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Integrated structure–function design of 3D-printed porous polydimethylsiloxane for superhydrophobic engineering

  • Zhoukun He , Jie Su , Xiaowei Zhu EMAIL logo , Yue Li , Libo Yang , Xudong Zhang , Qi Jiang and Xiaorong Lan EMAIL logo
Published/Copyright: December 21, 2024
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REVIEWS ON ADVANCED MATERIALS SCIENCE
From the journal REVIEWS ON ADVANCED MATERIALS SCIENCE Volume 63 Issue 1

Abstract

Three-dimensional (3D) printing technology can be used to fabricate layer-by-layer regular porous polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) structures with excellent superhydrophobic ability and mechanical stability. However, for engineering applications, the design must consider the structure and superhydrophobicity of the resulting material. In this study, we propose an approach to regulate the mechanical properties of PDMS by adjusting the layered pattern, such as by changing filament orientation with 30°, 45°, and 90° angle steps and using staggered structures with a half-shifted spacing. A finite element analysis was conducted to investigate how the layered pattern influenced the tensile and compressive properties. The results reveal that a layered, staggered design can modulate the compressive properties of the porous PDMS, particularly the ratio between the compressive moduli of the sample without and with staggered structures could reach as high as 686% when the layering angle is 0°/90°. The tensile properties are better regulated by the filament angle rather than by the staggered design and improve as the raster angle of the filaments increases. This occurs when the upper and lower filaments tend toward orthogonality. Thus, the required layered pattern can be selected, enabling the integrated design of mechanical properties and function in 3D-printed porous PDMS.

Graphical abstract

Keywords: mechanical properties; 3D printing; PDMS; superhydrophobic; wettability

1 Introduction

Superhydrophobicity is a unique type of wettability categorized by the contact angle of a spherical (or near-spherical) water droplet on a solid surface. In particular, superhydrophobic surfaces have a water contact angle (WCA) of >150° [1,2,3]. Flora and fauna, such as lotus leaves [4], water striders [5,6], dragonflies [7], and butterflies [8,9], possess inherent hydrophobicity [10,11,12]. The superhydrophobic surface wettability of various surfaces primarily depends on their low surface energy chemistry and unique micro/nanostructures. Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) is a widely used material owing to its low surface energy [13,14] and good physical [15,16], chemical [17,18], and biomedical properties [19,20,21]. Previous methods, such as impregnation [11,22], spraying [23], chemical/physical etching [12,24], the sol–gel method [25], and the template method [26], have been employed to establish structural features of PDMS and its composites at the micro/nanoscales. These typical methods often involve many deficiencies, such as complex multi-step processing [27], use of solvent [22], or low precision in controlling the micro/nanostructures [24,28]. To achieve special surface wettability, such as anisotropy surface wettability or superhydrophobicity, techniques including UV lithography and femtosecond laser etching have often been adopted to form structures with asymmetric geometric character, such as fibers or grooves [29,30]. The formed structures can be widely applied according to their excellent properties, such as antifouling [31,32,33,34,35,36], waterproof protection [37], selective pattern printing [38], self-cleaning [39], liquid transfer [40], fog collection [41], and oil/water separation [42,43,44].

However, simultaneously achieving superhydrophobicity and good mechanical stability is challenging, and the fabrication of robust superhydrophobic materials with micro/nanostructures remains difficult. Recently, three-dimensional (3D) printing technologies have attracted attention in micro/nanostructure construction owing to certain advantages, including their flexible design and fabrication of highly complex structures for various applications, such as wound healing [45,46], heart valves [47], self-healing [48], microfluidics [49,50], and scaffolds [51,52]. Among these technologies, direct-write 3D printing can be used to prepare complex structures of different materials by designing an “ink” formulation and controlling the 3D printing process [53,54,55]. In our previous work, the final surface wettability and physical structure of the PDMS “ink” filament could be well controlled via the regulation of the 3D printing parameters, such as filament diameter or filament spacing, to obtain a regular porous PDMS material with excellent superhydrophobic ability and mechanical stability [53,55,56]. Adjusting the 3D printing parameters of the porous PDMS structure not only modulated its superhydrophobicity but also significantly impacted its mechanical properties. However, the optimal approach to regulate its mechanical properties while ensuring excellent superhydrophobic properties for its engineering application remains to be discovered. To date, limited studies have reported an integrated structure–function design of porous PDMS materials with excellent superhydrophobic ability and mechanical stability via 3D printing.

In this study, we extended preliminary experiments to regulate the mechanical properties, such as compressive and tensile properties, of superhydrophobic PDMS by designing layered and staggered structures and varying the filament angles without changing the superhydrophobic properties (that is, without modifying the filament diameter and spacing) [54]. The findings of this article will provide guidance for the physical structural design and preparation of mechanically stable, superhydrophobic regular PDMS materials by 3D printing. Moreover, this work can be used to further guide integrated structure–function design for applications in diverse fields, such as artificial skin and bioprosthetic heart valve materials in biomedicine and in energy and electronics applications.

2 Methods

2.1 Fabrication of superhydrophobic PDMS using 3D printing

In this study, the x–y plane and z-direction were defined as the in-plane and height direction of the 3D-printed PDMS, respectively (Figure 1a). The customized high-viscosity PDMS ink was extruded through the nozzle of the 3D printing (direct-ink writing) system in the form of filaments [53]. The filaments were printed layer by layer according to the planned lay-down patterns at the corresponding printing speed to form a porous cross-hatched structure (Figure 1b). The 3D-printed structure was then cured and molded by placing it in an oven at 125°C for 24 h. Finally, the sample was peeled off from the substrate for further characterization. The PDMS surface had a filament diameter and filament spacing of 0.37 and 0.8 mm, respectively. It had four layers with 90° angle steps between two successive layers. When water droplets were placed onto the porous PDMS surface, they remained spherical, indicating that the surface showed good superhydrophobicity, with a WCA of approximately 151.5° (Figure 1c).

Figure 1 3D printing of porous PDMS with a cross-hatched structure. (a) Schematic representation of the extruded filaments written on the substrates with the tooling path. (b) Fabrication of porous PDMS on the 3D printing platform. (c) PDMS foam sample with superhydrophobicity fabricated by 3D printing. The insert image is the profile of water droplets (5 μL) on the porous PDMS surface, with a WCA of approximately 151.5°.
Figure 1

3D printing of porous PDMS with a cross-hatched structure. (a) Schematic representation of the extruded filaments written on the substrates with the tooling path. (b) Fabrication of porous PDMS on the 3D printing platform. (c) PDMS foam sample with superhydrophobicity fabricated by 3D printing. The insert image is the profile of water droplets (5 μL) on the porous PDMS surface, with a WCA of approximately 151.5°.

2.2 Design of the 3D-printed porous structure

Based on our previous work [57] and the classical Gibson-Ashby model for porous materials [58], the porosity (φ) of the 3D-printed PDMS sample had a direct impact on its mechanical properties, shown in Eq. (1). As the material porosity φ increased, its compressive or tensile modulus (E *) gradually decreased.

(1) E ⁎ E S = C ρ ⁎ ρ S n = C ( 1 − ϕ ) n ,

where E S and E * are the modulus of elasticity of the solid and 3D-printed porous PDMS, respectively; C and n are the fitting coefficients; and ρ S and ρ* are the density of the solid and 3D-printed porous PDMS, respectively [55].

Particularly, φ was correlated with the diameter (d), center-to-center spacing of the filaments (l), and height of the adjacent printed layers (h). According to the geometry of the porous PDMS fabricated by 3D printing, the solid volume V 1 of the model was extracted by the software and then divided by the volume V (length × width × height) of the rectangular model. Finally, the model porosity φ of the PDMS sample was calculated using the formula φ = 1 − V 1/V. The results are theoretical and presented in Table 1.

Table 1

Model design parameters for the 3D-printed PDMS

Model number Filament diameter (d) (mm) Filament spacing (l) (mm) Raster angle Porosity (φ) (%)
0/30-0.6 0.37 0.6 0°/30°/60°/90° 34.4
0/45-0.6 0°/45°/90°/135° 34.4
0/90-0.6 0°/90°/180°/270° 34.4
0/30-0.8 0.8 0°/30°/60°/90° 48.5
0/45-0.8 0°/45°/90°/135° 48.5
0/90-0.8 0°/90°/180°/270° 48.5
0/30-1.0 1.0 0°/30°/60°/90° 57.8
0/45-1.0 0°/45°/90°/135° 57.8
0/90-1.0 0°/90°/180°/270° 57.8
S-0/30-0.6 0.37 0.6 0°/30°/60°/90° 34.4
S-0/45-0.6 0°/45°/90°/135° 34.4
S-0/90-0.6 0°/90°/180°/270° 34.4
S-0/30-0.8 0.8 0°/30°/60°/90° 48.5
S-0/45-0.8 0°/45°/90°/135° 48.5
S-0/90-0.8 0°/90°/180°/270° 48.5
S-0/30-1.0 1.0 0°/30°/60°/90° 57.8
S-0/45-1.0 0°/45°/90°/135° 57.8
S-0/90-1.0 0°/90°/180°/270° 57.8

As previously reported [53], the superhydrophobicity of 3D-printed porous PDMS was optimal when the filament diameter and spacing were 0.37 and 0.8 mm, respectively (Figure 1c). Therefore, we set the filament diameter d to 0.37 mm. Because the superhydrophobicity of the porous PDMS fabricated by 3D printing was primarily controlled by the top-layer structures of the porous PDMS [54], this study focused on the integrated structure and mechanical property design of the porous PDMS fabricated by 3D printing for superhydrophobic engineering. Even if the 3D-printed PDMS foams had the same porosity (same values for filament diameter, filament spacing, and layer height), the mechanical properties could still be regulated by adjusting the layer pattern (e.g., filament orientation and staggered structure) [59,60]. To demonstrate the universality of our strategy for modulating the mechanical properties, such as compressive and tensile, through the design of specific layered patterns, the filament spacing parameters were adjusted to 0.6, 0.8, and 1.0 mm. The raster angles were adjusted with 30° (0°/30°/60°/90° for four layers), 45° (0°/45°/90°/135° for four layers), and 90° (0°/90°/180°/270°) angle steps for a typical and gradual change of the intersection angle between two successive layers. The working parameters are shown in Table 1.

The superhydrophobic properties of the porous PDMS fabricated by 3D printing were primarily related to the filament spacing and diameter of the top layer [53,54]. Therefore, the mechanical properties were regulated by adjusting the lay-down patterns, and the spacing and diameter of the filaments remained unchanged. The architectures were designed by plotting filaments with angle steps of 30°, 45°, and 90° between two sequential layers, denoted 0/30, 0/45, and 0/90 configurations [61], respectively (Figure 2a–c). For the staggered pattern, every other layer was shifted orthogonally to the filament direction by half the spacing relative to the previous, yielding cross-hatched structures, labeled S-0/30, S-0/45, and S-0/90 configurations, respectively (Figure 2d–f). Notably, the pore architecture depended on the filament orientation and layer stagger. For example, a filament deposition angle of 90° created quadrangular pores (Figure 2c and f), whereas angles of 30° or 45° generated polygonal pores (Figure 2a, b, d, and e).

Figure 2 3D-printed porous PDMS with cross-hatched structures. These printed patterns were labeled according to the 3D printing angle of the two successive layers: (a) 0/30, (b) 0/45, and (c) 0/90 configurations and (d) 0/30 (S-0/30), (e) 0/45 (S-0/45), and (f) 0/90 (S-0/90) shifted patterns.
Figure 2

3D-printed porous PDMS with cross-hatched structures. These printed patterns were labeled according to the 3D printing angle of the two successive layers: (a) 0/30, (b) 0/45, and (c) 0/90 configurations and (d) 0/30 (S-0/30), (e) 0/45 (S-0/45), and (f) 0/90 (S-0/90) shifted patterns.

2.3 Finite element (FE) analysis models

For porous PDMS, compression and tension are the two most common mechanical stress states; thus, this study used these two stress models to evaluate the relationship between layer parameters and the mechanical performance of the porous PDMS fabricated by 3D printing. To further reveal the mechanism of strain and internal stress distribution in the 3D-printed PDMS with a cross-hatched structure under compressive or tensile load, the design models mentioned in Section 2.1 were created using FE analysis in ABAQUS. The PDMS filaments were cylindrical apart from those of the first layer, and a total of four layers were constituted with six filaments per layer (Figure 2). The upper layer of the cylindrical filaments was rotationally stacked at a set angle with respect to the neighboring lower layer. Since the value of the print layer height parameter was smaller than the diameter of the PDMS filament, there was an overlapping region between the upper and lower print layers. The overlap area of the top and bottom layers was smoothed by a Boolean operation, and the porous PDMS model was treated as a single entity [55]. Free boundary conditions were imposed on these models. To study the compressive and tensile properties of the porous PDMS, we applied displacement loads in the z and y directions of these models, respectively. In addition, the mechanical properties of the porous PDMS fabricated by 3D printing were analyzed using the Mooney–Rivlin model [55,62], as expressed by the following equation:

(2) U = C 10 ( I 1 − 3 ) + C 01 ( I 2 − 3 ) + 1 D 1 ( J − 1 ) 2 ,

where U is the strain energy of the materials, C 10 and C 01 are the fitted material coefficients, D 1 is the compressibility of the material, I 1 and I 2 are the first and second invariants of the strain bias, respectively, and J is the elastic volume ratio [55]. Based on the constitutive model, the measured compressive nominal stress–strain data of the PDMS cylinder, with a diameter and height of 29.5 and 12.5 mm, respectively, have been modeled with the relevant parameters C 10, C 01, and D 1 [55]. These three fitted parameters, which were accessed by the analysis program in the FE software ABAQUS following our previous publication [55], were 0.203741993, 0.08319049733, and 0.177210526, respectively.

In addition, due to the superelastic characteristics of PDMS materials, these 3D-printed foams had a large mechanical deformation capacity in both compression and tensile directions, which was sufficient to meet the engineering design requirements. The compression and tension properties can be found in the following section.

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Effect of layered patterns on the compressive properties of 3D-printed PDMS

Figure 3 shows the z-axis compressive modulus E c of the different porous PDMS samples with crosshatched geometries. The compressive modulus decreased with increasing filament spacing l, primarily because of filament spacing on the porosity φ. Thus, the mechanical properties of the porous structures were directly related to their porosity. In addition, the porous PDMS exhibited the highest compressive modulus when the filament angle was 90° (0/90). However, the corresponding staggered structure had the lowest compressive modulus (S-0/90). The ratios between the compressive moduli of these structures were 219, 411, and 686% for the l values of 0.6, 0.8, and 1.0 mm, respectively (Figure 3a–c). However, for the other cross-hatched structures with 0°/30° and 0°/45° filament angles, the compressive modulus remained in the same range.

Figure 3 Effect of layered configurations on the E c of porous PDMS fabricated by 3D printing with filament spacings of (a) 0.6, (b) 0.8, and (c) 1.0 mm.
Figure 3

Effect of layered configurations on the E c of porous PDMS fabricated by 3D printing with filament spacings of (a) 0.6, (b) 0.8, and (c) 1.0 mm.

The differences in the compressive modulus were closely related to the deformation mechanism in the initial linear elastic stage of these porous PDMS structures under compressive loading. To illustrate the compressive deformation mechanism of the porous structures fabricated by 3D printing with an l of 0.8 mm, the stress clouds of the x–z section of the models were obtained, as shown in Figure 4. The compressive stresses of the 0/90-0.8 model in the z-direction were primarily transferred to a columnar pattern (yellow or green area in Figure 4c) along the intersection surface of contiguous filament layers from top to bottom [55]. The compressive stress in this region was obviously higher than that in the non-overlapping region for the PDMS model. Therefore, the compressive modulus of the 3D-printed PDMS with a 0°/90° layered pattern was primarily a result of the axial compressive deformation mechanism of these columns [55]. The corresponding staggered structure (Figure 4f) did not exhibit the stress column effect. Moreover, the upper layer of the filaments was squeezed, while the lower layer of the filaments experienced a bending deformation mechanism, resulting in a lower compressive modulus. For the other cross-hatched structures with 0°/30° and 0°/45° layered patterns (Figure 4a, b, d, and e), certain overlapping regions formed by adjacent layers of the filaments exhibited a stress column effect, resulting in compressive moduli being between those of 0/90-0.8 and S-0/90-0.8.

Figure 4 Stress distribution graphs in the x–z section of the models at 10% compressive strain: (a) 0/30-0.8, (b) 0/45-0.8, (c) 0/90-0.8, (d) S-0/30-0.8, (e) S-0/45-0.8, and (f) S-0/90-0.8.
Figure 4

Stress distribution graphs in the x–z section of the models at 10% compressive strain: (a) 0/30-0.8, (b) 0/45-0.8, (c) 0/90-0.8, (d) S-0/30-0.8, (e) S-0/45-0.8, and (f) S-0/90-0.8.

The compressive mechanical behavior of this 3D-printed PDMS was analogous to that of typical foams [55,57]. In the region of small and moderate deformation, the stress slowly increased, and the whole model completely entered the densified state, resulting in an exponential expansion of the compressive stress (Figure 5) [55,58]. In addition, the layered pattern had the same effect on the hyperelastic compressive behavior of the porous PDMS fabricated by 3D printing with the same porosity as that on E c. For cross-hatched structures with 0°/30° and 0°/45° layered patterns, the compressive behavior of the porous PDMS fabricated by 3D printing with the same porosity was more consistent (Figure 5a and b), regardless of whether a staggered layer design was used or not. However, a significant difference was observed between the compressive behaviors of the 0/90 and S-0/90 models. The staggered design enabled the porous PDMS, with a layer angle of 0°/90° (S-0/90) to recover better (Figure 5c). Thus, it exhibited lower stress levels over a relatively long compression interval.

Figure 5 Influence of layered staggering on the compressive behavior of the porous PDMS fabricated by 3D printing with filament raster angles of (a) 0°/30°, (b) 0°/45°, and (c) 0°/90°.
Figure 5

Influence of layered staggering on the compressive behavior of the porous PDMS fabricated by 3D printing with filament raster angles of (a) 0°/30°, (b) 0°/45°, and (c) 0°/90°.

3.2 Effect of layered patterns on the tensile properties of 3D-printed PDMS

The uniaxial tensile simulation calculations of the porous PDMS fabricated by 3D printing with different cross-hatched structures were conducted using FE analysis. Figure 6 shows the y-axis tensile modulus (E t) of the porous PDMS fabricated by 3D printing with different values of l. The tensile modulus decreased with increasing l. This phenomenon was observed because the porosity of the PDMS sample increased with increasing l (Table 1). Consistent with the compression simulation results, the structure with the higher porosity exhibited a significantly lower tensile modulus than the other structures. In addition, the layered pattern regulated the tensile modulus of the porous PDMS fabricated by 3D printing with different porosities in a similar manner. As the filament angle increased (i.e., as the upper and lower layers of the adhesive filaments tended to orthogonality), their corresponding tensile moduli gradually increased. Furthermore, the porous PDMS with an l of 0.6 mm and a 0°/90° (0/90-0.6) layered pattern exhibited the highest tensile modulus, while the 3D-printed structures with 0°/30° and 0°/45° filament orientations exhibited reduced tensile moduli of 37 and 30%, respectively (Figure 6a). A similar change was observed for samples with filament spacing l of 0.8 and 1.0 mm printed with a 0°/90° (0/90-0.8 and 0/90-1.0) layered pattern, as shown in Figure 6b and c. However, the staggered layer design had no significant effect on the tensile moduli of these cross-hatched structures (S-0/30, S-0/45, and S-0/90), which remain in the same range as those of the 0/30, 0/45, and 0/90 models, respectively (Figure 6a–c).

Figure 6 Influence of layer configurations on the E t of the porous PDMS fabricated by 3D printing with filament spacings of (a) 0.6, (b) 0.8, and (c) 1.0 mm.
Figure 6

Influence of layer configurations on the E t of the porous PDMS fabricated by 3D printing with filament spacings of (a) 0.6, (b) 0.8, and (c) 1.0 mm.

The differences in the tensile modulus were closely related to the deformation mechanism in the initial linear elastic stage of these structures under tensile loading. To illustrate the tensile deformation mechanism of the 3D-printed architectures at this stage, we obtained the Von-Mises stress clouds of the x–z sections of the models with a filament spacing of 0.8 mm (Figure 7). Because the direction of the filament layup was aligned with the tensile direction (y-axis), the stress in the 0/90-0.8 and S-0/90-0.8 models was primarily transferred in the filament orientation (green area in Figure 7c or f) [55]. The stress of this region was obviously higher than that of the porous PDMS fabricated by 3D printing with the 0°/30° and 0°/45° layered patterns (Figure 7a, b, d, and e). Thus, the tensile modulus of the porous PDMS fabricated by 3D printing with a cross-hatched structure was due to the contribution of the axial tensile deformation mechanism of 3D-printed PDMS filaments. As the raster angle increased (i.e., the filament direction of these adjacent layers tended to orthogonality), the closer the filament orientation was to the tensile direction, the higher the tensile modulus of the corresponding porous PDMS fabricated by 3D printing. Therefore, the 3D-printed PDMS with a layer angle of 0°/90° exhibited the highest tensile modulus because the printing direction of the PDMS filament was parallel to the direction of the tensile load, which could bear more tensile stress. However, the staggered design (S-0/30, S-0/45, and S-0/90) did not change the raster angle for the corresponding porous architecture (0/30, 0/45, and 0/90), resulting in its inability to regulate the tensile properties of the porous PDMS fabricated by 3D printing.

Figure 7 Von-Mises stress distributions of the models in the x–z section at 5% tensile strain in the y-direction: (a) 0/30-0.8, (b) 0/45-0.8, (c) 0/90-0.8, (d) S-0/30-0.8, (e) S-0/45-0.8, and (f) S-0/90-0.8.
Figure 7

Von-Mises stress distributions of the models in the x–z section at 5% tensile strain in the y-direction: (a) 0/30-0.8, (b) 0/45-0.8, (c) 0/90-0.8, (d) S-0/30-0.8, (e) S-0/45-0.8, and (f) S-0/90-0.8.

The staggered design could not modulate the hyperelastic tensile mechanical behavior of the porous PDMS, and a significant difference was observed between the tensile stresses of the FE models with different raster angles. As shown in Figure 8a and b, the tensile behaviors of the porous structures were better regulated by the layer angle of the filaments than by the staggered design. As the raster angle of the filaments increased (i.e., the upper and lower filaments tended toward orthogonality), the tensile modulus gradually increased, and the tensile properties of the 3D-printed PDMS improved. The improved tensile stress was beneficial to both the mechanical stability of porous structures and superhydrophobicity.

Figure 8 Influence of filament orientation on the tension behavior of the porous PDMS fabricated by 3D printing with (a) cross-hatched and (b) staggered structures.
Figure 8

Influence of filament orientation on the tension behavior of the porous PDMS fabricated by 3D printing with (a) cross-hatched and (b) staggered structures.

4 Conclusions

A strategy for the numerical simulation of the relationship between the layered pattern, such as filament angle and layer stagger, and mechanical behavior, such as tensile and compressive, of porous PDMS fabricated by 3D printing was presented. The results revealed that the compressive modulus decreased with increasing filament spacing. In addition, the staggered design could be used to modulate the compressive properties of the porous PDMS fabricated by 3D printing, which exhibited the highest compressive modulus when the filament angle was 90° (0/90). However, the corresponding staggered structure had the lowest compressive modulus (S-0/90). The ratios between the compressive moduli of the 0/90 and S-0/90 structures were 219, 411, and 686% for the filament spacing values of 0.6, 0.8, and 1.0 mm, respectively. However, the compressive properties of the porous PDMS fabricated by 3D printing with other filament angles (0°/30° and 0°/45°) were in the same range. The tensile modulus also decreased with increasing filament spacing, but the tensile behaviors of these 3D-printed structures were better regulated by the filament angle rather than the staggered design. With the increasing raster angle of the filaments (i.e., the upper and lower filaments tended to orthogonality), the tensile properties gradually improved. The porous PDMS fabricated by 3D printing with a filament spacing of 0.6 mm that was printed with a 0°/90° (0/90-0.6) layered pattern exhibited the highest tensile modulus, while the 3D-printed structures with 0°/30° and 0°/45° filament orientations exhibited reduced tensile moduli of 37 and 30%, respectively. A similar change was found for samples with filament spacings of 0.8 and 1.0 mm. Thus, the compressive and tensile properties of the 3D-printed PDMS with superhydrophobicity and a filament spacing of 0.8 could be regulated by adjusting the filament angle and staggered layer design. Because the superhydrophobicity of the 3D-printed PDMS was primarily controlled by the top-layer structures of the porous PDMS, the required layered pattern could be selected for the integrated design of mechanical and functional aspects in 3D-printed PDMS, considering the mechanical environment and the superhydrophobic properties.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to acknowledge the financial support from the Sichuan Science and Technology Program (No. 2024NSFSC0246), the Natural Science Foundation of Henan (No. 232300420313), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 51873240), the Key Research and Development Programs of Luzhou (No. 2022-GYF-12), the Talent Introduction Program of The Affiliated Stomatological Hospital of Southwest Medical University (No. 2022BS02), and the Innovative Leading Talents Program of The Affiliated Stomatological Hospital of Southwest Medical University (No. 2022LJ02).

  1. Funding information: The authors acknowledge the financial support from the Sichuan Science and Technology Program (No. 2024NSFSC0246), the Natural Science Foundation of Henan (No. 232300420313), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 51873240), the Key Research and Development Programsof Luzhou (No. 2022-GYF-12), the Talent Introduction Program of The Affiliated Stomatological Hospital of Southwest Medical University (No. 2022BS02), and the Innovative Leading Talents Program of The Affiliated Stomatological Hospital of Southwest Medical University (No. 2022LJ02).

  2. Author contributions: Zhoukun He, Xiaowei Zhu, and Xiaorong Lan conceived and designed this study; Zhoukun He, Jie Su, Xiaowei Zhu, and Yue Li prepared the samples and wrote this paper; and Libo Yang, Xudong Zhang, Qi Jiang, and Xiaorong Lan made the finite element analysis and revised this paper. All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and approved its submission.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.

  4. Data availability statement: The datasets generated and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Received: 2024-08-15
Revised: 2024-10-20
Accepted: 2024-11-25
Published Online: 2024-12-21

© 2024 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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https://doi.org/10.1515/rams-2024-0074
Keywords for this article
mechanical properties; 3D printing; PDMS; superhydrophobic; wettability
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  10. Advances in processing and ablation properties of carbon fiber reinforced ultra-high temperature ceramic composites
  11. Advancing auxetic materials: Emerging development and innovative applications
  12. Revolutionizing energy harvesting: A comprehensive review of thermoelectric devices
  13. Exploring polyetheretherketone in dental implants and abutments: A focus on biomechanics and finite element methods
  14. Smart technologies and textiles and their potential use and application in the care and support of elderly individuals: A systematic review
  15. Reinforcement mechanisms and current research status of silicon carbide whisker-reinforced composites: A comprehensive review
  16. Innovative eco-friendly bio-composites: A comprehensive review of the fabrication, characterization, and applications
  17. Review on geopolymer concrete incorporating Alccofine-1203
  18. Advancements in surface treatments for aluminum alloys in sports equipment
  19. Ionic liquid-modified carbon-based fillers and their polymer composites – A Raman spectroscopy analysis
  20. Emerging boron nitride nanosheets: A review on synthesis, corrosion resistance coatings, and their impacts on the environment and health
  21. Mechanism, models, and influence of heterogeneous factors of the microarc oxidation process: A comprehensive review
  22. Synthesizing sustainable construction paradigms: A comprehensive review and bibliometric analysis of granite waste powder utilization and moisture correction in concrete
  23. 10.1515/rams-2025-0086
  24. Research Articles
  25. Coverage and reliability improvement of copper metallization layer in through hole at BGA area during load board manufacture
  26. Study on dynamic response of cushion layer-reinforced concrete slab under rockfall impact based on smoothed particle hydrodynamics and finite-element method coupling
  27. Study on the mechanical properties and microstructure of recycled brick aggregate concrete with waste fiber
  28. Multiscale characterization of the UV aging resistance and mechanism of light stabilizer-modified asphalt
  29. Characterization of sandwich materials – Nomex-Aramid carbon fiber performances under mechanical loadings: Nonlinear FE and convergence studies
  30. Effect of grain boundary segregation and oxygen vacancy annihilation on aging resistance of cobalt oxide-doped 3Y-TZP ceramics for biomedical applications
  31. Mechanical damage mechanism investigation on CFRP strengthened recycled red brick concrete
  32. Finite element analysis of deterioration of axial compression behavior of corroded steel-reinforced concrete middle-length columns
  33. Grinding force model for ultrasonic assisted grinding of γ-TiAl intermetallic compounds and experimental validation
  34. Enhancement of hardness and wear strength of pure Cu and Cu–TiO2 composites via a friction stir process while maintaining electrical resistivity
  35. Effect of sand–precursor ratio on mechanical properties and durability of geopolymer mortar with manufactured sand
  36. Research on the strength prediction for pervious concrete based on design porosity and water-to-cement ratio
  37. Development of a new damping ratio prediction model for recycled aggregate concrete: Incorporating modified admixtures and carbonation effects
  38. Exploring the viability of AI-aided genetic algorithms in estimating the crack repair rate of self-healing concrete
  39. Modification of methacrylate bone cement with eugenol – A new material with antibacterial properties
  40. Numerical investigations on constitutive model parameters of HRB400 and HTRB600 steel bars based on tensile and fatigue tests
  41. Research progress on Fe3+-activated near-infrared phosphor
  42. Discrete element simulation study on effects of grain preferred orientation on micro-cracking and macro-mechanical behavior of crystalline rocks
  43. Ultrasonic resonance evaluation method for deep interfacial debonding defects of multilayer adhesive bonded materials
  44. Effect of impurity components in titanium gypsum on the setting time and mechanical properties of gypsum-slag cementitious materials
  45. Bending energy absorption performance of composite fender piles with different winding angles
  46. Theoretical study of the effect of orientations and fibre volume on the thermal insulation capability of reinforced polymer composites
  47. Synthesis and characterization of a novel ternary magnetic composite for the enhanced adsorption capacity to remove organic dyes
  48. Couple effects of multi-impact damage and CAI capability on NCF composites
  49. Mechanical testing and engineering applicability analysis of SAP concrete used in buffer layer design for tunnels in active fault zones
  50. Investigating the rheological characteristics of alkali-activated concrete using contemporary artificial intelligence approaches
  51. Integrating micro- and nanowaste glass with waste foundry sand in ultra-high-performance concrete to enhance material performance and sustainability
  52. Effect of water immersion on shear strength of epoxy adhesive filled with graphene nanoplatelets
  53. Impact of carbon content on the phase structure and mechanical properties of TiBCN coatings via direct current magnetron sputtering
  54. Investigating the anti-aging properties of asphalt modified with polyphosphoric acid and tire pyrolysis oil
  55. Biomedical and therapeutic potential of marine-derived Pseudomonas sp. strain AHG22 exopolysaccharide: A novel bioactive microbial metabolite
  56. Effect of basalt fiber length on the behavior of natural hydraulic lime-based mortars
  57. Optimizing the performance of TPCB/SCA composite-modified asphalt using improved response surface methodology
  58. Compressive strength of waste-derived cementitious composites using machine learning
  59. Melting phenomenon of thermally stratified MHD Powell–Eyring nanofluid with variable porosity past a stretching Riga plate
  60. Development and characterization of a coaxial strain-sensing cable integrated steel strand for wide-range stress monitoring
  61. Compressive and tensile strength estimation of sustainable geopolymer concrete using contemporary boosting ensemble techniques
  62. Customized 3D printed porous titanium scaffolds with nanotubes loading antibacterial drugs for bone tissue engineering
  63. Facile design of PTFE-kaolin-based ternary nanocomposite as a hydrophobic and high corrosion-barrier coating
  64. Effects of C and heat treatment on microstructure, mechanical, and tribo-corrosion properties of VAlTiMoSi high-entropy alloy coating
  65. Study on the damage mechanism and evolution model of preloaded sandstone subjected to freezing–thawing action based on the NMR technology
  66. Promoting low carbon construction using alkali-activated materials: A modeling study for strength prediction and feature interaction
  67. Entropy generation analysis of MHD convection flow of hybrid nanofluid in a wavy enclosure with heat generation and thermal radiation
  68. Friction stir welding of dissimilar Al–Mg alloys for aerospace applications: Prospects and future potential
  69. Fe nanoparticle-functionalized ordered mesoporous carbon with tailored mesostructures and their applications in magnetic removal of Ag(i)
  70. Study on physical and mechanical properties of complex-phase conductive fiber cementitious materials
  71. Evaluating the strength loss and the effectiveness of glass and eggshell powder for cement mortar under acidic conditions
  72. Effect of fly ash on properties and hydration of calcium sulphoaluminate cement-based materials with high water content
  73. Analyzing the efficacy of waste marble and glass powder for the compressive strength of self-compacting concrete using machine learning strategies
  74. Experimental study on municipal solid waste incineration ash micro-powder as concrete admixture
  75. Parameter optimization for ultrasonic-assisted grinding of γ-TiAl intermetallics: A gray relational analysis approach with surface integrity evaluation
  76. Producing sustainable binding materials using marble waste blended with fly ash and rice husk ash for building materials
  77. Effect of steam curing system on compressive strength of recycled aggregate concrete
  78. A sawtooth constitutive model describing strain hardening and multiple cracking of ECC under uniaxial tension
  79. Predicting mechanical properties of sustainable green concrete using novel machine learning: Stacking and gene expression programming
  80. Toward sustainability: Integrating experimental study and data-driven modeling for eco-friendly paver blocks containing plastic waste
  81. A numerical analysis of the rotational flow of a hybrid nanofluid past a unidirectional extending surface with velocity and thermal slip conditions
  82. A magnetohydrodynamic flow of a water-based hybrid nanofluid past a convectively heated rotating disk surface: A passive control of nanoparticles
  83. Prediction of flexural strength of concrete with eggshell and glass powders: Advanced cutting-edge approach for sustainable materials
  84. Efficacy of sustainable cementitious materials on concrete porosity for enhancing the durability of building materials
  85. Phase and microstructural characterization of swat soapstone (Mg3Si4O10(OH)2)
  86. Effect of waste crab shell powder on matrix asphalt
  87. Improving effect and mechanism on service performance of asphalt binder modified by PW polymer
  88. Influence of pH on the synthesis of carbon spheres and the application of carbon sphere-based solid catalysts in esterification
  89. Experimenting the compressive performance of low-carbon alkali-activated materials using advanced modeling techniques
  90. Thermogravimetric (TG/DTG) characterization of cold-pressed oil blends and Saccharomyces cerevisiae-based microcapsules obtained with them
  91. Investigation of temperature effect on thermo-mechanical property of carbon fiber/PEEK composites
  92. Computational approaches for structural analysis of wood specimens
  93. Integrated structure–function design of 3D-printed porous polydimethylsiloxane for superhydrophobic engineering
  94. Exploring the impact of seashell powder and nano-silica on ultra-high-performance self-curing concrete: Insights into mechanical strength, durability, and high-temperature resilience
  95. Axial compression damage constitutive model and damage characteristics of fly ash/silica fume modified magnesium phosphate cement after being treated at different temperatures
  96. Integrating testing and modeling methods to examine the feasibility of blended waste materials for the compressive strength of rubberized mortar
  97. Special Issue on 3D and 4D Printing of Advanced Functional Materials - Part II
  98. Energy absorption of gradient triply periodic minimal surface structure manufactured by stereolithography
  99. Marine polymers in tissue bioprinting: Current achievements and challenges
  100. Quick insight into the dynamic dimensions of 4D printing in polymeric composite mechanics
  101. Recent advances in 4D printing of hydrogels
  102. Mechanically sustainable and primary recycled thermo-responsive ABS–PLA polymer composites for 4D printing applications: Fabrication and studies
  103. Special Issue on Materials and Technologies for Low-carbon Biomass Processing and Upgrading
  104. Low-carbon embodied alkali-activated materials for sustainable construction: A comparative study of single and ensemble learners
  105. Study on bending performance of prefabricated glulam-cross laminated timber composite floor
  106. Special Issue on Recent Advancement in Low-carbon Cement-based Materials - Part I
  107. Supplementary cementitious materials-based concrete porosity estimation using modeling approaches: A comparative study of GEP and MEP
  108. Modeling the strength parameters of agro waste-derived geopolymer concrete using advanced machine intelligence techniques
  109. Promoting the sustainable construction: A scientometric review on the utilization of waste glass in concrete
  110. Incorporating geranium plant waste into ultra-high performance concrete prepared with crumb rubber as fine aggregate in the presence of polypropylene fibers
  111. Investigation of nano-basic oxygen furnace slag and nano-banded iron formation on properties of high-performance geopolymer concrete
  112. Effect of incorporating ultrafine palm oil fuel ash on the resistance to corrosion of steel bars embedded in high-strength green concrete
  113. Influence of nanomaterials on properties and durability of ultra-high-performance geopolymer concrete
  114. Influence of palm oil ash and palm oil clinker on the properties of lightweight concrete
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