metallization rate of nickel and iron in laterite nickel ore

A series of experiments were conducted to investigate the effect of roasting time on the metallization rate of nickel and iron. The experiments were conducted using a roasting temperature of 900°C, a natural gas concentration of 20%, a laterite nickel ore dosage of 15 g, and a laterite nickel ore particle size of 40–60 mesh. The results were plotted as shown in Figure 7. The results of the experiment showed that the metallization rate of nickel and iron increased initially and then leveled off with an increase in holding time. At a holding time of 30 min, the metallization rate of nickel was 41.6% and that of iron was 0.9%. As the holding time was extended, the metallization rate of nickel reached a maximum of 89.3% and iron 6.3% at a holding time of 120 min. This phenomenon was attributed to the greater reaction of natural gas with nickel and iron oxides in laterite nickel ore as the holding time was extended. Based on the experimental findings, the optimum holding time of 120 min was determined for the maximum metallization rate of nickel and iron. This not only reduces energy wastage but also helps to improve the efficiency of the roasting process. It should be noted that the appropriate roasting time is a crucial factor to consider in the roasting process of laterite nickel ore.

Figure 7 Effect of roasting time on the metallization rate of nickel and iron in laterite nickel ore.
Figure 7

Effect of roasting time on the metallization rate of nickel and iron in laterite nickel ore.

3.4 Effect of natural gas concentration on the metallization rate of nickel and iron in laterite nickel ore

In order to investigate the effect of natural gas concentration on the metallization rate of nickel, a series of experiments were conducted under the following conditions: a laterite nickel ore dosage of 15 g, a roasting temperature of 900°C, a holding time of 120 min, and a laterite nickel ore particle size of 40–60 mesh. The results of the experiments are presented in Figure 8.

Figure 8 Effect of natural gas concentration on nickel and iron metallization rate of laterite nickel ore.
Figure 8

Effect of natural gas concentration on nickel and iron metallization rate of laterite nickel ore.

As shown in Figure 8, the metallization rate of nickel and iron initially increased and then decreased as the natural gas concentration was increased. The metallization rate of nickel increased from 39.6 to 88.7%, while the metallization rate of iron increased from 0.9 to 7.7% when the natural gas concentration was increased from 10 to 40%. The maximum value of metallization rates for nickel and iron was obtained in this concentration range. However, when the natural gas concentration was increased to 50%, the metallization rate of nickel and iron showed a decreasing trend. The reason for this is that when the methane concentration is low, there is less reducing gas in the reaction chamber, and the hydrogen produced by cracking has a low concentration, which is not conducive to the reaction. Conversely, when the methane concentration is too high, it can lead to excessive carbon accumulation that covers the cracks on the surface of laterite nickel ore. This can hinder the diffusion and chemisorption of methane in nickel laterite particles, preventing the internal diffusion of methane and hindering the participation of nickel and iron oxides in the reduction reaction. Experimental results indicate that an optimum methane concentration of 40% yields the best results.

3.5 Effect of particle size on the metallization rate of nickel and iron in nickel laterite ore

To investigate the effect of laterite nickel ore particle size, the following experimental conditions were set: a roasting temperature of 900°C, a natural gas concentration of 40%, a laterite nickel ore dosage of 15 g, and a holding time of 120 min. The effect of laterite nickel ore particle size on nickel metallization rate was analyzed and the results are presented in Figure 9. According to the figure, the metallization rate of nickel demonstrates a pattern of initially increasing and then decreasing with the decrease in particle size of the nickel laterite ore. The metallization rate of nickel is only 88% when the particle size of laterite nickel ore is 20–40 mesh. However, as the particle size is reduced to 40–60 mesh, the metallization rate of nickel increases to its maximum value of 95.3%. When the particle size of laterite nickel ore was reduced to 80–100 mesh, the metallization rate of nickel in the ore decreased again to 90.7%. This is because when the particle size of laterite nickel ore is 20–40 mesh, the particles are larger, which hinders the internal diffusion of natural gas during the reduction reaction. As a result, there is insufficient reduction of nickel oxides inside the particles and the metallization rate of nickel is lower. On the other hand, when the particle size of laterite nickel ore is too small, although the specific surface area is larger, the surface energy of particles correspondingly increases. This makes the material layer less permeable, and natural gas in the reduction process is less likely to follow the standard direction. Part of the laterite nickel ore particles cannot come into contact with methane gas molecules, preventing chemical reactions from occurring, thereby reducing the nickel metallization rate. The iron metallization rate increased from 8.1 to 8.5% and then decreased to 7.1% with increased mesh size. The particle size of laterite nickel ore had minimal impact on the experimental results. The optimum particle size was 40–60 mesh.

Figure 9 Effect of particle size on nickel and iron metallization rate of laterite nickel ore.
Figure 9

Effect of particle size on nickel and iron metallization rate of laterite nickel ore.

3.6 Study on the reaction mechanism of natural gas and laterite nickel ore

The reaction processes involved in the reduction roasting of nickel laterite ore using natural gas are depicted in Figure 10. First, the serpentine present in the ore undergoes decomposition during the warming process, resulting in the release of nickel and iron oxides. As the temperature reaches 900°C, natural gas is introduced into the system. The high temperature causes the natural gas to undergo cracking, which in turn produces hydrogen and carbon. In the reducing atmosphere, the nickel and iron oxides undergo reduction. The NiO is almost completely reduced to metallic nickel, while Fe2O3 is partially reduced to metallic iron. Most of the remaining Fe2O3 exists in the form of FeO. However, a small portion of Fe2O3 reacts with H2S to form FeS, which can inhibit the reduction of iron oxides.

Figure 10 Reaction mechanism of natural gas and laterite nickel ore.
Figure 10

Reaction mechanism of natural gas and laterite nickel ore.

3.7 Analysis of nickel laterite reduction results

SEM–EDS analysis was performed on ore samples reduced at 900°C with natural gas to study the aggregation patterns of nickel and iron in laterite nickel ores. Figure 11 shows the SEM of the ore samples reduced at a natural gas concentration of 40%, reduction time of 120 min, and original ore size of 40–60 mesh. The thermodynamic analysis showed that FeO is not easily reduced to metallic iron by hydrogen, and Fe2O3 reacts with H2S to produce FeS. The formation of co-crystals of FeS and Fe can reduce surface tension and promote ferronickel particle growth and aggregation, but it also makes the reaction more difficult, hindering FeO reduction. Additionally, S aggregation was observed in regions where Fe was significantly aggregated, as shown in Figure 11.

Figure 11 SEM–EDS Map of nickel laterite ore reduction roasting under optimal reduction conditions.
Figure 11

SEM–EDS Map of nickel laterite ore reduction roasting under optimal reduction conditions.

Figure 12 shows an SEM–EDS plot of nickel laterite under optimal reduction conditions, which can be analyzed in conjunction with Figure 11. The region represented by point 1 has a high content of 93.32% Ni and Fe elements.

Figure 12 SEM–EDS Map of nickel laterite ore reduction roasting under optimal reduction conditions.
Figure 12

SEM–EDS Map of nickel laterite ore reduction roasting under optimal reduction conditions.

This indicates that the area corresponding to the red arrow in Figure 11 is a zone of Ni–Fe particle aggregation. The S content of the region represented by point 2 is 0.25%, while the S contents of point 1 and point 3 are 0.06 and 0.04%, respectively, and the high Fe content of point 2 suggests that a relatively large amount of FeS was formed around the Ni–Fe aggregation area. The major elements in the region represented by point 3 are Mg, Si, and O, which can be analyzed in combination with Figure 6 to be magnesium olivine.

Figure 13 shows the XRD analysis of the reduction roasting of nickel laterite ore under the optimal reduction conditions, from which we can find the presence of ferrous sulfide. Combined with Figure 12, it can be proved that ferrous sulfide is present around the nickel–iron particles.

Figure 13 XRD Pattern of nickel laterite ore reduction roasting under optimal reduction conditions.
Figure 13

XRD Pattern of nickel laterite ore reduction roasting under optimal reduction conditions.

4 Conclusion

The experiment focused on the reduction of roasted nickel laterite ore using natural gas. After a series of experiments, the following conclusions were obtained:

  1. By conducting systematic experiments, the optimal process parameters have been determined. The calcination temperature is 900°C, and the calcination time is 120 min. The concentration of natural gas is 40%, and the particle size of the laterite nickel ore is 40–60 mesh. Under the optimal experimental conditions, it was found that the metal conversion rates of nickel and iron are 95.3 and 8.5%, respectively.

  2. The reduction process of iron oxide and hydrogen sulfide produces ferrous sulfide, which subsequently reacts with iron to produce FeS–Fe eutectic crystals. Its formation of a thin film around the nickel–iron particle region inhibits the deep reduction of Fe and selectively reduces Ni.

  3. This new process enables the reduction of non-molten state metallization in Yuanjiang silica–magnesium-type nickel laterite ore and the effective separation and enrichment of nickel.

Acknowledgements

Financial support for this study was provided by Innovative Research Group Project of the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Project No. 52074140) and the Yunnan Provincial Key Research and Development Program-International Science and Technology Cooperation Special Project (Project No. 2018IA055).

  1. Funding information: Financial support for this study was supplied from Innovative Research Group Project of the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Project No. 52074140) and the Yunnan Provincial Key Research and Development Program-International Science and Technology Cooperation Special Project (Project No. 2018IA055).

  2. Author contributions: Zhien He: conceptualization, methodology, validation, formal analysis, writing – review & editing. Bo Li : methodology, visualization, review & editing, supervision, resources. Yonggang Wei: resources, investigation, formal analysis, supervision.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.

References

[1] Yuan, S., C. Yang, G. Jiang, J. Xiong, Q. Ai, and R. Huang. Research progress in nickel-rich ternary materials for lithium-ion batteries. Journal of Materials Engineering, Vol. 47, No. 10, 2019, pp. 1–9.Search in Google Scholar

[2] Srinivasan, S., C. Kale, B. C. Hornbuckle, K. A. Darling, P. Peralta, and K. N. Solanki. Thermomechanical response of an ultrafine-grained nickel-yttrium alloy. Scripta Materialia, Vol. 187, 2020, pp. 434–438.10.1016/j.scriptamat.2020.06.068Search in Google Scholar

[3] Wei, J. Y., M. B. Zhong, L. Xiang, H. Die, W. C. Yan, and W. Hua. Transferring behavior and reaction kinetics of saprolitic laterite during metalized reduction in the presence of calcium fluoride. Minerals Engineering, Vol. 176, 2022, id. 107353.10.1016/j.mineng.2021.107353Search in Google Scholar

[4] McDonald, R. G. and J. Li. The high temperature co-processing of nickel sulfide and nickel laterite sources minerals. Minerals, Vol. 10, No. 4, 2020, id. 351.10.3390/min10040351Search in Google Scholar

[5] Ming, X. L., W. L. Wang, X. Z. You, Z. W. Yu, and W. X. Lv. A novel method of smelting a mixture of two types of laterite ore to prepare ferronickel. JOM, Vol. 71, No. 11, 2019, pp. 4191–4197.10.1007/s11837-019-03771-7Search in Google Scholar

[6] Farrokhpay, S., L. Filippov, and D. Fornasiero. Pre-concentration of nickel in laterite ores using physical separation methods. Minerals Engineering, Vol. 141, No. C, 2019, id. 105892.10.1016/j.mineng.2019.105892Search in Google Scholar

[7] Hua, G. S., S. G. Li, Y. Zhao, W. H. Cheng, Y. Lu, G. X. Lu, et al. Extraction of valuable metals from low nickel matte by calcified roasting- acid leaching process. Transactions of Nonferrous Metals Society of China, Vol. 2910, 2019, pp. 2202–2212.10.1016/S1003-6326(19)65126-5Search in Google Scholar

[8] Nin, M. W., Y. X. Lu, F. Cui, S. Luo, and C. Y. Zhai. Transformation and leaching kinetics of silicon from low-grade nickel laterite ore by pre-roasting and alkaline leaching process. Transactions of Nonferrous Metals Society of China, Vol. 28, No. 1, 2018, pp. 169–176.10.1016/S1003-6326(18)64650-3Search in Google Scholar

[9] Kobayashi, Y., H. Todoroki, and H. Tsuji. Melting behavior of siliceous nickel ore in a rotary kiln to produce ferronickel alloys. ISIJ International, Vol. 51, No. 1, 2011, pp. 35–40.10.2355/isijinternational.51.35Search in Google Scholar

[10] Ribeiro, P. P. M., I.D.d Santos, R. Neumann, A. Fernandes, and A. J. B. Dutra. Roasting and leaching behavior of nickel laterite ore. Metallurgical and Materials Transactions B, Vol. 52, 2021, pp. 1739–1754.10.1007/s11663-021-02141-6Search in Google Scholar

[11] Shuang, G. X., Z. L. Yao, C. J. Han, D. Yang, and T. Sun. Study of straw charcoal as reductant in co-reduction roasting of laterite ore and red mud to prepare powdered ferronickel. Mining, Metallurgy & Exploration, Vol. 38, No. 5, 2021, pp. 1–12.10.1007/s42461-021-00466-zSearch in Google Scholar

[12] Niu, J. Research on the hydrogen production technology. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, Vol. 813, No. 1, 2021, id. 012004.10.1088/1755-1315/813/1/012004Search in Google Scholar

[13] Guang, Z. D. and B. Li. Low-temperature reduction of garnierite using methane followed by roasting-magnetic separation for enrichment of ferronickel concentrate. Mining and Metallurgy, Vol. 27, No. 1, 2018, pp. 30–36.Search in Google Scholar

[14] Ying, S., S. Qing, Y. X. Liu, J. S. Liu, Y. J. Yan, and S. Yang. Study on the medium-temperature reduction behavior of methane and laterite nickel ore. Processes, Vol. 11, 2023, id. 3291.10.3390/pr11123291Search in Google Scholar

[15] Tang, X. H., R. Z. Liu, L. Yao, Z. J. Ji, Y. T. Zhang, and S. Q. Li. Ferronickel enrichment by fine particle reduction and magnetic separation from nickel laterite ore. International Journal of Minerals Metallurgy and Material, Vol. 21, 2014, pp. 955–961.10.1007/s12613-014-0995-5Search in Google Scholar

[16] Economides, M. J. and D. A. Wood. The state of natural gas. Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering, Vol. 1, No. 1–2, 2009, pp. 1–13.10.1016/j.jngse.2009.03.005Search in Google Scholar

[17] McCarty, J. G. Durable catalysts for cleaner air. Nature: International Weekly Journal of Science, Vol. 403, No. 6765, 2000, pp. 35–36.10.1038/47388Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[18] Pickles, C. A. and W. Anthony. Thermodynamic modelling of the reduction of a saprolitic laterite ore by methane. Minerals Engineering, Vol. 120, 2018, pp. 47–59.10.1016/j.mineng.2018.02.006Search in Google Scholar

[19] Sasi, B. O. A. and A. Demirbas. Removal of sulfur from sulfur-bearing natural gas to produce clean jet fuel. Petroleum Science and Technology, Vol. 34, 2016, pp. 17–18.10.1080/10916466.2016.1214598Search in Google Scholar

[20] Hui, L. G., M. T. Shi, J. M. Rao, T. Jiang, and B. Y. Zhang. Beneficiation of nickeliferous laterite by reduction roasting in the presence of sodium sulfate. Minerals Engineering, Vol. 32, 2012, pp. 19–26.10.1016/j.mineng.2012.03.012Search in Google Scholar

[21] Mi, L., B. Peng, Y. L. Chai, N. Peng, H. Yan, and K. D. Hou. Recovery of iron from zinc leaching residue by selective reduction roasting with carbon. Journal of Hazardous Materials, Vol. 237, 2012, pp. 323–330.10.1016/j.jhazmat.2012.08.052Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[22] Caspar, S. and A. Antoine. Selective sulfidation of metal compounds. Nature, Vol. 602, 2021, pp. 78–83.10.1038/s41586-021-04321-5Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[23] Zhang, L. and W. Y. Fei. Effect of Ni on Fe–FeS phase relations at high pressure and high temperature. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, Vol. 268, No. 1–2, 2008, pp. 212–218.10.1016/j.epsl.2008.01.028Search in Google Scholar

[24] Jie, L., J. S. Liu, J. S. Guan, GW. Du, F. Pan, and S. Yang. The effect of sodium sulphate on the hydrogen reduction process of nickel laterite ore. Minerals Engineering, Vol. 49, 2013, pp. 154–164.10.1016/j.mineng.2013.05.023Search in Google Scholar

[25] Elliott, R., C. A. Pickles, and J. Peacey. Ferronickel particle formation during the carbothermic reduction of a limonitic laterite ore. Minerals Engineering, Vol. 100, 2017, pp. 166–176.10.1016/j.mineng.2016.10.020Search in Google Scholar

[26] Guo, Z. L., C. T. Sun, P. X. Wang, and X. E. Gao. Generation process of FeS and its inhibition mechanism on iron mineral reduction in selective direct reduction of laterite nickel ore. International Journal of Minerals, Metallurgy, and Materials, Vol. 22, No. 9, 2015, pp. 901–906.10.1007/s12613-015-1148-1Search in Google Scholar

[27] Lai, D. M., B. J. Zhao, Q. Q. Hu, M. X. Lu, Y. You, X. Z. You, et al. Effect of additives on growth of ferronickel grains and metal–slag separation behavior. Transactions of Nonferrous Metals Society of China, Vol. 32, No. 10, 2022, pp. 3459–3468.10.1016/S1003-6326(22)66032-1Search in Google Scholar

[28] Zheng, G. Y., Q. Guo, L. Y. Li, J. Song, Y. H. Liu, M. M. He, et al. Growth mechanism of metal iron particles with sulfur additives in direct reduction: First-principles calculations and experiments. Powder Technology, Vol. 419, 2023, id. 118287.10.1016/j.powtec.2023.118287Search in Google Scholar

[29] Zhi, F., B. Li, Y. G. Wei, and W. S. Zhou. The aggregation and growth of ferronickel particles during the reduction of laterite nickel ore. Journal of Sustainable Metallurgy, Vol. 9, 2023, pp. 1099–1113.10.1007/s40831-023-00689-ySearch in Google Scholar
Received: 2023-11-01
Revised: 2023-12-25
Accepted: 2023-12-27
Published Online: 2024-02-15

© 2024 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Research Articles
  2. De-chlorination of poly(vinyl) chloride using Fe2O3 and the improvement of chlorine fixing ratio in FeCl2 by SiO2 addition
  3. Reductive behavior of nickel and iron metallization in magnesian siliceous nickel laterite ores under the action of sulfur-bearing natural gas
  4. Study on properties of CaF2–CaO–Al2O3–MgO–B2O3 electroslag remelting slag for rack plate steel
  5. The origin of {113}<361> grains and their impact on secondary recrystallization in producing ultra-thin grain-oriented electrical steel
  6. Channel parameter optimization of one-strand slab induction heating tundish with double channels
  7. Effect of rare-earth Ce on the texture of non-oriented silicon steels
  8. Performance optimization of PERC solar cells based on laser ablation forming local contact on the rear
  9. Effect of ladle-lining materials on inclusion evolution in Al-killed steel during LF refining
  10. Analysis of metallurgical defects in enamel steel castings
  11. Effect of cooling rate and Nb synergistic strengthening on microstructure and mechanical properties of high-strength rebar
  12. Effect of grain size on fatigue strength of 304 stainless steel
  13. Analysis and control of surface cracks in a B-bearing continuous casting blooms
  14. Application of laser surface detection technology in blast furnace gas flow control and optimization
  15. Preparation of MoO3 powder by hydrothermal method
  16. The comparative study of Ti-bearing oxides introduced by different methods
  17. Application of MgO/ZrO2 coating on 309 stainless steel to increase resistance to corrosion at high temperatures and oxidation by an electrochemical method
  18. Effect of applying a full oxygen blast furnace on carbon emissions based on a carbon metabolism calculation model
  19. Characterization of low-damage cutting of alfalfa stalks by self-sharpening cutters made of gradient materials
  20. Thermo-mechanical effects and microstructural evolution-coupled numerical simulation on the hot forming processes of superalloy turbine disk
  21. Endpoint prediction of BOF steelmaking based on state-of-the-art machine learning and deep learning algorithms
  22. Effect of calcium treatment on inclusions in 38CrMoAl high aluminum steel
  23. Effect of isothermal transformation temperature on the microstructure, precipitation behavior, and mechanical properties of anti-seismic rebar
  24. Evolution of residual stress and microstructure of 2205 duplex stainless steel welded joints during different post-weld heat treatment
  25. Effect of heating process on the corrosion resistance of zinc iron alloy coatings
  26. BOF steelmaking endpoint carbon content and temperature soft sensor model based on supervised weighted local structure preserving projection
  27. Innovative approaches to enhancing crack repair: Performance optimization of biopolymer-infused CXT
  28. Structural and electrochromic property control of WO3 films through fine-tuning of film-forming parameters
  29. Influence of non-linear thermal radiation on the dynamics of homogeneous and heterogeneous chemical reactions between the cone and the disk
  30. Thermodynamic modeling of stacking fault energy in Fe–Mn–C austenitic steels
  31. Research on the influence of cemented carbide micro-textured structure on tribological properties
  32. Performance evaluation of fly ash-lime-gypsum-quarry dust (FALGQ) bricks for sustainable construction
  33. First-principles study on the interfacial interactions between h-BN and Si3N4
  34. Analysis of carbon emission reduction capacity of hydrogen-rich oxygen blast furnace based on renewable energy hydrogen production
  35. Just-in-time updated DBN BOF steel-making soft sensor model based on dense connectivity of key features
  36. Effect of tempering temperature on the microstructure and mechanical properties of Q125 shale gas casing steel
  37. Review Articles
  38. A review of emerging trends in Laves phase research: Bibliometric analysis and visualization
  39. Effect of bottom stirring on bath mixing and transfer behavior during scrap melting in BOF steelmaking: A review
  40. High-temperature antioxidant silicate coating of low-density Nb–Ti–Al alloy: A review
  41. Communications
  42. Experimental investigation on the deterioration of the physical and mechanical properties of autoclaved aerated concrete at elevated temperatures
  43. Damage evaluation of the austenitic heat-resistance steel subjected to creep by using Kikuchi pattern parameters
  44. Topical Issue on Focus of Hot Deformation of Metaland High Entropy Alloys - Part II
  45. Synthesis of aluminium (Al) and alumina (Al2O3)-based graded material by gravity casting
  46. Experimental investigation into machining performance of magnesium alloy AZ91D under dry, minimum quantity lubrication, and nano minimum quantity lubrication environments
  47. Numerical simulation of temperature distribution and residual stress in TIG welding of stainless-steel single-pass flange butt joint using finite element analysis
  48. Special Issue on A Deep Dive into Machining and Welding Advancements - Part I
  49. Electro-thermal performance evaluation of a prismatic battery pack for an electric vehicle
  50. Experimental analysis and optimization of machining parameters for Nitinol alloy: A Taguchi and multi-attribute decision-making approach
  51. Experimental and numerical analysis of temperature distributions in SA 387 pressure vessel steel during submerged arc welding
  52. Optimization of process parameters in plasma arc cutting of commercial-grade aluminium plate
  53. Multi-response optimization of friction stir welding using fuzzy-grey system
  54. Mechanical and micro-structural studies of pulsed and constant current TIG weldments of super duplex stainless steels and Austenitic stainless steels
  55. Stretch-forming characteristics of austenitic material stainless steel 304 at hot working temperatures
  56. Work hardening and X-ray diffraction studies on ASS 304 at high temperatures
  57. Study of phase equilibrium of refractory high-entropy alloys using the atomic size difference concept for turbine blade applications
  58. A novel intelligent tool wear monitoring system in ball end milling of Ti6Al4V alloy using artificial neural network
  59. A hybrid approach for the machinability analysis of Incoloy 825 using the entropy-MOORA method
  60. Special Issue on Recent Developments in 3D Printed Carbon Materials - Part II
  61. Innovations for sustainable chemical manufacturing and waste minimization through green production practices
  62. Topical Issue on Conference on Materials, Manufacturing Processes and Devices - Part I
  63. Characterization of Co–Ni–TiO2 coatings prepared by combined sol-enhanced and pulse current electrodeposition methods
  64. Hot deformation behaviors and microstructure characteristics of Cr–Mo–Ni–V steel with a banded structure
  65. Effects of normalizing and tempering temperature on the bainite microstructure and properties of low alloy fire-resistant steel bars
  66. Dynamic evolution of residual stress upon manufacturing Al-based diesel engine diaphragm
  67. Study on impact resistance of steel fiber reinforced concrete after exposure to fire
  68. Bonding behaviour between steel fibre and concrete matrix after experiencing elevated temperature at various loading rates
  69. Diffusion law of sulfate ions in coral aggregate seawater concrete in the marine environment
  70. Microstructure evolution and grain refinement mechanism of 316LN steel
  71. Investigation of the interface and physical properties of a Kovar alloy/Cu composite wire processed by multi-pass drawing
  72. The investigation of peritectic solidification of high nitrogen stainless steels by in-situ observation
  73. Microstructure and mechanical properties of submerged arc welded medium-thickness Q690qE high-strength steel plate joints
  74. Experimental study on the effect of the riveting process on the bending resistance of beams composed of galvanized Q235 steel
  75. Density functional theory study of Mg–Ho intermetallic phases
  76. Investigation of electrical properties and PTCR effect in double-donor doping BaTiO3 lead-free ceramics
  77. Special Issue on Thermal Management and Heat Transfer
  78. On the thermal performance of a three-dimensional cross-ternary hybrid nanofluid over a wedge using a Bayesian regularization neural network approach
  79. Time dependent model to analyze the magnetic refrigeration performance of gadolinium near the room temperature
  80. Heat transfer characteristics in a non-Newtonian (Williamson) hybrid nanofluid with Hall and convective boundary effects
  81. Computational role of homogeneous–heterogeneous chemical reactions and a mixed convective ternary hybrid nanofluid in a vertical porous microchannel
  82. Thermal conductivity evaluation of magnetized non-Newtonian nanofluid and dusty particles with thermal radiation
https://doi.org/10.1515/htmp-2022-0309
Keywords for this article
laterite nickel ore; metallization rate; ferrous sulfide
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Research Articles
  2. De-chlorination of poly(vinyl) chloride using Fe2O3 and the improvement of chlorine fixing ratio in FeCl2 by SiO2 addition
  3. Reductive behavior of nickel and iron metallization in magnesian siliceous nickel laterite ores under the action of sulfur-bearing natural gas
  4. Study on properties of CaF2–CaO–Al2O3–MgO–B2O3 electroslag remelting slag for rack plate steel
  5. The origin of {113}<361> grains and their impact on secondary recrystallization in producing ultra-thin grain-oriented electrical steel
  6. Channel parameter optimization of one-strand slab induction heating tundish with double channels
  7. Effect of rare-earth Ce on the texture of non-oriented silicon steels
  8. Performance optimization of PERC solar cells based on laser ablation forming local contact on the rear
  9. Effect of ladle-lining materials on inclusion evolution in Al-killed steel during LF refining
  10. Analysis of metallurgical defects in enamel steel castings
  11. Effect of cooling rate and Nb synergistic strengthening on microstructure and mechanical properties of high-strength rebar
  12. Effect of grain size on fatigue strength of 304 stainless steel
  13. Analysis and control of surface cracks in a B-bearing continuous casting blooms
  14. Application of laser surface detection technology in blast furnace gas flow control and optimization
  15. Preparation of MoO3 powder by hydrothermal method
  16. The comparative study of Ti-bearing oxides introduced by different methods
  17. Application of MgO/ZrO2 coating on 309 stainless steel to increase resistance to corrosion at high temperatures and oxidation by an electrochemical method
  18. Effect of applying a full oxygen blast furnace on carbon emissions based on a carbon metabolism calculation model
  19. Characterization of low-damage cutting of alfalfa stalks by self-sharpening cutters made of gradient materials
  20. Thermo-mechanical effects and microstructural evolution-coupled numerical simulation on the hot forming processes of superalloy turbine disk
  21. Endpoint prediction of BOF steelmaking based on state-of-the-art machine learning and deep learning algorithms
  22. Effect of calcium treatment on inclusions in 38CrMoAl high aluminum steel
  23. Effect of isothermal transformation temperature on the microstructure, precipitation behavior, and mechanical properties of anti-seismic rebar
  24. Evolution of residual stress and microstructure of 2205 duplex stainless steel welded joints during different post-weld heat treatment
  25. Effect of heating process on the corrosion resistance of zinc iron alloy coatings
  26. BOF steelmaking endpoint carbon content and temperature soft sensor model based on supervised weighted local structure preserving projection
  27. Innovative approaches to enhancing crack repair: Performance optimization of biopolymer-infused CXT
  28. Structural and electrochromic property control of WO3 films through fine-tuning of film-forming parameters
  29. Influence of non-linear thermal radiation on the dynamics of homogeneous and heterogeneous chemical reactions between the cone and the disk
  30. Thermodynamic modeling of stacking fault energy in Fe–Mn–C austenitic steels
  31. Research on the influence of cemented carbide micro-textured structure on tribological properties
  32. Performance evaluation of fly ash-lime-gypsum-quarry dust (FALGQ) bricks for sustainable construction
  33. First-principles study on the interfacial interactions between h-BN and Si3N4
  34. Analysis of carbon emission reduction capacity of hydrogen-rich oxygen blast furnace based on renewable energy hydrogen production
  35. Just-in-time updated DBN BOF steel-making soft sensor model based on dense connectivity of key features
  36. Effect of tempering temperature on the microstructure and mechanical properties of Q125 shale gas casing steel
  37. Review Articles
  38. A review of emerging trends in Laves phase research: Bibliometric analysis and visualization
  39. Effect of bottom stirring on bath mixing and transfer behavior during scrap melting in BOF steelmaking: A review
  40. High-temperature antioxidant silicate coating of low-density Nb–Ti–Al alloy: A review
  41. Communications
  42. Experimental investigation on the deterioration of the physical and mechanical properties of autoclaved aerated concrete at elevated temperatures
  43. Damage evaluation of the austenitic heat-resistance steel subjected to creep by using Kikuchi pattern parameters
  44. Topical Issue on Focus of Hot Deformation of Metaland High Entropy Alloys - Part II
  45. Synthesis of aluminium (Al) and alumina (Al2O3)-based graded material by gravity casting
  46. Experimental investigation into machining performance of magnesium alloy AZ91D under dry, minimum quantity lubrication, and nano minimum quantity lubrication environments
  47. Numerical simulation of temperature distribution and residual stress in TIG welding of stainless-steel single-pass flange butt joint using finite element analysis
  48. Special Issue on A Deep Dive into Machining and Welding Advancements - Part I
  49. Electro-thermal performance evaluation of a prismatic battery pack for an electric vehicle
  50. Experimental analysis and optimization of machining parameters for Nitinol alloy: A Taguchi and multi-attribute decision-making approach
  51. Experimental and numerical analysis of temperature distributions in SA 387 pressure vessel steel during submerged arc welding
  52. Optimization of process parameters in plasma arc cutting of commercial-grade aluminium plate
  53. Multi-response optimization of friction stir welding using fuzzy-grey system
  54. Mechanical and micro-structural studies of pulsed and constant current TIG weldments of super duplex stainless steels and Austenitic stainless steels
  55. Stretch-forming characteristics of austenitic material stainless steel 304 at hot working temperatures
  56. Work hardening and X-ray diffraction studies on ASS 304 at high temperatures
  57. Study of phase equilibrium of refractory high-entropy alloys using the atomic size difference concept for turbine blade applications
  58. A novel intelligent tool wear monitoring system in ball end milling of Ti6Al4V alloy using artificial neural network
  59. A hybrid approach for the machinability analysis of Incoloy 825 using the entropy-MOORA method
  60. Special Issue on Recent Developments in 3D Printed Carbon Materials - Part II
  61. Innovations for sustainable chemical manufacturing and waste minimization through green production practices
  62. Topical Issue on Conference on Materials, Manufacturing Processes and Devices - Part I
  63. Characterization of Co–Ni–TiO2 coatings prepared by combined sol-enhanced and pulse current electrodeposition methods
  64. Hot deformation behaviors and microstructure characteristics of Cr–Mo–Ni–V steel with a banded structure
  65. Effects of normalizing and tempering temperature on the bainite microstructure and properties of low alloy fire-resistant steel bars
  66. Dynamic evolution of residual stress upon manufacturing Al-based diesel engine diaphragm
  67. Study on impact resistance of steel fiber reinforced concrete after exposure to fire
  68. Bonding behaviour between steel fibre and concrete matrix after experiencing elevated temperature at various loading rates
  69. Diffusion law of sulfate ions in coral aggregate seawater concrete in the marine environment
  70. Microstructure evolution and grain refinement mechanism of 316LN steel
  71. Investigation of the interface and physical properties of a Kovar alloy/Cu composite wire processed by multi-pass drawing
  72. The investigation of peritectic solidification of high nitrogen stainless steels by in-situ observation
  73. Microstructure and mechanical properties of submerged arc welded medium-thickness Q690qE high-strength steel plate joints
  74. Experimental study on the effect of the riveting process on the bending resistance of beams composed of galvanized Q235 steel
  75. Density functional theory study of Mg–Ho intermetallic phases
  76. Investigation of electrical properties and PTCR effect in double-donor doping BaTiO3 lead-free ceramics
  77. Special Issue on Thermal Management and Heat Transfer
  78. On the thermal performance of a three-dimensional cross-ternary hybrid nanofluid over a wedge using a Bayesian regularization neural network approach
  79. Time dependent model to analyze the magnetic refrigeration performance of gadolinium near the room temperature
  80. Heat transfer characteristics in a non-Newtonian (Williamson) hybrid nanofluid with Hall and convective boundary effects
  81. Computational role of homogeneous–heterogeneous chemical reactions and a mixed convective ternary hybrid nanofluid in a vertical porous microchannel
  82. Thermal conductivity evaluation of magnetized non-Newtonian nanofluid and dusty particles with thermal radiation
Sign up now to receive a 20% welcome discount
Institutional Access
How does access work?
Have an idea on how to improve our website?
Please write us.
© 2025 De Gruyter Brill
Downloaded on 1.10.2025 from https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/htmp-2022-0309/html?lang=en&srsltid=AfmBOooR0OUVeGLAqZwrpARpP-Rir-GeYw6LyhsY70fTDO_Q2f827XfW
Scroll to top button