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Synthesis of aluminium (Al) and alumina (Al2O3)-based graded material by gravity casting

  • Puneet Singh EMAIL logo , Krishna Kant Singh Mer and Satyendra Singh
Published/Copyright: February 27, 2024
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High Temperature Materials and Processes
From the journal High Temperature Materials and Processes Volume 43 Issue 1

Abstract

In the present work, aluminium alloy-based composites were developed for automobile applications. Aluminium-based functionally graded material (FGM) was developed by adding 2.5, 5 and 7.5 wt% of nanoparticles of alumina. The composites were made using gravity casting in an open hearth furnace with the surface temperature of FGM maintained at 750, 850 and 1,000°C. The microstructure of the samples was studied using scanning electron microscopy and particle distribution. The particle distribution was higher at the bottom in all compositions, which can be attributed to more solidification time. As the wt% of the Al2O3 increased, the volume fraction of particles also increased from the top surface to the bottom surface of the samples. After adding 7.5 wt% of Al2O3 and heating up to 1,000°C led to the grain refinement of the alloy. The increase in hardness from the top surface to the bottom surface of the sample verified the development of FGM. Due to increase in the solidification temperature, better reinforcement was observed in the developed FGM.

Keywords: gravity casting; graded material; aluminium; alumina nanoparticles

1 Introduction

From aerospace to leisure products, functionally graded materials (FGMs) have been used in a wide range of applications. A spacecraft’s exterior body and different engine components can be composed of a metal matrix composite, which has a higher superheat resistance [1,2]. Because of the increase in the demand for enhanced lightweight mechanical solutions, leading to energy-efficient goods, there is a growing emphasis on the development of FGMs. Lightweight alloys can be strengthened by incorporating reinforcement into their composition, which can be in the form of particles or fibres, increasing the concentration ratio [3]. As compared to a metal matrix, FGMs provide enhanced thermal, mechanical, and tri-biological performance at either high or low temperatures. High thermal conductivity, low density, great abrasion and wear resistance, and acceptable fatigue responses are only some of the essential qualities that are enhanced by FGMs. Vehicle components such as connecting rods, pistons, and nozzles, as well as spacecraft, helicopters, missile noses, and satellites, all make use of FGMs in their production. Different manufacturing processes, such as solid freeform (SFF) fabrication [4,5], powder metallurgy [6,7], physical vapour deposition [8], and centrifugal casting [9], are used to create FGMs. Many categorization methods used in the study of FGMs have been critically examined by researchers. [10,11,12]. FGMs produced by centrifugal methods have been investigated by researchers [13]. Gravity casting has not been researched for the manufacture of FGMs, which has been attempted in this research.

Currently, cast aluminium alloys and micron-sized particle reinforcements are the principal subjects of domestic and international research on particle-reinforced aluminium matrix composites. Nonetheless, when the composite strength is increased, the micron-sized particles typically cause the elongation of the composites to decrease. However, the nano-SiC particles (SiCnp) have the ability to enhance the strength of the composite materials while preserving their high plasticity when compared to micron-sized SiC particles. The SiCp/Al6061 composite was made by stir casting [14].

Particle-reinforced aluminium matrix composites (PAMCs) offer a wide range of applications in the automotive, aerospace, electronic circuit, and military weapons industries, among other fields. They also have excellent electrical and thermal conductivity, high-temperature resistance, low coefficient of thermal expansion, good wear resistance, and dimensional stability [15].

2 Materials and methods

Aluminium (99.8%) and alumina (mesh size-70-230) particles were procured from Sigma Aldrich and aluminium FGM was prepared by conventional gravity casting with 2.5, 5 and 7.5% mass compositions of alumina in an open-hearth furnace using a graphite mould. The casting temperature had to be high enough to guarantee the bonding of the components without causing the mixture to solidify too quickly. A number of factors, including the difference in liquidus–solidus temperature between the two compounds and the casting temperature, impact the time taken between successive pours of nanoparticles in castings. Bonding at interfaces while preventing the components from mixing required a time period of this length. Degassing was influenced by the mould temperature; greater mould temperatures result in more rapid removal of moisture. The mould was preheated to 400°C to eliminate humidity and prevent thermal shock. A refractory coating was applied to the inside of the mould chamber to keep the casting from sticking. Aluminium was melted in the mould, and nanoparticles of alumina were poured slowly. Pouring was carried out for 10 min with slow stirring and allowed to solidify in the furnace for 8 h after the surface temperatures varied from 735 to 760°C. Cast samples were prepared by maintaining the surface temperature ranges of 740–760, 840–860, and 1,000–1,060°C, as shown in Table 1.

Table 1

Design of experiments

Sample % Composition of alumina Average surface temperature (°C)
1 2.5 750
2 850
3 1,000
4 5 750
5 850
6 1,000
7 7.5 750
8 850
9 1,000

The prepared cylindrical samples were machined in the lathe to remove the excess material, and samples of the required sizes were prepared for various investigations, as shown in Figure 1. Investigation of the bonding region and gradations in the distribution of particles along the depth was very important to validate the formation of suitable FGM.

Figure 1 Stages of sample preparation: (a) open-hearth furnace, (b) preheated mould, (c) pre-prepared cast samples, and (d) machined samples.
Figure 1

Stages of sample preparation: (a) open-hearth furnace, (b) preheated mould, (c) pre-prepared cast samples, and (d) machined samples.

2.1 Material characterization

2.1.1 Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)

The microstructures of all samples were analysed using standard metallographic procedures. SEM and mirror-polished samples were used for this.

2.1.2 Hardness test

A Vickers hardness testing machine was used to determine the hardness of the samples. Coarse polishing was done by emery papers and fine polishing was executed by cloth polishing. After that, the mirror polished sample was kept below a diamond indenter of the Vickers hardness machine; five indentations for each sample were taken to find the exact data of hardness. Then, 1 kgf load was applied for 10 s of dual time.

2.1.3 Tensile testing

A universal testing machine was used to find the stress–strain curve of the samples. The sample for this purpose was prepared with the help of an EDM wire using ASTM D638.

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Microstructure

Figure 1 shows the stages of the sample preparation from casting to machining. The machined samples are then sliced to the required sample size for microstructural investigations. Microstructure studies were carried out for all the samples to validate the formation of FGM. The sample is first cast by gravity casting and then machined on a lathe and then sliced vertically for the microstructural study. Sample sizes of 10 × 10 × 5 mm3 were prepared for all the compositions subjected to SEM.

Figures 2–4 show the SEM images of the 2.5, 5, and 7.5% alumina in an aluminium matrix, respectively. Black spots represent alumina, and their intensity increased as the composition of alumina increased. The structure is more prevalent in higher composition with better dispersion. It is noted that particle distribution varied along the depth and, at the bottom, the particle distribution was higher. This can be attributed to the solidification time being given under furnace cooling and because of gravity the particles get more time to travel down the depth of the mould. This causes a gradation of dispersion of alumina nanoparticles in the aluminium matrix along the depth. This gradation is more visible in higher surface temperatures and higher mass percentage, i.e. 7.5% at 1,000°C samples. The microstructure also reveals that a honeycomb structure is very clearly formed without much rupture and porosity. To further validate the sample as FGM, the sample with a good honeycomb structure is chosen for further structural studies. Sample XI was selected and was prepared for further SEM studies.

Figure 2 SEM micrographs of 2.5% alumina added at (a–c) 750°C, (d–f) 850°C, and (g–i) 1,000°C.
Figure 2

SEM micrographs of 2.5% alumina added at (a–c) 750°C, (d–f) 850°C, and (g–i) 1,000°C.

Figure 3 SEM micrographs of 5% alumina added at (a–c) 750°C, (d–f) 850°C, and (g–i) 1,000°C.
Figure 3

SEM micrographs of 5% alumina added at (a–c) 750°C, (d–f) 850°C, and (g–i) 1,000°C.

Figure 4 SEM micrographs of 7. 5% alumina added at (a–c) 750°C, (d–f) 850°C, and (g–i) 1,000°C.
Figure 4

SEM micrographs of 7. 5% alumina added at (a–c) 750°C, (d–f) 850°C, and (g–i) 1,000°C.

3.2 Mechanical characteristics

The hardness test of the graded material was conducted on a microhardness tester machine. A diamond indenter with a diameter of 1/16″ and a load of 60 kgf was specified for the measurement. A red dial on scale C was used for measuring the readings, and the samples obtained from the graded material had a dimension of 20 mm × 20 mm × 5 mm.

The product was gravity cast. Specimens of FGMs with varying volume percentages of reinforcement Al2O3 particles (2.5, 5.0, and 7.5 wt%) were subjected to a Micro Rockwell hardness test. Samples were cut along the depth, and surface locations selected for testing are top, middle, and bottom. All the samples were tested for their hardness, and variation due to the composition of alumina reinforcement and surface temperature along the depth of cast was studied. The results of the study reveal that, as expected, gravity causes the reinforcement particles to be more densely packed on the underside of the cast than on the top. As a result, all materials show increased hardness in the bottom zone of the cast product, which gradually diminishes in the top zone. However, in the case of MMC, the effect was much more noticeable due to the different ceramic particles [16]. According to Watanabe et al. [17], the presence of the compositional gradient is the primary reason why the hardness of a composite material increased. The gradient of the composite has the greatest impact on the Young’s modulus and thermal expansion coefficient [18]. The study of the FGM results revealed that the percentage of alumina particles in their composition correlates inversely with the difference in hardness values. Figures 5–7 show that the hardness of the top, middle, and bottom portion of fabricated cast products with a higher solidification temperature differ more than that of products with a lower solidification temperature. This is because the top surface experiences more cancellation of reinforcement particles than the bottom surface.

Figure 5 Variation of hardness along the depth in 2.5 wt% alumina samples at different surface temperatures.
Figure 5

Variation of hardness along the depth in 2.5 wt% alumina samples at different surface temperatures.

Figure 6 Variation of hardness along the depth in 5 wt% alumina samples at different surface temperatures.
Figure 6

Variation of hardness along the depth in 5 wt% alumina samples at different surface temperatures.

Figure 7 Variation of hardness along the depth in 7.5 wt% alumina samples at different surface temperatures.
Figure 7

Variation of hardness along the depth in 7.5 wt% alumina samples at different surface temperatures.

Figure 8 and Table 2 show the plot of tensile strength (YS and UTS) for various Al alloy-based FGM samples with an increased percentage of reinforce starting from 2.5 to 7.5 wt% at different casting temperatures. The 2.5 wt% sample with a solidification temperature of 750°C had a yield strength (YS) of 19 MPa, ultimate tensile strength (UTS) of 35 MPa, and ductility of 14%. The YS and UTS in the FGM sample were reinforced at 2.5 wt% at a casting temperature of 850°C are smaller, i.e., 19 and 36.5 MPa, respectively. Also, a decrease in ductility (13%) was observed compared to the 750°C solidification temperature sample. However, for the 2.5 wt% sample at a solidification temperature of 1,000°C, the YS and UTS in the FGM sample are increased to 28 and 40 MPa, respectively, and the ductility also increased up to 16%. This might be because the reinforcing particles are accelerated downward due to the gravitational force to the bottom surfaces, while congregated Al2O3 particles that are present in FGM samples show reduced ductility and increase the YS and UTS. In addition, these deformities can infatuate the microstructural continuity of FGMs. The stress–strain curve of FGM samples with different weight percentages of reinforcement particle compositions is shown in Figure 8. It was observed that higher values of UTS were found in the higher wt% Al2O3 for higher solidification temperature specimens due to the dispersion-strength effect. The results indicate that the tensile characteristics like UTS and YS increase with the increase in Al2O3 content [19,20]. It may be noted that internal oxidation, which prevents the movement of dislocation and pin-up dislocation lines, is the method used to create reinforcing particles with increased dispersion strength. Additionally, as described in the literature [21], these are essential for increasing the dislocation density in the metal matrix, which leads to enhanced yield and tensile strength values.

Figure 8 Stress–strain curve for all material conditions.
Figure 8

Stress–strain curve for all material conditions.

Table 2

Mechanical properties

S. No. Material condition (wt% of Al2O3) UTS (MPa) YS (MPa) Ductility (%)
1 2.5 wt% at 750°C 36 19 14
2 2.5 wt% at 850°C 37.5 19 13
3 2.5 wt% at 1,000°C 40 28 16
4 5 wt% at 750°C 38.5 27.5 16
5 5 wt% at 850°C 39 28 19
6 5 wt% at 1,000°C 43 32.5 10
7 7.5 wt% at 750°C 44 33.5 7
8 7.5 wt% at 850°C 44.5 33.8 13
9 7.5 wt% at 1,000°C 45.8 35.5 11

In general, in the casting process, the cast metal is deposited in a metal mould and solidified under certain conditions. This process causes some changes in the microstructure that lead to changes in the mechanical properties of the material, such as the increase in the microhardness of the processed alloy.

4 Conclusions

In this experimental study, FGM were produced via gravity casting process with different solidification temperatures. The microstructural and mechanical characteristics of Al/Al2O3 FGM were investigated by SEM, microhardness test and tensile test. The following conclusions are drawn:

  1. Most of the Al2O3 particles in 7.5 vol%. Al/Al2O3 FGM were found in the bottom zone of the cast product due to the gravitational force, and less density of Al2O3 particles congregated to the upper zone of the cast product.

  2. Variations in microhardness were seen between the top and bottom zones of the casted product at a larger percentage of reinforcing particles at 7.5 wt% and 750°C solidification temperature. As the ceramic particles’ solidification temperature is increased by 7.5 wt%, the microhardness variations between the top and bottom surfaces also increased.

  3. Due to the presence of clustered Al2O3 particles, increasing the weight percentage of these reinforced particles increased the mechanical characteristics of FGM at the price of ductility.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thanks to Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee material laboratory for helping the experimental work.

  1. Funding information: The authors state no funding involved.

  2. Author contributions: Puneet Singh, Krishna Kant Singh, Satyendra Singh: Conceptualization; Puneet Singh, Krishna Kant Singh, Satyendra Singh: methodology, Puneet Singh: software analysis; Puneet Singh, Krishna Kant Singh, Satyendra Singh: validation, Puneet Singh: investigation, writing–original draft preparation. Krishna Kant Singh, Satyendra Singh: visualization, supervision, writing-review and editing project administration. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.

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Received: 2023-09-16
Revised: 2023-12-18
Accepted: 2023-12-20
Published Online: 2024-02-27

© 2024 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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https://doi.org/10.1515/htmp-2022-0308
Keywords for this article
gravity casting; graded material; aluminium; alumina nanoparticles
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  9. Effect of ladle-lining materials on inclusion evolution in Al-killed steel during LF refining
  10. Analysis of metallurgical defects in enamel steel castings
  11. Effect of cooling rate and Nb synergistic strengthening on microstructure and mechanical properties of high-strength rebar
  12. Effect of grain size on fatigue strength of 304 stainless steel
  13. Analysis and control of surface cracks in a B-bearing continuous casting blooms
  14. Application of laser surface detection technology in blast furnace gas flow control and optimization
  15. Preparation of MoO3 powder by hydrothermal method
  16. The comparative study of Ti-bearing oxides introduced by different methods
  17. Application of MgO/ZrO2 coating on 309 stainless steel to increase resistance to corrosion at high temperatures and oxidation by an electrochemical method
  18. Effect of applying a full oxygen blast furnace on carbon emissions based on a carbon metabolism calculation model
  19. Characterization of low-damage cutting of alfalfa stalks by self-sharpening cutters made of gradient materials
  20. Thermo-mechanical effects and microstructural evolution-coupled numerical simulation on the hot forming processes of superalloy turbine disk
  21. Endpoint prediction of BOF steelmaking based on state-of-the-art machine learning and deep learning algorithms
  22. Effect of calcium treatment on inclusions in 38CrMoAl high aluminum steel
  23. Effect of isothermal transformation temperature on the microstructure, precipitation behavior, and mechanical properties of anti-seismic rebar
  24. Evolution of residual stress and microstructure of 2205 duplex stainless steel welded joints during different post-weld heat treatment
  25. Effect of heating process on the corrosion resistance of zinc iron alloy coatings
  26. BOF steelmaking endpoint carbon content and temperature soft sensor model based on supervised weighted local structure preserving projection
  27. Innovative approaches to enhancing crack repair: Performance optimization of biopolymer-infused CXT
  28. Structural and electrochromic property control of WO3 films through fine-tuning of film-forming parameters
  29. Influence of non-linear thermal radiation on the dynamics of homogeneous and heterogeneous chemical reactions between the cone and the disk
  30. Thermodynamic modeling of stacking fault energy in Fe–Mn–C austenitic steels
  31. Research on the influence of cemented carbide micro-textured structure on tribological properties
  32. Performance evaluation of fly ash-lime-gypsum-quarry dust (FALGQ) bricks for sustainable construction
  33. First-principles study on the interfacial interactions between h-BN and Si3N4
  34. Analysis of carbon emission reduction capacity of hydrogen-rich oxygen blast furnace based on renewable energy hydrogen production
  35. Just-in-time updated DBN BOF steel-making soft sensor model based on dense connectivity of key features
  36. Effect of tempering temperature on the microstructure and mechanical properties of Q125 shale gas casing steel
  37. Review Articles
  38. A review of emerging trends in Laves phase research: Bibliometric analysis and visualization
  39. Effect of bottom stirring on bath mixing and transfer behavior during scrap melting in BOF steelmaking: A review
  40. High-temperature antioxidant silicate coating of low-density Nb–Ti–Al alloy: A review
  41. Communications
  42. Experimental investigation on the deterioration of the physical and mechanical properties of autoclaved aerated concrete at elevated temperatures
  43. Damage evaluation of the austenitic heat-resistance steel subjected to creep by using Kikuchi pattern parameters
  44. Topical Issue on Focus of Hot Deformation of Metaland High Entropy Alloys - Part II
  45. Synthesis of aluminium (Al) and alumina (Al2O3)-based graded material by gravity casting
  46. Experimental investigation into machining performance of magnesium alloy AZ91D under dry, minimum quantity lubrication, and nano minimum quantity lubrication environments
  47. Numerical simulation of temperature distribution and residual stress in TIG welding of stainless-steel single-pass flange butt joint using finite element analysis
  48. Special Issue on A Deep Dive into Machining and Welding Advancements - Part I
  49. Electro-thermal performance evaluation of a prismatic battery pack for an electric vehicle
  50. Experimental analysis and optimization of machining parameters for Nitinol alloy: A Taguchi and multi-attribute decision-making approach
  51. Experimental and numerical analysis of temperature distributions in SA 387 pressure vessel steel during submerged arc welding
  52. Optimization of process parameters in plasma arc cutting of commercial-grade aluminium plate
  53. Multi-response optimization of friction stir welding using fuzzy-grey system
  54. Mechanical and micro-structural studies of pulsed and constant current TIG weldments of super duplex stainless steels and Austenitic stainless steels
  55. Stretch-forming characteristics of austenitic material stainless steel 304 at hot working temperatures
  56. Work hardening and X-ray diffraction studies on ASS 304 at high temperatures
  57. Study of phase equilibrium of refractory high-entropy alloys using the atomic size difference concept for turbine blade applications
  58. A novel intelligent tool wear monitoring system in ball end milling of Ti6Al4V alloy using artificial neural network
  59. A hybrid approach for the machinability analysis of Incoloy 825 using the entropy-MOORA method
  60. Special Issue on Recent Developments in 3D Printed Carbon Materials - Part II
  61. Innovations for sustainable chemical manufacturing and waste minimization through green production practices
  62. Topical Issue on Conference on Materials, Manufacturing Processes and Devices - Part I
  63. Characterization of Co–Ni–TiO2 coatings prepared by combined sol-enhanced and pulse current electrodeposition methods
  64. Hot deformation behaviors and microstructure characteristics of Cr–Mo–Ni–V steel with a banded structure
  65. Effects of normalizing and tempering temperature on the bainite microstructure and properties of low alloy fire-resistant steel bars
  66. Dynamic evolution of residual stress upon manufacturing Al-based diesel engine diaphragm
  67. Study on impact resistance of steel fiber reinforced concrete after exposure to fire
  68. Bonding behaviour between steel fibre and concrete matrix after experiencing elevated temperature at various loading rates
  69. Diffusion law of sulfate ions in coral aggregate seawater concrete in the marine environment
  70. Microstructure evolution and grain refinement mechanism of 316LN steel
  71. Investigation of the interface and physical properties of a Kovar alloy/Cu composite wire processed by multi-pass drawing
  72. The investigation of peritectic solidification of high nitrogen stainless steels by in-situ observation
  73. Microstructure and mechanical properties of submerged arc welded medium-thickness Q690qE high-strength steel plate joints
  74. Experimental study on the effect of the riveting process on the bending resistance of beams composed of galvanized Q235 steel
  75. Density functional theory study of Mg–Ho intermetallic phases
  76. Investigation of electrical properties and PTCR effect in double-donor doping BaTiO3 lead-free ceramics
  77. Special Issue on Thermal Management and Heat Transfer
  78. On the thermal performance of a three-dimensional cross-ternary hybrid nanofluid over a wedge using a Bayesian regularization neural network approach
  79. Time dependent model to analyze the magnetic refrigeration performance of gadolinium near the room temperature
  80. Heat transfer characteristics in a non-Newtonian (Williamson) hybrid nanofluid with Hall and convective boundary effects
  81. Computational role of homogeneous–heterogeneous chemical reactions and a mixed convective ternary hybrid nanofluid in a vertical porous microchannel
  82. Thermal conductivity evaluation of magnetized non-Newtonian nanofluid and dusty particles with thermal radiation
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