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Bonding behaviour between steel fibre and concrete matrix after experiencing elevated temperature at various loading rates

  • Jingyi Qiu , Wenjie Wang EMAIL logo and Jianxun Liu
Published/Copyright: June 20, 2024
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High Temperature Materials and Processes
From the journal High Temperature Materials and Processes Volume 43 Issue 1

Abstract

The bonding behaviour between steel fibre and concrete matrix at elevated temperature and various loading rates was investigated. Pullout tests were carried out on the hooked-end steel fibre reinforced concrete specimen and the effects of elevated temperatures (200, 400, and 600°C) and loading rates (2, 10, and 50 mm·min−1) were considered. The ultimate bond strength and energy absorption were discussed to evaluate the bonding behaviour. The results revealed that the bonding behaviour for the case of 400°C performed best, while the bonding behaviour for the case of 600°C performed the worst. At room temperature, the bonding behaviour is similar to the case of 200°C. In addition, the higher the loading rate, the greater the fluctuation of the bond slip curve of the specimen, and higher ultimate pullout load and energy absorption may be observed.

Keywords: hooked-end steel fibre; concrete mortar matrix; bonding behaviour; pullout rate; elevated temperature

1 Introduction

Steel fibre can improve the mechanical properties of concrete and control the development of cracks due to the bonding between steel fibre and concrete matrix [1,2,3]. The interfacial bonding properties between fibre and concrete matrix are influenced by many factors such as temperature, load condition, and fibre parameters. Researchers [4,5,6] studied the bonding strength of steel fibre under different temperature, and pointed out that the bonding strength between the steel fibre and the matrix after experiencing 200 and 400°C is higher than that at 600°C. Gao et al. [7] believed that the tensile strength of steel fibre reinforced concrete (SFRC) decreases slowly before 400°C and rapidly after 400°C. Scholars [8,9] studied the bonding properties of steel fibre and concrete matrix after high temperature. With the increase in temperature, the bond properties showed a downward trend between steel fibre and concrete matrix.

In terms of the influence of loading rate on bonding behavior, Tai and El-Tawil [10] demonstrated that the fibres pullout damage is the most common occurrence at high loading rates. In addition, research works [11,12] indicated that the end-hooked steel fibre is more rate sensitive than the round straight steel fibre. The displacement rate effect is caused by the interface bonding behavior between the hook end and matrix. The matrix damage and spalling are more easily caused with the increase in inclination and velocity [13]. It is also found that with the increase in loading rate, the ultimate bond load between steel fibre and concrete matrix increased [14].

There have been studies on the bond properties between fibre and concrete matrix, mainly considering the steel fibre type, fibre inclination angle, temperature condition and loading rate. However, there are not many studies on the simultaneous effect of temperature and loading rate on the bond behavior of SFRC matrix. Therefore, the aim of this study is to explore the influence of high temperature and loading rate on bonding properties through a series of single steel fibre pullout tests.

2 Experimental procedure

2.1 Test materials and specimens

Ordinary Portland cement P.O42.5 was used in this experiment, according to the Chinese national standard GB 175-2007 [15]. The tensile strength of the hooked-end steel fibre used in the work is 380 MPa, its length is 30 mm, and its diameter is 0.75 mm (Figure 1a). The steel fibre cut is smooth and the fibre is not deformed after cutting to ensure that it is not corroded before use. According to the literature [16], the commonly used test methods for measuring bonding properties between fibre and matrix mainly include fibre pulling test, compression head release test, single fibre breaking test, micro-viscosity test, and fibre embedding model test. The single fibre pulling out test is difficult to implement, while the stress conditions between fibre and matrix in the single fibre pulling out test are similar to the stress conditions between fibre and substrate in the cracking process [17], which can directly reflect the bonding behavior between fibre and concrete or cement mortar [10]. It is suggested that the mechanical pre-deformed fibre is more effective than the straight fibre in improving the pullout resistance. Therefore, the end hook steel fibre is selected in this study. The mechanical behavior of the bond between single fibre and matrix was systematically studied by using the “8-font” mould, as shown in Figure 1b. The specimen was separated by silica gel sheet, and a fibre was placed in the middle position. The embedded depth of steel fibre was 15 mm and the embedded angle was 0°. After the pouring is completed, the mould is removed after standing for 24 h, and it is maintained in the standard curing box for 28 days, which is controlled in the standard curing conditions (the temperature of 20 ± 2°C and the relative humidity of 95 ± 5%). Table 1 lists the test diagram of the specimens.

Figure 1 Details of the specimen in the test. (a) Steel fibre and (b) sketch of the sample.
Figure 1

Details of the specimen in the test. (a) Steel fibre and (b) sketch of the sample.

Table 1

Details of specimen numbers

Specimen number Temperature (°C) Loading rate (mm·min−1) No. of specimens
P1-1 24 2 5
P1-2 24 10 5
P1-3 24 50 5
F1-1-1 200 2 5
F1-1-2 200 10 5
F1-1-3 200 50 5
F1-2-1 400 2 5
F1-2-2 400 10 5
F1-2-3 400 50 5
F1-3-1 600 2 5
F1-3-2 600 10 5
F1-3-3 600 50 5

2.2 Test device and method

The high temperature furnace was used to heat the specimen, which has a maximum heating rate of 12 K·min−1. The temperatures are set to 200, 400, and 600°C. After the high temperature treatment of the specimen, the power supply was cut off manually and the furnace door was opened for ventilation and cooling. The specimen was then taken out and left for 24 h until completely cooled to room temperature. The standard tensile testing machine was applied to conduct the pullout test as shown in Figure 2. The loading rates of the testing machine are set to be 2, 10, and 50 mm·min−1, respectively. The test stops when the steel fibre is totally pulled out or pulled off.

Figure 2 Pullout test setup.
Figure 2

Pullout test setup.

2.3 Heating mechanism

As is known that the heating rate is one of the main factors for high temperature cracking of mortar matrix, the concrete or mortar matrix could burst when the temperature is higher than 400°C as the concrete strength is reduced rapidly. Therefore, the integrity of the test specimen exposed to high temperature is related to the selection of the heating mechanism. The mechanism of stepwise heating is applied in this study as the characteristic of the test device is that the temperature rise rate is not controllable. Figure 3a and b displays the heating mechanism setting at the temperature of 400 and 600°C, respectively. That is, a 30°C is selected as a gradient, and each gradient is kept constant for 20 min.

Figure 3 The heating mechanism used in the experiment. (a) Heating mechanism setting at 400°C. (b) Heating mechanism setting at 600°C.
Figure 3

The heating mechanism used in the experiment. (a) Heating mechanism setting at 400°C. (b) Heating mechanism setting at 600°C.

3 Test results and discussion

3.1 Ultimate bond strength

The ultimate bond strength was calculated according to equation (1).

(1) τ u = F u u f l cm ,

where τ u is the ultimate bond strength between steel fibre and mortar (MPa), F u is the ultimate load of steel fibre pulling out process (N), u f is the perimeter of the steel fibre cross section (mm), and l cm is the length of the embedded end of the steel fibre (mm).

The calculated values are listed in Table 2. Both the ultimate pullout load and bond strength vary with the increase in temperature. The bonding behaviour at room temperature is similar to the case of 200°C, which performed best for the case of 400°C and worst for the case of 600°C. The averaged ultimate bond strengths at room temperature, 200, 400, and 600°C are 4.88, 4.75, 6.39, and 2.61 MPa, respectively. The ultimate bond strength at 400°C is 1.17 times more than that at 200°C, and the ultimate bond strength for the case of 600°C is 0.465 times more than that for the case of 200°C.

Table 2

Pullout test results

Specimen number Displacement corresponding to ultimate load (mm) Ultimate pullout load (N) Ultimate bond strength (MPa) Average energy absorption (Pa)
P1-1 3.510 155.403 4.40 855.1
P1-2 3.837 172.215 4.87 974.5
P1-3 3.764 190.163 5.38 1171.5
F1-1-1 3.015 154.768 4.38 736.9
F1-1-2 3.199 176.091 4.98 948.3
F1-1-3 4.489 172.610 4.88 1053.3
F1-2-1 3.430 215.581 6.10 1389.0
F1-2-2 3.343 235.387 6.66 1418.3
F1-2-3 5.789 226.713 6.41 1541.7
F1-3-1 5.081 91.734 2.60 441.7
F1-3-2 5.253 88.029 2.49 494.7
F1-3-3 3.439 96.462 2.73 560.2

3.2 Failure pattern

The failure mode of the specimen is similar regardless of the temperature and loading rate. As an example, Figure 4 shows the damage pattern of the specimen at the temperature of 200°C. The steel fibre was pulled out completely and the end was straightened at the end of the test.

Figure 4 Failure pattern of the steel fibre pullout tests. (a) Damage interface and (b) fibre pullout interface.
Figure 4

Failure pattern of the steel fibre pullout tests. (a) Damage interface and (b) fibre pullout interface.

The failure pattern of the bonded specimen is related to many factors, such as the strength grade of mortar matrix, the shape of steel fibre, the depth and angle of steel fibre, etc. The failure mode of the specimen depends on the magnitude of the ultimate pullout load F u and the ultimate tensile load F t of single fibre. The specific bond failure types are analysed as follows: (1) The first type of pattern is steel fibre pullout failure ( F t ≥ F u ), the damage to the mortar matrix in the pullout process is not enough to make the matrix split. (2) The second type is steel fibre breakage during pullout process ( F t < F u ). It usually appears in the test group with large mortar matrix strength, low steel fibre strength, complex steel fibre shape, and large steel fibre embedding angle. (3) The third type is the splitting failure of the mortar matrix ( F t ≥ F u ). The damage to the mortar matrix is serious during the pullout process, resulting in the sudden crack of the mortar matrix along the axis of the steel fibre. The mortar matrix is greatly damaged, resulting in the matrix splitting failure.

From Figure 4, the damage pattern in this study is the first type of failure mode, i.e., the steel fibre pulling out damage. For the end hook steel fibre, the end hook is constantly straightened during the pulling out process, and the straightening degree is closely related to the properties of the steel fibre and the strength of the mortar matrix. When the hook is pulled out, all the bends are straightened, and the strength of the steel fibre reaches or is close to yield, which is the most ideal damage form, so that the tensile properties of the steel fibre can be fully utilized.

3.3 Effect of the temperature

Figure 5 displays the pullout load–slip curves at various temperatures with the loading rate of 2 mm·min−1. It can be seen that the trend of the load–slip curve at room temperature and 200°C is similar, and the value of the ultimate pullout load is similar. For the case of 200°C, the load increases almost linearly with the increase in displacement to the initial debonding load, with a slipping of about 3.73 mm. With the continuous increase in displacement, the pullout load decreases until the steel fibre is totally pulled out. For the case of 400°C, the load increases almost linearly first to the ultimate load F u, which is at the stage of elasticity with the displacement of up to 3.80 mm. Then, the load decreases to 0.49F u with the increase in displacement, with a slip of 7.24 mm. The pullout load is then increased to 0.60F u, and finally the load is reduced to the minimum value. For the case of 600°C, the load increases to the maximum value, with the corresponding displacement is 5.08 mm. After that, the load starts to decrease. When the slip is up to 7.33 mm, the load is decreased to 0.65F u and finally the load is reduced to the minimum value. A similar load–slip curve of SFRC at the loading rate of 10 mm·min−1 can be observed as shown in Figure 6.

Figure 5 Pullout load–slip curves of SFRC at v = 2 mm·min−1.
Figure 5

Pullout load–slip curves of SFRC at v = 2 mm·min−1.

Figure 6 Pullout load–slip curves of SFRC at v = 10 mm·min−1.
Figure 6

Pullout load–slip curves of SFRC at v = 10 mm·min−1.

It can be seen that the bonding behaviour of SFRC after 400°C has a good bond performance in terms of the ultimate load and the ultimate bond strength, while the bond performance of the SFRC after 600°C is significantly reduced. When the temperature is within 200°C, the moisture in the concrete begins to evaporate gradually, but the steel fibre plays a bridging role in the interior of the concrete and prevents the development of cracks, so the temperature has little effect on the strength of the specimen. For the case of 400°C, the adhesive action inside the concrete alleviates the end stress concentration at the crack end. Although the rigidity of the bend hook at the end of the steel fibre is reduced, the damage to the matrix is small during the pulling out process, which may provide the mechanical bite force for SFRC, resulting in a slight increase in the bond strength. For the case of 600°C, due to the gradual loss of crystalline water inside the concrete, the structure began to lose, and the originally complete laminated structure was destroyed. The bonding force between the steel fibre and the matrix is also gradually lost, so that the strengthening effect of the steel fibre is sharply reduced, resulting in a significant decrease in bonding strength.

It can be concluded that with the addition of steel fibre, the bridge and crack resistance limit the volume change of concrete under the rapid change under the high temperature environment, reducing the initiation and expansion of micro-defects in concrete performing good mechanical properties. However, when the temperature reaches a certain value, the cement gel gradually disintegrates and the adhesive force between the mortar matrix and steel fibre gradually loses. The strengthening effect of steel fibre decreases sharply, leading to a decrease in the strength of SFRC at high temperature.

3.4 Effect of the loading rate

Figure 7 displays the pullout load–slip curves at various loading rates under the temperature of 200°C. For the loading rate of 2 and 10 mm·min−1, the fluctuation of the pullout load slip curve is similar, but the ultimate pullout load is different, with the respective values being 154.768 N and 176.91 N. Compared with the case of 50 mm·min−1, the fluctuation of the curve is more severe, especially in the process of pulling out. The ultimate pullout load is similar to the case of 10 mm·min−1. The slippage corresponding to the ultimate pullout load of these three loading rates is between 3 and 6 mm. The displacement corresponding to the maximum pullout force increases with the loading rate.

Figure 7 Pullout load–slip curves of SFRC at 200°C.
Figure 7

Pullout load–slip curves of SFRC at 200°C.

Figures 8 and 9 display the pullout load–slip curves under the temperature of 400 and 600°C at various loading rates, respectively. The pullout load–slip curve at 400°C is similar to that at 200°C. For the case of 600°C, the ultimate pullout load increases with the increase in loading rate. However, the displacement corresponding to the ultimate pullout load at the rate of 50 mm·min−1 is smaller than that at the rate of 2 and 10 mm·min−1. This could be due to the loss of moisture in the mortar matrix under the high temperature, resulting in the loosening of the structure and the reduction in the bonding performance. With the high loading rate, the fibre could be pulled out faster as the steel fibre cannot fully play the physical and chemical bonding with the matrix.

Figure 8 Pullout load–slip curves of SFRC at 400°C.
Figure 8

Pullout load–slip curves of SFRC at 400°C.

Figure 9 Pullout load–slip curves of SFRC at 600°C.
Figure 9

Pullout load–slip curves of SFRC at 600°C.

The effect of loading rate on the bonding behavior is discussed in terms of energy absorption, which is an important index to evaluate bond toughness. The pullout energy absorption is calculated on the area of the pullout load–slip curve as follows:

(2) W P = ∫ 0 L E F ( s ) d s ,

where W P is the pullout energy, L E is the buried fibre depth, and F ( s ) is the pullout load–slip curve.

The energy absorption of the specimen at various loading rates are displayed in Figure 10, at the temperature of 200, 400, and 600°C, respectively. For the case of 200°C, the energy absorption caused during the 2 mm·min−1 of pulling out process is 736.9 Pa, which le it is about 948.3 Pa and 1053.3 Pa for 10 and 50 mm·min−1, respectively. The value is increased by 28.7 and 42.9% when the loading rate is 10 and 50 mm·min−1, respectively. This can be explained by the microcracks generated during the de-bonding and slipping stage. The steel fibre geometry can also affect the rate dependency of the pullout behavior. Mechanical anchoring is activated which increases the possibility of generating and propagating microcracks in the matrix, thereby magnifying the rate dependency. For hooked-end steel fibres in the study, the slip value during the straightening process of the plastic hinge increases at 50 mm·min−1, and the corresponding pullout stage decreases. Hence, the friction shear stress plays a major role in generating pullout resistance.

Figure 10 Energy absorption during fibre pullout process at various temperatures.
Figure 10

Energy absorption during fibre pullout process at various temperatures.

Similarly, the energy absorption increases with the loading rate under the temperature of 400 and 600°C. Among these three temperature conditions, the energy absorption under 400°C is the largest, which is due to the slight increase in the bond strength between steel fibre and the mortar matrix at this temperature environment as described above.

4 Conclusion

The bond properties between steel fibre and concrete matrix were studied by considering the influence of high temperature and loading rate through a single steel fibre pullout test. The results are concluded as follows:

  1. The ultimate pullout load is the highest for the case of 400°C, followed by 200°C, and the lowest for the case of 600°C;

  2. The damage pattern is the steel fibre pullout failure regardless of the temperature and the loading rate;

  3. The bonding behaviour shows the best under 400°C in terms of the bonding strength and energy absorption;

  4. From the perspective of load–slip curve, the loading rate affects the fluctuation amplitude of the curve, and the higher the rate, the greater the fluctuation amplitude of the curve;

  5. The energy absorption increases with the loading rate regardless of the temperature, demonstrating the effect of strain rate in the pullout process.

The research output of the bonding properties between steel fibre and concrete matrix exposed to high temperature could provide a theoretical basis for the research on the microscopic properties of SFRC materials and structures under high temperature or fire.

Acknowledgement

The authors would like to acknowledge the support provided by the National Natural Science Funds of China (52008105) and the Natural Science Foundation of Jiangsu Province of China (BK20200374).

  1. Funding information: This project was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (52008105) and the Natural Science Foundation of Jiangsu Province of China (BK20200374).

  2. Author contributions: Wenjie Wang: conceptualization, methodology, funding acquisition, review and editing, and supervision. Jingyi Qiu: manuscript preparation and drafting, experimental investigation, data collection, and visualization. Jianxun Liu: experiment preparation and data collection.

  3. Conflict of interest: Authors state no conflict of interest.

  4. Data availability statement: Data will be made available on request.

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Received: 2024-04-11
Revised: 2024-05-12
Accepted: 2024-05-13
Published Online: 2024-06-20

© 2024 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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  81. Computational role of homogeneous–heterogeneous chemical reactions and a mixed convective ternary hybrid nanofluid in a vertical porous microchannel
  82. Thermal conductivity evaluation of magnetized non-Newtonian nanofluid and dusty particles with thermal radiation
https://doi.org/10.1515/htmp-2024-0022
Keywords for this article
hooked-end steel fibre; concrete mortar matrix; bonding behaviour; pullout rate; elevated temperature
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