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Ionic liquid-modified carbon-based fillers and their polymer composites – A Raman spectroscopy analysis

  • Ahmad Adlie Shamsuri EMAIL logo , Mohd Zuhri Mohamed Yusoff , Khalina Abdan and Siti Nurul Ain Md. Jamil
Published/Copyright: November 28, 2024
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REVIEWS ON ADVANCED MATERIALS SCIENCE
From the journal REVIEWS ON ADVANCED MATERIALS SCIENCE Volume 63 Issue 1

Abstract

In the field of advanced materials, carbon-based fillers are crucial for crafting high-performance polymer composites. Continual innovations in modifying these fillers are expanding the capabilities of polymer composite materials, heralding new advancements in diverse technological areas. Ionic liquids provide innovative methods for modifying carbon-based fillers to improve the performance of polymer composites. In this concise review, numerous carbon-based fillers used for modification, ionic liquids utilized in the modification, and polymer matrices employed in polymer composites are classified. In addition, the impact of ionic liquids on the interactional and structural properties of carbon-based fillers and their polymer composites, as analyzed via Raman spectroscopy, is concisely explained. This review provides a succinct analysis that deepens the understanding of the Raman spectroscopic results pertaining to various carbon-based fillers and polymer composites. In brief, Raman analyses indicate that carbon-based fillers modified with ionic liquids and their composites exhibit upshifted peak positions and higher intensity ratios compared to their unmodified fillers. The upshifts in peak positions are linked to interactions between the fillers and ionic liquids or between the modified fillers and polymer matrices. Higher intensity ratios in these modified fillers and polymer composites suggest increased structural defects in the fillers.

Keywords: ionic liquid; carbon-based filler; polymer composite; Raman spectroscopy; peak position; intensity ratio

1 Introduction

In the area of advanced materials, carbon-based fillers stand as essential components in the development of high-performance polymer composites. These fillers derived from various forms of carbon, such as carbon black, graphite, graphene, and carbon nanotubes [1], are renowned for their exceptional properties, which include high thermal conductivity, electrical conductivity, and mechanical strength [2]. Their incorporation in polymer matrices can significantly enhance the physical properties of the base material [3], leading to composites that are robust, lightweight, and capable of operating under a wide range of environmental conditions [4]. Carbon-based fillers substantially improve the thermomechanical properties of polymer-based composites due to their superior mechanical and thermal characteristics. When modified and incorporated into polymer matrices, these fillers contribute to advanced composite materials that offer enhanced strength, conductivity, and stability [5]. This versatility makes carbon-based fillers highly sought after in numerous industrial applications, ranging from electronic to aerospace engineering, where they contribute to electrical conductivity and material durability [6]. The morphology and surface chemistry of these fillers play crucial roles in their interactions with polymer matrices [7]. Modifications at the molecular level can tailor their dispersion and compatibility [3,8,9], influencing the overall performance characteristics of the composites. As research progresses, the modification of novel carbon-based fillers continues to push the boundaries of polymer composite material capabilities, promising new innovations across various technological fields. Moreover, the environmental aspects of their modification are becoming increasingly important considerations as industries strive for sustainability, emphasizing eco-friendly practices and resource-efficient methodologies in manufacturing processes.

Ionic liquids, characterized by their unique properties, such as low volatility, thermal stability, and tunable solubility [10,11,12], offer innovative ways to modify carbon-based fillers to enhance polymer composites’ performance [9]. When used as modifying agents, ionic liquids can impart specific functionalities to the surfaces of carbon-based fillers such as graphene, graphene oxide, and carbon nanotubes [13,14,15]. These functionalities can lead to improved dispersion within polymer matrices [16,17], enhanced interfacial bonding [18], and increased electrical and thermal conductivities [13]. The modification mechanism involves the interaction between the ionic liquid and the carbon filler, often resulting in a tailored surface chemistry that is better suited for specific applications. For instance, the introduction of ionic liquids can reduce the agglomeration of nanofillers and promote a more homogeneous distribution throughout the polymer matrix [19,20], which is crucial for achieving the desired mechanical, thermal, and electrical properties in the final composites. Moreover, the use of ionic liquids in surface modification is aligned with green chemistry principles, offering a less toxic and environmentally benign alternative to conventional organic solvents and chemical treatments [7,21]. This approach not only extends the functional range of traditional carbon-based fillers but also opens new possibilities for the design of next-generation materials that meet stringent performance and environmental criteria.

Raman spectroscopy is highly effective for characterizing carbon materials, as it offers insights into various characteristics, including electronic structure, photonic structure, and defect structure [15]. It emerges as an essential analytical technique in the study of ionic liquid-modified carbon-based fillers [22]. This non-destructive spectroscopic method is particularly valuable for probing the molecular structure and bonding environment of modified fillers [23,24]. By delivering detailed comprehensions into the chemical interactions at the molecular level and structural characteristics [3,25], Raman spectroscopy helps elucidate how ionic liquids change the properties of carbon-based fillers. The unique Raman spectra obtained through Raman analysis provide crucial data regarding the functionalization of the filler surfaces [2]. For instance, shifts in peak positions or changes in intensity ratios can indicate the presence of ionic liquid molecules [18,26] or the degree of crystallinity of carbon fillers [27,28]. These spectroscopic signatures are vital for verifying the successful modification of the fillers and for understanding the dynamics of these modifications under various environmental conditions [29]. Moreover, Raman spectroscopy aids in assessing the efficacy and constancy of the modifications [22], which are critical factors in tuning filler properties. The technique’s sensitivity to structural changes makes it an indispensable tool in the ongoing development and refinement of ionic liquid domains in polymer composite materials.

The application of Raman spectroscopy to analyze ionic liquid-modified carbon-based fillers within polymer composites offers profound insights into their interactions and structures [30]. This technique is crucial for confirming modified-filler loading [31], which is essential to support the changes in mechanical, thermal, and electrical properties of the composites [32], highlighting the significant value of Raman spectroscopy. This review aims to emphasize recent advancements in the utilization of ionic liquids for polymer composites, with a particular focus on comprehensions derived from Raman spectroscopic analyses. So far, there has been limited literature that specifically reviewed carbon-based fillers, ionic liquids, polymer matrices, and their analysis through Raman spectroscopy in ionic liquid-modified carbon-based fillers and their polymer composites. This concise review seeks to address this gap by exploring the way ionic liquids modify carbon-based fillers and polymer composites, especially in terms of their effects on Raman spectroscopy results. Through investigating the role of ionic liquids, this review provides a succinct overview of the interactions and structures within these materials. The goal is to deepen the understanding of how ionic liquids impact the interactional and structural properties of the fillers and their composites, as observed in Raman analyses, thereby enriching the overall knowledge base in materials science.

2 Carbon-based fillers for modification with ionic liquids

Table 1 presents examples of carbon-based fillers used for modification with ionic liquids. It shows that a variety of these fillers are commonly employed alongside ionic liquids to enhance the properties of polymer composites. Among these, multiwalled carbon nanotubes appear frequently, indicating their significant role and effectiveness in composite enhancements when modified by ionic liquids [13,30,31,33]. This is followed by graphene oxide, which also exhibits a high frequency of use, underscoring its versatility and favorable properties that benefit from ionic liquid modification [18,29,34]. Graphene, known for its exceptional thermal, electrical, and mechanical properties [15,35,36], similarly attracts attention in modifications. In the past 5 years, there has been a significant increase in the number of publications on carbon-based fillers modified with ionic liquids, particularly graphene and graphene oxide, compared to multiwalled carbon nanotubes, as shown in Figure 1 from the Scopus database. Scientific studies focusing on polymer composites and their analysis via Raman spectroscopy were considered for inclusion in the data figure. Besides that, the usage of reduced graphene oxide also highlights its importance in specific applications where its distinct properties are advantageous. Carbon black, carboxylated multiwalled carbon nanotubes, and rice bran carbon, while less frequently mentioned, are indicative of the ongoing exploration into diverse carbon structures that can be potentially enhanced by ionic liquids for specialized applications. Generally, the usage frequency of these carbon-based fillers reflects the expanding interest and continuous innovation in the field of materials science, particularly in tailoring the interfacial interactions and performance features of polymer composites through advanced chemical modifications.

Table 1

Examples of carbon-based fillers used for modification with ionic liquids

Carbon-based filler Abbreviation Ref.
Carbon black CB [16]
Carboxylated multiwalled carbon nanotubes MWCNT-COOH [37]
Graphene Gra [15,22,24,35,38,39]
Graphene oxide GO [9,11,14,18,23,26,29,34,40,41,42]
Multiwalled carbon nanotubes MWCNTs [2,3,6,7,13,17,20,25,27,28,30,31,33,43,44,45,46,47,48,49]
Reduced graphene oxide RGO [19,50]
Rice bran carbon RBC [51]
Figure 1 Number of publications on carbon-based fillers modified with ionic liquids, sourced from the Scopus database.
Figure 1

Number of publications on carbon-based fillers modified with ionic liquids, sourced from the Scopus database.

3 Ionic liquids for modification of carbon-based fillers

Table 2 shows examples of ionic liquids utilized in the modification of carbon-based fillers. It reflects a broad range of chemical structures tuned for specific interactions with carbon materials in polymer composites. Among these, 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium hexafluorophosphate (BmimPF6) seems to stand out for its frequent use, highlighting its efficacy and versatility in modifying fillers to improve composite properties such as conductivity and mechanical strength [35,38,42,47]. Similarly, 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate (BmimBF4) also shows significant utilization, suggesting its suitability in achieving desired dispersion and interfacial adhesion within composites [13,15,38]. The utilization of 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate (EmimBF4) also illustrates the expansive approach researchers take to optimize the interaction between fillers and polymer matrices [3,27,48]. There has been a substantial rise in the number of publications on ionic liquids utilized for modifying carbon-based fillers in the past 5 years, specifically BmimBF4 compared to BmimPF6, as shown in Figure 2 from the Scopus database. In addition, this review applied the Scopus database as it offers a more significant number of publications than the Web of Science database [52,53]. Figure 3 shows the chemical structures of BmimPF6, BmimBF4, and EmimBF4. The specific choices of these ionic liquids are driven by their ability to tune the surface properties of carbon-based fillers, enhancing compatibility with polymers and overall material performance. Moreover, less common but specialized ionic liquids indicate ongoing explorations into new chemistry. In general, the selection and frequency of these ionic liquids in modifications denote a strategic approach to improving the performance characteristics of carbon-based filler composites, with a continuous push towards more innovative and effective material solutions.

Table 2

Examples of ionic liquids utilized in the modification of carbon-based fillers

Ionic liquid Abbreviation Ref.
1-Allyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride AmimCl [9,45]
3-Allyl-1-methylimidazolium hexafluorophosphate AmimPF6 [27,48]
1-(2-Aminoethyl)-3-methylimidazolium bromide AemimBr [23]
1-(3-Aminopropyl)-3-butylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide ApbimTFSI [6]
1-(3-Aminopropyl)-3-butylimidazolium bromide ApbimBr [6]
1-Benzyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride BzmimCl [25,31,49]
1-Benzyl-3-methylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate BzmimBF4 [19]
1-(3-Butoxy-2-hydroxypropyl)-3-methylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate BhpmimBF4 [18]
1-Butyl-3-methylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide BmimTFSI [28,46]
1-Butyl-3-methylimidazolium hexafluorophosphate BmimPF6 [27,35,38,42,47,48]
1-Butyl-3-methylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate BmimBF4 [13,15,17,38]
1-Butyl-1-methylpyrrolidinium hexafluorophosphate BmpyPF6 [40]
1-Butylpyridinium bromide BpyBr [39]
1-Carboxyethyl-3-methylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide CemimTFSI [37]
1-Decyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride DmimCl [33]
1-Ethyl-2,3-dimethylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide EdmimTFSI [7]
1-Ethyl-3-methylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide EmimTFSI [34]
1-Ethyl-3-methylimidazolium bromide EmimBr [43]
1-Ethyl-3-methylimidazolium dicyanamide EmimDCA [14,50]
1-Ethyl-3-methylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate EmimBF4 [3,27,48]
1-Hexyl-3-methylimidazolium bromide HmimBr [43]
1-Hexyl-3-methylimidazolium hexafluorophosphate HmimPF6 [51]
1-Hydroxyethyl-3-methylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate HemimBF4 [24]
4-Methyl-1-butylpyridinium bromide MbpyBr [39]
1-Methylimidazolium chloride MimCl [29]
1-Methyl-3-octylimidazolium chloride MoimCl [45]
1-Methyl-3-pyrenylmethylimidazolium hexafluorophosphate MpmimPF6 [35]
3,3′-(Octane-1,8-diyl)bis(1-butyl-imidazolium) bromide OdbbimBr [22]
1-Octyl-3-methylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate OmimBF4 [11,26]
Tributylmethylammonium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide TbmamTFSI [3]
Trihexyl(tetradecyl)phosphonium bistriflimide ThtdphTFSI [30]
Trihexyl(tetradecyl)phosphonium bis(2,4,4-trimethylpentyl)phosphinate ThtdphTMPP [2]
1-Vinyl-3-ethylimidazolium bromide VeimBr [44]
1-Vinyl-3-ethylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate VeimBF4 [16,20,41]
1-Vinyl-3-hexylimidazolium bromide VhimBr [44]
Figure 2 Number of publications on ionic liquids utilized for modifying carbon-based fillers, sourced from the Scopus database.
Figure 2

Number of publications on ionic liquids utilized for modifying carbon-based fillers, sourced from the Scopus database.

Figure 3 Chemical structures of (a) BmimPF6, (b) BmimBF4, and (c) EmimBF4.
Figure 3

Chemical structures of (a) BmimPF6, (b) BmimBF4, and (c) EmimBF4.

4 Polymer matrices for ionic liquid-modified carbon-based filler/polymer composites

Table 3 displays examples of polymer matrices employed in ionic liquid-modified carbon-based filler/polymer composites. Among these, styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR) is particularly prominent, highlighting its significance in improving the toughness and abrasion resistance of composites [39], which are crucial attributes in automotive and industrial applications. Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) also has significant features, indicating its widespread acceptance and effectiveness in achieving desired mechanical, thermal, and electrical properties in composites. This polymer is favored due to its excellent chemical resistance and piezoelectric properties [23,27], which are beneficial in various applications, including sensors and actuators. Another polymer, like polyetherimide (PEI), appears less frequently but is important for specific properties it imparts, such as high-temperature resistance [17]. Similarly, diglycidyl ether of bisphenol A (DGEBA), commonly used in epoxy resins, is noted for its strong mechanical strength and chemical resistance, making it a preferred choice for high-performance applications [22]. Figure 4 shows the chemical structures of SBR, PVDF, PEI, and DGEBA. The variety of polymers listed, ranging from elastomers to advanced engineering plastics, reflects the broad applicability and customization potential of carbon-based polymer composites modified by ionic liquids. This diverse array of polymer matrices employed suggests ongoing efforts to meet specific performance criteria across various industries, driving forward innovations in composite material technologies.

Table 3

Examples of polymer matrices employed in ionic liquid-modified carbon-based filler/polymer composites

Polymer matrix Abbreviation Ref.
Bromobutyl rubber BIIR [42]
Carboxylated nitrile rubber XNBR [34]
Carboxylated SBR XSBR [51]
Diglycidyl ester of aliphatic cyclo DGEAC [18]
Diglycidyl ether of bisphenol A DGEBA [2,13,22]
Ethylene acrylic elastomer AEM [45]
Ethylene–vinyl acetate copolymer EVM [3]
Fluorinated elastomer FKM [50]
High amorphous polyvinyl alcohol HAVOH [49]
Natural rubber latex NRL [43]
Nitrile butadiene rubber NBR [24]
Poly(ɛ-caprolactone) PCL [48]
Polychloroprene rubber CR [28,37]
Polyetherimide PEI [17,35,47]
Polyimide PI [15]
Polylactic acid PLA [40]
Polymethylmethacrylate PMMA [11,26]
Polystyrene PS [30]
Polyurethane PU [29]
Polyvinyl chloride PVC [19]
Polyvinylidene fluoride PVDF [16,20,23,27,38,41]
Silicone rubber QM [14]
Sodium polyacrylate PAA [6]
Styrene-butadiene rubber SBR [7,9,25,31,33,39,46]
Thermoplastic polyurethane TPU [44]
Figure 4 Chemical structures of (a) SBR, (b) PVDF, (c) PEI, and (d) DGEBA.
Figure 4

Chemical structures of (a) SBR, (b) PVDF, (c) PEI, and (d) DGEBA.

5 Raman spectroscopy analysis of ionic liquid-modified carbon-based fillers and their polymer composites

Raman spectroscopy serves as a necessary instrument in the analysis of ionic liquid-modified carbon-based fillers and their polymer composites, offering crucial insights through the observation of two significant characteristic peaks such as the D (diamondoid) peak [34] and G (graphitic) peak [29,54] in the Raman spectra. Figure 5 displays the Raman spectrum of graphene oxide, an example of carbon-based fillers. The D peak is mainly located around 1,200 and 1,499 cm−1, indicative of defects or disorders within the carbon structures [25], and the G peak is situated chiefly around 1,400 and 1,699 cm−1, representative of the graphitic domain [23]. These peaks are pivotal in assessing the modifications introduced by ionic liquids. Modifications with ionic liquids can result in observable shifts in these peak positions. The shifts in D and G peak positions often imply chemical interactions between the ionic liquids and the carbon-based fillers [3,43] and between the ionic liquid-modified carbon-based fillers and the polymer matrices [17,31,45]. Furthermore, the intensity ratios between these peaks (I D/I G ratio) provide additional data points [55]. The intensity ratios typically signify structural defects/disorders [35] or the crystallinity of carbon materials [48]. Through these detailed analyses, Raman spectroscopy elucidates the molecular-level interactions and structural rearrangements occurring in modified carbon-based fillers and their composites, making it an essential method for advancing the development of high-performance materials with tailored properties.

Figure 5 Raman spectrum of graphene oxide. Reproduced from Sánchez‐Rodríguez et al. [40].
Figure 5

Raman spectrum of graphene oxide. Reproduced from Sánchez‐Rodríguez et al. [40].

5.1 Raman analysis of ionic liquid-modified carbon-based fillers

Table 4 exhibits the Raman peaks, peak positions, and intensity ratios of various carbon-based fillers modified with different ionic liquids acquired using different equipment and laser wavelengths. A significant observation from the table is the prevalence of upshifted peak positions in many combinations, particularly with MWCNTs. This suggests that the interaction between this filler and certain ionic liquids, such as imidazolium-based ionic liquids with hexafluorophosphate, bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide, tetrafluoroborate, and bromide counter anions. This leads to considerable interaction with the π-electronic nanotube network or surface [7,43], which is detectable via Raman spectroscopy. Besides that, GO displays a variety of peak positions with different ionic liquids, indicating a versatile response to modifications, which could be attributed to its unique oxygen-containing functional groups that interact variably with different ionic liquids [11,18,23]. Upshifted peak positions are notably common with ionic liquids like AemimBr, EmimTFSI, and OmimBF4, implying enhanced interactions that might influence their properties [26,34]. Generally, the table indicates that the type of ionic liquid profoundly affects the Raman spectra results of carbon-based fillers, suggesting modifications that can be crucial for tuning the properties of carbon materials for specific applications. The ability of certain ionic liquids to consistently induce upshifted peak positions in MWCNTs and GO underscores their potential for enhancing material characteristics in advanced composites.

Table 4

Raman peaks, peak positions, and intensity ratios of ionic liquid-modified carbon-based fillers acquired using different equipment and laser wavelengths

Carbon-based filler Ionic liquid Raman peak (cm−1) Peak position Intensity ratio Equipment Laser wavelength (nm) Ref.
CB VeimBF4 Unstated Unstated High B, Senterra R200 785 [16]
Gra BmimBF4 1,581 Downshift High TS, DXR 532 [15]
Gra BmimPF6 1,349, 1,581 Upshift Low R, inVia Reflex 532 [35]
Gra HemimBF4 1,344, 1,580 Downshift Unstated Unstated Unstated [24]
Gra OdbbimBr 1,340, 1,581 Downshift Low R, inVia Reflex Unstated [22]
GO AemimBr 1,352, 1,591 Upshift High Unstated Unstated [23]
GO AmimCl 1,342, 1,579 Downshift High R, inVia-H31894 514.5 [9]
GO BhpmimBF4 Unstated Downshift High TY-HR 800 514 [18]
GO BmimPF6 1,345, 1,590 Downshift High R, inVia-H31894 514.5 [42]
GO EmimDCA 1,353, 1,586 Unchanged High Unstated Unstated [14]
GO EmimTFSI 1,353, 1,592 Upshift High H, Jobin Yvon T64000 514.5 [34]
GO OmimBF4 1,345, 1,583 Upshift High W, Access 300 532 [26]
GO OmimBF4 1,357, 1,594 Unchanged High R, inVia 514 [11]
GO MimCl Unstated Unstated High Unstated Unstated [29]
GO VeimBF4 1,260 Downshift High B, Senterra, R200 785 [41]
RGO BzmimBF4 1,334, 1,586 Upshift Unstated W, alpha 300RA 633 [19]
RGO EmimDCA 1,332, 1,573 Downshift High W, alpha 300RA Unstated [50]
MWCNTs ApbimTFSI 1,346, 1,583 Upshift High R, inVia Qontor 514 [6]
MWCNTs BmimBF4 1,345, 1,575 Unchanged High R, inVia 514 [13]
MWCNTs BmimBF4 1,346, 1,588 Upshift Unstated R, inVia Reflex 532 [17]
MWCNTs BmimPF6 1,311, 1,589 Upshift Unstated H, ARAMIS UV 785 [47]
MWCNTs BmimPF6 1,356, 1,582 Upshift High R, inVia 514 [27]
MWCNTs BmimPF6 1,359, 1,587 Upshift High R, inVia 514 [48]
MWCNTs BmimTFSI 1,309, 1,605 Upshift Low Holoprobe 785 785 [28]
MWCNTs DmimCl 1,351, 1,548 Downshift High W, alpha 300R 532 [33]
MWCNTs EdmimTFSI 1,328, 1,571 Upshift Low Unstated Unstated [7]
MWCNTs EmimBF4 1,309, 1,590 Upshift Unstated B, Senterra 785 [3]
MWCNTs HmimBr 1,353, 1,589 Upshift High R, inVia Reflex 532 [43]
MWCNTs ThtdphTFSI 1,345, 1,575 Unchanged High R, inVia 514 [30]
MWCNTs ThtdphTMPP 1,345, 1,575 Unchanged High R, inVia 514 [2]
MWCNTs VeimBF4 Unstated Upshift High B, Senterra R200 785 [20]
MWCNTs VhimBr 1,360, 1,580 Upshift High H, LabRam HR Evolution 532 [44]
MWCNT-COOH CemimTFSI 1,349, 1,579 Upshift Unstated TS, DXR 532 [37]
RBC HmimPF6 1,418, 1,598 Upshift Unstated B, Senterra R200-L 532 [51]

B = Bruker, H = Horiba, R = Renishaw, TS = Thermo Scientific, W = WiTec.

Another observation from Table 4 is the higher intensity ratio seen in most combinations, indicating reduced ordering or decreased crystallinity, which could translate to the formation of amorphous carbon at the molecular level [26,29,34]. This formation typically indicates the effective surface modification of carbon-based fillers by the ionic liquid molecules [18,27]. GO consistently shows higher intensity ratios with various ionic liquids. This consistency across different ionic liquids implies that GO is particularly receptive to ionic liquid modification, potentially due to its oxygenated surface, which can facilitate diverse chemical interactions [14,23]. For MWCNTs, the higher intensity ratio is common, although there are exceptions with certain ionic liquids like BmimTFSI and EdmimTFSI showing a lower intensity ratio, certainly reflecting the rearrangement of the tubes or high degree of crystallinity that enhanced structural order to some extent [7,28]. In contrast, Gra exhibits both higher and lower intensity ratios depending on the specific ionic liquid used. In general, the table suggests that ionic liquids have a significant impact on the Raman spectra outcomes of these fillers, providing evidence of their potential to modify and feasibly improve the properties of carbon-based materials for polymer composites. This influence is crucial for designing materials tuned for specific applications where enhanced properties are required.

5.2 Raman analysis of ionic liquid-modified carbon-based filler/polymer composites

Table 5 demonstrates the Raman peaks, peak positions, and intensity ratios of diverse ionic liquid-modified carbon-based filler/polymer composites acquired using different equipment and laser wavelengths. A Raman analysis of the AEM/MWCNTs-MoimCl composites was conducted by Prasad Sahoo et al. [45]. Figure 6 shows the Raman spectra of the composites (a) and pristine MWCNTs (b). They found that the G peak position of the composites upshifted to 1,610 cm−1, compared to 1,589 cm−1 for pristine MWCNTs. This upshift is associated with the untangling of the MWCNTs and their subsequent distribution within the AEM matrix. The untangling of the MWCNTs results from robust chemical interactions between the AEM matrix and MWCNTs-MoimCl [45].

Table 5

Raman peaks, peak positions, and intensity ratios of ionic liquid-modified carbon-based filler/polymer composites acquired using different equipment and laser wavelengths

Polymer composite Ionic liquid Raman peak (cm−1) Peak position Intensity ratio Equipment Laser wavelength (nm) Ref.
AEM/MWCNTs MoimCl 1,610 Upshift Unstated Unstated Unstated [45]
DGEAC/GO BhpmimBF4 1,335 Upshift Unstated TY-HR 800 514 [18]
HAVOH/MWCNTs BzmimCl 1,355, 1,598 Upshift Low W, UHTS 300 532 [49]
PCL/MWCNTs BmimPF6 1,360, 1,588 Upshift High R, inVia 514 [48]
PEI/MWCNTs BmimBF4 Unstated Upshift Unstated R, inVia Reflex 532 [17]
PMMA/GO OmimBF4 1,356, 1,588 Upshift High W, Access 300 532 [26]
PVDF/Gra BmimPF6 Unstated Unstated High J, NRS-5100 532 [38]
PVDF/GO VeimBF4 1,320 Downshift High B, Senterra, R200 785 [41]
PVDF/MWCNTs BmimPF6 1,353, 1,583 Upshift High R, inVia 514 [27]
PVDF/MWCNTs VeimBF4 Unstated Upshift High B, Senterra R200 785 [20]
QM/GO EmimDCA 1,260, 1,410 Downshift Low Unstated Unstated [14]
SBR/MWCNTs BzmimCl Unstated Downshift Low Unstated Unstated [31]

B = Bruker, J = JASCO, R = Renishaw, W = WiTec.

Figure 6 Raman spectra of AEM/MWCNTs-MoimCl composites (a) and pristine MWCNTs (b). Reproduced from Prasad Sahoo et al. [45], with permission from John Wiley and Sons.
Figure 6

Raman spectra of AEM/MWCNTs-MoimCl composites (a) and pristine MWCNTs (b). Reproduced from Prasad Sahoo et al. [45], with permission from John Wiley and Sons.

A Raman analysis of the DGEAC/GO-BhpmimBF4 composites was carried out by Shi et al. [18]. They discovered that the D peak position of the composites upshifted to 1,335 cm−1, compared to 1,330 cm−1 for the DGEAC/GO composite. This upshift, which may be caused by changes in atomic distances due to the presence of BhpmimBF4 in the composites, is definitely correlated with the degree of deformation [18].

A Raman analysis of the HAVOH/MWCNTs-BzmimCl composites was conducted by Santillo et al. [49]. Figure 7 displays the Raman spectra of the composites (a) and pristine MWCNTs (b). They found that the D and G peak positions of the composites upshifted to 1,355 and 1,598 cm−1, respectively, compared to 1,348 and 1,591 cm−1 for pristine MWCNTs. This upshift is due to BzmimCl, which contains imidazolium and benzyl groups and forms π–π interactions with MWCNTs, as well as hydrogen bonding with HAVOH [49]. However, the intensity ratio of the composites is lower than that of pristine MWCNTs. This lowered intensity ratio indicates reduced shear stress among MWCNTs and fewer structural defects [49].

Figure 7 Raman spectra of HAVOH/MWCNTs-BzmimCl composites (a) and pristine MWCNTs (b). Reproduced from Santillo et al. [49], with permission from Elsevier.
Figure 7

Raman spectra of HAVOH/MWCNTs-BzmimCl composites (a) and pristine MWCNTs (b). Reproduced from Santillo et al. [49], with permission from Elsevier.

A Raman analysis of the PCL/MWCNTs-BmimPF6 composites was carried out by Yoon et al. [48]. Figure 8 shows the Raman spectra of the composites (a) and pure MWCNTs (b). They discovered that the D and G peak positions of the composites upshifted to 1,360 and 1,588 cm−1, respectively, compared to 1,351 and 1,580 cm−1 for pure MWCNTs. This upshift is attributed to the strong interaction between BmimPF6 and MWCNTs in the PCL matrix [48]. Moreover, the intensity ratio of the composites is higher than that of pure MWCNTs. This higher intensity ratio suggests that the inclusion of BmimPF6 introduces additional defects in the MWCNTs [48].

Figure 8 Raman spectra of PCL/MWCNTs-BmimPF6 composites (a) and pure MWCNTs (b). Reproduced from Yoon et al. [48], with permission from John Wiley and Sons.
Figure 8

Raman spectra of PCL/MWCNTs-BmimPF6 composites (a) and pure MWCNTs (b). Reproduced from Yoon et al. [48], with permission from John Wiley and Sons.

A Raman analysis of the PEI/MWCNTs-BmimBF4 composites was conducted by Ke et al. [17]. Figure 9 displays the Raman spectra of the composites (a) and pristine MWCNTs (b). They found that the D and G peak positions of the composites upshifted relative to those of pristine MWCNTs. This substantial upshift indicates that the MWCNTs-BmimBF4 are encapsulated within the PEI matrix, indicating a strong interaction between the two components [17].

Figure 9 Raman spectra of PEI/MWCNTs-BmimBF4 composites (a) and pristine MWCNTs (b). Reproduced from Ke et al. [17], with permission from John Wiley and Sons.
Figure 9

Raman spectra of PEI/MWCNTs-BmimBF4 composites (a) and pristine MWCNTs (b). Reproduced from Ke et al. [17], with permission from John Wiley and Sons.

A Raman analysis of the PMMA/GO-OmimBF4 composites was carried out by Minguez-Enkovaara et al. [26]. They discovered that the D and G peak positions of the composites upshifted to 1,356 and 1,588 cm−1, respectively, compared to 1,355 and 1,580 cm−1 for pristine GO. This upshift is induced by the presence of OmimBF4. Moreover, the intensity ratio of the composites is higher than that of pristine GO. This higher intensity ratio is due to the reduced crystallite size of GO-OmimBF4 within the PMMA matrix [26].

A Raman analysis of the PVDF/Gra-BmimPF6 composites was conducted by Widakdo et al. [38]. They found that the intensity ratio of the composites increased with the BmimPF6 content. The increase in intensity ratio is linked to a marked increase in disorder within the Gra structure. This defect is likely caused by bulky Bmim cations on the surface, which introduce a degree of strain [38].

A Raman analysis of the PVDF/GO-VeimBF4 composites was carried out by Guan et al. [41]. Figure 10 shows the Raman spectra of the composites (a) and raw GO (b). They discovered that the D peak position of the composites downshifted to 1,320 cm−1, compared to 1,333 cm−1 for raw GO. This downshift is due to some grafted VeimBF4 molecules being peeled off from the surface of GO [41]. However, the intensity ratio of the composites is higher than that of raw GO. This higher intensity ratio implies that the microphase-separated nanoclusters on the GO surface continue to interact with the GO surface [41].

Figure 10 Raman spectra of PVDF/GO-VeimBF4 composites (a) and raw GO (b). Reproduced from Guan et al. [41], with permission from Elsevier.
Figure 10

Raman spectra of PVDF/GO-VeimBF4 composites (a) and raw GO (b). Reproduced from Guan et al. [41], with permission from Elsevier.

A Raman analysis of the PVDF/MWCNTs-BmimPF6 composites was conducted by Chen et al. [27]. Figure 11 displays the Raman spectra of the composites (a) and pure MWCNTs (b). They found that the D and G peak positions of the composites upshifted to 1,353 and 1,583 cm−1, respectively, compared to 1,351 and 1,580 cm−1 for pure MWCNTs. This upshift is induced by the strong interaction between BmimPF6 and MWCNTs in the PVDF matrix [27]. Moreover, the intensity ratio of the composites is higher than that of pure MWCNTs. This higher intensity ratio indicates that the introduction of BmimPF6 into the composites can induce more defects in the MWCNTs [27].

Figure 11 Raman spectra of PVDF/MWCNTs-BmimPF6 composites (a) and pure MWCNTs (b). Reproduced from Chen et al. [27], with permission from John Wiley and Sons.
Figure 11

Raman spectra of PVDF/MWCNTs-BmimPF6 composites (a) and pure MWCNTs (b). Reproduced from Chen et al. [27], with permission from John Wiley and Sons.

A Raman analysis of the PVDF/MWCNTs-VeimBF4 composites was carried out by Wang et al. [20]. Figure 12 shows the Raman spectra of the composites (a) and pristine MWCNTs (b). They discovered that the G peak position of the composites upshifted relative to that of pristine MWCNTs. This upshift is attributed to the interactions between the cations of MWCNTs-VeimBF4 and CF2 groups in the PVDF matrix [20]. Furthermore, the intensity ratio of the composites is higher than that of pristine MWCNTs. This higher intensity ratio exhibits the detachment of VeimBF4 from the MWCNTs [20].

Figure 12 Raman spectra of PVDF/MWCNTs-VeimBF4 composites (a) and pristine MWCNTs (b). Reproduced from Wang et al. [20].
Figure 12

Raman spectra of PVDF/MWCNTs-VeimBF4 composites (a) and pristine MWCNTs (b). Reproduced from Wang et al. [20].

A Raman analysis of the QM/GO-EmimDCA composites was conducted by Sarath et al. [14]. They found that the D and G peak positions of the composites downshifted to 1,260 and 1,410 cm−1, respectively, compared to 1,353 and 1,586 cm−1 for neat GO. This downshift is due to the interaction of GO-EmimDCA and QM matrix. Moreover, the intensity ratio of the composites is lower than that of neat GO. This lowered intensity ratio suggests fewer structural defects and edge effects associated with the narrow width of graphene sheets [14].

A Raman analysis of the SBR/MWCNTs-BzmimCl composites was carried out by Abraham et al. [31]. They discovered that the G peak position of the composites downshifted relative to that of pristine MWCNTs. This downshift is induced by the mechanical compression transferred from the SBR matrix to the MWCNTs, causing the MWCNTs-BzmimCl to shrink [31]. Furthermore, the intensity ratio of the composites is lower than that of pristine MWCNTs. This lowered intensity ratio results from improved alignment of MWCNTs within the composites and a decrease in disorder or the number of defects [31].

6 Discussion

Table 4 reveals changes in Raman peak positions and intensity ratios, illustrating the complex interactions between various carbon-based fillers and ionic liquids. MWCNTs often show upshifted peak positions, likely due to significant interactions with ionic liquids like imidazolium-based ionic liquids. These interactions with the nanotube’s π-electronic network are detectable via Raman spectroscopy and suggest a strong interaction that modifies the electronic structure of the carbon nanotubes. Conversely, GO displays varied responses to ionic liquid modifications, possibly because its oxygen-containing functional groups interact differently with various ionic liquids. The consistent upshift in GO’s peak positions with certain ionic liquids indicates enhanced interactions that can significantly influence its properties, indicating the potential for tailored functionalization. Moreover, a higher intensity ratio across most modified carbon fillers implies a decrease in crystallinity or ordering, often translating to increased amorphous carbon content. This is indicative of effective surface modification, especially noted in GO, which consistently shows this characteristic across different ionic liquids, pointing to its high receptiveness to modification due to its oxygenated surface. For MWCNTs, variations in intensity ratios could reflect changes in structural ordering or crystallinity, highlighting the subtle effects of specific ionic liquids. Overall, these spectra changes underline the deep impact of ionic liquids on carbon fillers, enhancing their properties for use in advanced composites and underscoring their potential in material design customized for specific applications.

Table 5 showcases Raman spectra changes across various ionic liquid-modified carbon-based filler/polymer composites, reflecting involved interactions at the molecular level. Across different studies, a common observation is the upshift in both D and G peak positions in composites, indicating alterations in the electronic properties and structural rearrangements due to the interactions between the fillers and the ionic liquids. These upshifts, often linked to the redistribution of modified carbon fillers within the matrices, suggest robust chemical interactions that alter the properties of the composites. Similarly, downshifts in peak positions are typically associated with the detachment or reorganization of modified fillers, affecting their interaction with surrounding polymer matrices. This change of peak positions highlights the specific impacts of various ionic liquids, such as imidazolium-based ionic liquids with different counter anions, on the structural integrity and electronic characteristics of the fillers. The intensity ratios, another critical measure of Raman spectroscopy, provide insights into the degree of disorder or crystallinity within the composites. Higher intensity ratios generally indicate increased amorphous characteristics or structural defects. Conversely, lower intensity ratios suggest enhanced ordering, which can be a result of fewer structural defects or disorders. By analyzing these Raman spectra as a whole, it is evident that ionic liquids play a transformative role in tuning the properties of carbon-based materials, enhancing their utility in advanced polymer composites.

7 Conclusions

In this review, examples of carbon-based fillers used for modification, ionic liquids utilized in the modification, and polymer matrices employed in polymer composites are concisely identified. Additionally, the interactional and structural properties of carbon-based fillers and their polymer composites, as analyzed by Raman spectroscopy, are described in this concise review. MWCNTs, GO, and Gra are the most commonly used carbon-based fillers for modification with ionic liquids, showcasing their critical role and efficiency in enhancing polymer composites. BmimPF6, BmimBF4, and EmimBF4 are the most frequently utilized ionic liquids in the modification of carbon-based fillers, reflecting their effectiveness and adaptability in improving the properties of polymer composites. SBR and PVDF are the most often employed polymer matrices in ionic liquid-modified carbon-based filler/polymer composites, emphasizing their importance in boosting the toughness and chemical resistance of these materials. Many Raman analyses show that carbon-based fillers modified with ionic liquids exhibit upshifted peak positions and higher intensity ratios compared to pristine carbon-based fillers. The upshifted peak positions suggest interactions between the fillers and ionic liquids, while the higher intensity ratios indicate structural defects in the modified fillers. Similarly, ionic liquid-modified carbon-based filler/polymer composites display upshifted peak positions and higher intensity ratios than their unmodified fillers. These upshifts are attributed to strong interactions between the modified fillers and polymer matrices, whereas the higher intensity ratios result from increased structural disorders in the modified fillers within the polymer matrices.

Acknowledgments

The authors appreciate the editors and reviewers for their valuable and supportive feedback throughout the review process.

  1. Funding information: This concise review was supported by the Universiti Putra Malaysia under the Grant Putra IPM Scheme (project number: GP-IPM/2024/9789200).

  2. Author contributions: Ahmad Adlie Shamsuri: conceptualization, funding acquisition, investigation, project administration, and writing – original draft preparation; Mohd Zuhri Mohamed Yusoff: resources, supervision, and validation; Khalina Abdan: data curation and writing – review and editing; Siti Nurul Ain Md. Jamil: formal analysis and methodology. All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and approved its submission.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.

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Received: 2024-06-04
Revised: 2024-10-06
Accepted: 2024-11-02
Published Online: 2024-11-28

© 2024 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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  23. 10.1515/rams-2025-0086
  24. Research Articles
  25. Coverage and reliability improvement of copper metallization layer in through hole at BGA area during load board manufacture
  26. Study on dynamic response of cushion layer-reinforced concrete slab under rockfall impact based on smoothed particle hydrodynamics and finite-element method coupling
  27. Study on the mechanical properties and microstructure of recycled brick aggregate concrete with waste fiber
  28. Multiscale characterization of the UV aging resistance and mechanism of light stabilizer-modified asphalt
  29. Characterization of sandwich materials – Nomex-Aramid carbon fiber performances under mechanical loadings: Nonlinear FE and convergence studies
  30. Effect of grain boundary segregation and oxygen vacancy annihilation on aging resistance of cobalt oxide-doped 3Y-TZP ceramics for biomedical applications
  31. Mechanical damage mechanism investigation on CFRP strengthened recycled red brick concrete
  32. Finite element analysis of deterioration of axial compression behavior of corroded steel-reinforced concrete middle-length columns
  33. Grinding force model for ultrasonic assisted grinding of γ-TiAl intermetallic compounds and experimental validation
  34. Enhancement of hardness and wear strength of pure Cu and Cu–TiO2 composites via a friction stir process while maintaining electrical resistivity
  35. Effect of sand–precursor ratio on mechanical properties and durability of geopolymer mortar with manufactured sand
  36. Research on the strength prediction for pervious concrete based on design porosity and water-to-cement ratio
  37. Development of a new damping ratio prediction model for recycled aggregate concrete: Incorporating modified admixtures and carbonation effects
  38. Exploring the viability of AI-aided genetic algorithms in estimating the crack repair rate of self-healing concrete
  39. Modification of methacrylate bone cement with eugenol – A new material with antibacterial properties
  40. Numerical investigations on constitutive model parameters of HRB400 and HTRB600 steel bars based on tensile and fatigue tests
  41. Research progress on Fe3+-activated near-infrared phosphor
  42. Discrete element simulation study on effects of grain preferred orientation on micro-cracking and macro-mechanical behavior of crystalline rocks
  43. Ultrasonic resonance evaluation method for deep interfacial debonding defects of multilayer adhesive bonded materials
  44. Effect of impurity components in titanium gypsum on the setting time and mechanical properties of gypsum-slag cementitious materials
  45. Bending energy absorption performance of composite fender piles with different winding angles
  46. Theoretical study of the effect of orientations and fibre volume on the thermal insulation capability of reinforced polymer composites
  47. Synthesis and characterization of a novel ternary magnetic composite for the enhanced adsorption capacity to remove organic dyes
  48. Couple effects of multi-impact damage and CAI capability on NCF composites
  49. Mechanical testing and engineering applicability analysis of SAP concrete used in buffer layer design for tunnels in active fault zones
  50. Investigating the rheological characteristics of alkali-activated concrete using contemporary artificial intelligence approaches
  51. Integrating micro- and nanowaste glass with waste foundry sand in ultra-high-performance concrete to enhance material performance and sustainability
  52. Effect of water immersion on shear strength of epoxy adhesive filled with graphene nanoplatelets
  53. Impact of carbon content on the phase structure and mechanical properties of TiBCN coatings via direct current magnetron sputtering
  54. Investigating the anti-aging properties of asphalt modified with polyphosphoric acid and tire pyrolysis oil
  55. Biomedical and therapeutic potential of marine-derived Pseudomonas sp. strain AHG22 exopolysaccharide: A novel bioactive microbial metabolite
  56. Effect of basalt fiber length on the behavior of natural hydraulic lime-based mortars
  57. Optimizing the performance of TPCB/SCA composite-modified asphalt using improved response surface methodology
  58. Compressive strength of waste-derived cementitious composites using machine learning
  59. Melting phenomenon of thermally stratified MHD Powell–Eyring nanofluid with variable porosity past a stretching Riga plate
  60. Development and characterization of a coaxial strain-sensing cable integrated steel strand for wide-range stress monitoring
  61. Compressive and tensile strength estimation of sustainable geopolymer concrete using contemporary boosting ensemble techniques
  62. Customized 3D printed porous titanium scaffolds with nanotubes loading antibacterial drugs for bone tissue engineering
  63. Facile design of PTFE-kaolin-based ternary nanocomposite as a hydrophobic and high corrosion-barrier coating
  64. Effects of C and heat treatment on microstructure, mechanical, and tribo-corrosion properties of VAlTiMoSi high-entropy alloy coating
  65. Study on the damage mechanism and evolution model of preloaded sandstone subjected to freezing–thawing action based on the NMR technology
  66. Promoting low carbon construction using alkali-activated materials: A modeling study for strength prediction and feature interaction
  67. Entropy generation analysis of MHD convection flow of hybrid nanofluid in a wavy enclosure with heat generation and thermal radiation
  68. Friction stir welding of dissimilar Al–Mg alloys for aerospace applications: Prospects and future potential
  69. Fe nanoparticle-functionalized ordered mesoporous carbon with tailored mesostructures and their applications in magnetic removal of Ag(i)
  70. Study on physical and mechanical properties of complex-phase conductive fiber cementitious materials
  71. Evaluating the strength loss and the effectiveness of glass and eggshell powder for cement mortar under acidic conditions
  72. Effect of fly ash on properties and hydration of calcium sulphoaluminate cement-based materials with high water content
  73. Analyzing the efficacy of waste marble and glass powder for the compressive strength of self-compacting concrete using machine learning strategies
  74. Experimental study on municipal solid waste incineration ash micro-powder as concrete admixture
  75. Parameter optimization for ultrasonic-assisted grinding of γ-TiAl intermetallics: A gray relational analysis approach with surface integrity evaluation
  76. Producing sustainable binding materials using marble waste blended with fly ash and rice husk ash for building materials
  77. Effect of steam curing system on compressive strength of recycled aggregate concrete
  78. A sawtooth constitutive model describing strain hardening and multiple cracking of ECC under uniaxial tension
  79. Predicting mechanical properties of sustainable green concrete using novel machine learning: Stacking and gene expression programming
  80. Toward sustainability: Integrating experimental study and data-driven modeling for eco-friendly paver blocks containing plastic waste
  81. A numerical analysis of the rotational flow of a hybrid nanofluid past a unidirectional extending surface with velocity and thermal slip conditions
  82. A magnetohydrodynamic flow of a water-based hybrid nanofluid past a convectively heated rotating disk surface: A passive control of nanoparticles
  83. Prediction of flexural strength of concrete with eggshell and glass powders: Advanced cutting-edge approach for sustainable materials
  84. Efficacy of sustainable cementitious materials on concrete porosity for enhancing the durability of building materials
  85. Phase and microstructural characterization of swat soapstone (Mg3Si4O10(OH)2)
  86. Effect of waste crab shell powder on matrix asphalt
  87. Improving effect and mechanism on service performance of asphalt binder modified by PW polymer
  88. Influence of pH on the synthesis of carbon spheres and the application of carbon sphere-based solid catalysts in esterification
  89. Experimenting the compressive performance of low-carbon alkali-activated materials using advanced modeling techniques
  90. Thermogravimetric (TG/DTG) characterization of cold-pressed oil blends and Saccharomyces cerevisiae-based microcapsules obtained with them
  91. Investigation of temperature effect on thermo-mechanical property of carbon fiber/PEEK composites
  92. Computational approaches for structural analysis of wood specimens
  93. Integrated structure–function design of 3D-printed porous polydimethylsiloxane for superhydrophobic engineering
  94. Exploring the impact of seashell powder and nano-silica on ultra-high-performance self-curing concrete: Insights into mechanical strength, durability, and high-temperature resilience
  95. Axial compression damage constitutive model and damage characteristics of fly ash/silica fume modified magnesium phosphate cement after being treated at different temperatures
  96. Integrating testing and modeling methods to examine the feasibility of blended waste materials for the compressive strength of rubberized mortar
  97. Special Issue on 3D and 4D Printing of Advanced Functional Materials - Part II
  98. Energy absorption of gradient triply periodic minimal surface structure manufactured by stereolithography
  99. Marine polymers in tissue bioprinting: Current achievements and challenges
  100. Quick insight into the dynamic dimensions of 4D printing in polymeric composite mechanics
  101. Recent advances in 4D printing of hydrogels
  102. Mechanically sustainable and primary recycled thermo-responsive ABS–PLA polymer composites for 4D printing applications: Fabrication and studies
  103. Special Issue on Materials and Technologies for Low-carbon Biomass Processing and Upgrading
  104. Low-carbon embodied alkali-activated materials for sustainable construction: A comparative study of single and ensemble learners
  105. Study on bending performance of prefabricated glulam-cross laminated timber composite floor
  106. Special Issue on Recent Advancement in Low-carbon Cement-based Materials - Part I
  107. Supplementary cementitious materials-based concrete porosity estimation using modeling approaches: A comparative study of GEP and MEP
  108. Modeling the strength parameters of agro waste-derived geopolymer concrete using advanced machine intelligence techniques
  109. Promoting the sustainable construction: A scientometric review on the utilization of waste glass in concrete
  110. Incorporating geranium plant waste into ultra-high performance concrete prepared with crumb rubber as fine aggregate in the presence of polypropylene fibers
  111. Investigation of nano-basic oxygen furnace slag and nano-banded iron formation on properties of high-performance geopolymer concrete
  112. Effect of incorporating ultrafine palm oil fuel ash on the resistance to corrosion of steel bars embedded in high-strength green concrete
  113. Influence of nanomaterials on properties and durability of ultra-high-performance geopolymer concrete
  114. Influence of palm oil ash and palm oil clinker on the properties of lightweight concrete
https://doi.org/10.1515/rams-2024-0070
Keywords for this article
ionic liquid; carbon-based filler; polymer composite; Raman spectroscopy; peak position; intensity ratio
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

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  19. Ionic liquid-modified carbon-based fillers and their polymer composites – A Raman spectroscopy analysis
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  21. Mechanism, models, and influence of heterogeneous factors of the microarc oxidation process: A comprehensive review
  22. Synthesizing sustainable construction paradigms: A comprehensive review and bibliometric analysis of granite waste powder utilization and moisture correction in concrete
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  25. Coverage and reliability improvement of copper metallization layer in through hole at BGA area during load board manufacture
  26. Study on dynamic response of cushion layer-reinforced concrete slab under rockfall impact based on smoothed particle hydrodynamics and finite-element method coupling
  27. Study on the mechanical properties and microstructure of recycled brick aggregate concrete with waste fiber
  28. Multiscale characterization of the UV aging resistance and mechanism of light stabilizer-modified asphalt
  29. Characterization of sandwich materials – Nomex-Aramid carbon fiber performances under mechanical loadings: Nonlinear FE and convergence studies
  30. Effect of grain boundary segregation and oxygen vacancy annihilation on aging resistance of cobalt oxide-doped 3Y-TZP ceramics for biomedical applications
  31. Mechanical damage mechanism investigation on CFRP strengthened recycled red brick concrete
  32. Finite element analysis of deterioration of axial compression behavior of corroded steel-reinforced concrete middle-length columns
  33. Grinding force model for ultrasonic assisted grinding of γ-TiAl intermetallic compounds and experimental validation
  34. Enhancement of hardness and wear strength of pure Cu and Cu–TiO2 composites via a friction stir process while maintaining electrical resistivity
  35. Effect of sand–precursor ratio on mechanical properties and durability of geopolymer mortar with manufactured sand
  36. Research on the strength prediction for pervious concrete based on design porosity and water-to-cement ratio
  37. Development of a new damping ratio prediction model for recycled aggregate concrete: Incorporating modified admixtures and carbonation effects
  38. Exploring the viability of AI-aided genetic algorithms in estimating the crack repair rate of self-healing concrete
  39. Modification of methacrylate bone cement with eugenol – A new material with antibacterial properties
  40. Numerical investigations on constitutive model parameters of HRB400 and HTRB600 steel bars based on tensile and fatigue tests
  41. Research progress on Fe3+-activated near-infrared phosphor
  42. Discrete element simulation study on effects of grain preferred orientation on micro-cracking and macro-mechanical behavior of crystalline rocks
  43. Ultrasonic resonance evaluation method for deep interfacial debonding defects of multilayer adhesive bonded materials
  44. Effect of impurity components in titanium gypsum on the setting time and mechanical properties of gypsum-slag cementitious materials
  45. Bending energy absorption performance of composite fender piles with different winding angles
  46. Theoretical study of the effect of orientations and fibre volume on the thermal insulation capability of reinforced polymer composites
  47. Synthesis and characterization of a novel ternary magnetic composite for the enhanced adsorption capacity to remove organic dyes
  48. Couple effects of multi-impact damage and CAI capability on NCF composites
  49. Mechanical testing and engineering applicability analysis of SAP concrete used in buffer layer design for tunnels in active fault zones
  50. Investigating the rheological characteristics of alkali-activated concrete using contemporary artificial intelligence approaches
  51. Integrating micro- and nanowaste glass with waste foundry sand in ultra-high-performance concrete to enhance material performance and sustainability
  52. Effect of water immersion on shear strength of epoxy adhesive filled with graphene nanoplatelets
  53. Impact of carbon content on the phase structure and mechanical properties of TiBCN coatings via direct current magnetron sputtering
  54. Investigating the anti-aging properties of asphalt modified with polyphosphoric acid and tire pyrolysis oil
  55. Biomedical and therapeutic potential of marine-derived Pseudomonas sp. strain AHG22 exopolysaccharide: A novel bioactive microbial metabolite
  56. Effect of basalt fiber length on the behavior of natural hydraulic lime-based mortars
  57. Optimizing the performance of TPCB/SCA composite-modified asphalt using improved response surface methodology
  58. Compressive strength of waste-derived cementitious composites using machine learning
  59. Melting phenomenon of thermally stratified MHD Powell–Eyring nanofluid with variable porosity past a stretching Riga plate
  60. Development and characterization of a coaxial strain-sensing cable integrated steel strand for wide-range stress monitoring
  61. Compressive and tensile strength estimation of sustainable geopolymer concrete using contemporary boosting ensemble techniques
  62. Customized 3D printed porous titanium scaffolds with nanotubes loading antibacterial drugs for bone tissue engineering
  63. Facile design of PTFE-kaolin-based ternary nanocomposite as a hydrophobic and high corrosion-barrier coating
  64. Effects of C and heat treatment on microstructure, mechanical, and tribo-corrosion properties of VAlTiMoSi high-entropy alloy coating
  65. Study on the damage mechanism and evolution model of preloaded sandstone subjected to freezing–thawing action based on the NMR technology
  66. Promoting low carbon construction using alkali-activated materials: A modeling study for strength prediction and feature interaction
  67. Entropy generation analysis of MHD convection flow of hybrid nanofluid in a wavy enclosure with heat generation and thermal radiation
  68. Friction stir welding of dissimilar Al–Mg alloys for aerospace applications: Prospects and future potential
  69. Fe nanoparticle-functionalized ordered mesoporous carbon with tailored mesostructures and their applications in magnetic removal of Ag(i)
  70. Study on physical and mechanical properties of complex-phase conductive fiber cementitious materials
  71. Evaluating the strength loss and the effectiveness of glass and eggshell powder for cement mortar under acidic conditions
  72. Effect of fly ash on properties and hydration of calcium sulphoaluminate cement-based materials with high water content
  73. Analyzing the efficacy of waste marble and glass powder for the compressive strength of self-compacting concrete using machine learning strategies
  74. Experimental study on municipal solid waste incineration ash micro-powder as concrete admixture
  75. Parameter optimization for ultrasonic-assisted grinding of γ-TiAl intermetallics: A gray relational analysis approach with surface integrity evaluation
  76. Producing sustainable binding materials using marble waste blended with fly ash and rice husk ash for building materials
  77. Effect of steam curing system on compressive strength of recycled aggregate concrete
  78. A sawtooth constitutive model describing strain hardening and multiple cracking of ECC under uniaxial tension
  79. Predicting mechanical properties of sustainable green concrete using novel machine learning: Stacking and gene expression programming
  80. Toward sustainability: Integrating experimental study and data-driven modeling for eco-friendly paver blocks containing plastic waste
  81. A numerical analysis of the rotational flow of a hybrid nanofluid past a unidirectional extending surface with velocity and thermal slip conditions
  82. A magnetohydrodynamic flow of a water-based hybrid nanofluid past a convectively heated rotating disk surface: A passive control of nanoparticles
  83. Prediction of flexural strength of concrete with eggshell and glass powders: Advanced cutting-edge approach for sustainable materials
  84. Efficacy of sustainable cementitious materials on concrete porosity for enhancing the durability of building materials
  85. Phase and microstructural characterization of swat soapstone (Mg3Si4O10(OH)2)
  86. Effect of waste crab shell powder on matrix asphalt
  87. Improving effect and mechanism on service performance of asphalt binder modified by PW polymer
  88. Influence of pH on the synthesis of carbon spheres and the application of carbon sphere-based solid catalysts in esterification
  89. Experimenting the compressive performance of low-carbon alkali-activated materials using advanced modeling techniques
  90. Thermogravimetric (TG/DTG) characterization of cold-pressed oil blends and Saccharomyces cerevisiae-based microcapsules obtained with them
  91. Investigation of temperature effect on thermo-mechanical property of carbon fiber/PEEK composites
  92. Computational approaches for structural analysis of wood specimens
  93. Integrated structure–function design of 3D-printed porous polydimethylsiloxane for superhydrophobic engineering
  94. Exploring the impact of seashell powder and nano-silica on ultra-high-performance self-curing concrete: Insights into mechanical strength, durability, and high-temperature resilience
  95. Axial compression damage constitutive model and damage characteristics of fly ash/silica fume modified magnesium phosphate cement after being treated at different temperatures
  96. Integrating testing and modeling methods to examine the feasibility of blended waste materials for the compressive strength of rubberized mortar
  97. Special Issue on 3D and 4D Printing of Advanced Functional Materials - Part II
  98. Energy absorption of gradient triply periodic minimal surface structure manufactured by stereolithography
  99. Marine polymers in tissue bioprinting: Current achievements and challenges
  100. Quick insight into the dynamic dimensions of 4D printing in polymeric composite mechanics
  101. Recent advances in 4D printing of hydrogels
  102. Mechanically sustainable and primary recycled thermo-responsive ABS–PLA polymer composites for 4D printing applications: Fabrication and studies
  103. Special Issue on Materials and Technologies for Low-carbon Biomass Processing and Upgrading
  104. Low-carbon embodied alkali-activated materials for sustainable construction: A comparative study of single and ensemble learners
  105. Study on bending performance of prefabricated glulam-cross laminated timber composite floor
  106. Special Issue on Recent Advancement in Low-carbon Cement-based Materials - Part I
  107. Supplementary cementitious materials-based concrete porosity estimation using modeling approaches: A comparative study of GEP and MEP
  108. Modeling the strength parameters of agro waste-derived geopolymer concrete using advanced machine intelligence techniques
  109. Promoting the sustainable construction: A scientometric review on the utilization of waste glass in concrete
  110. Incorporating geranium plant waste into ultra-high performance concrete prepared with crumb rubber as fine aggregate in the presence of polypropylene fibers
  111. Investigation of nano-basic oxygen furnace slag and nano-banded iron formation on properties of high-performance geopolymer concrete
  112. Effect of incorporating ultrafine palm oil fuel ash on the resistance to corrosion of steel bars embedded in high-strength green concrete
  113. Influence of nanomaterials on properties and durability of ultra-high-performance geopolymer concrete
  114. Influence of palm oil ash and palm oil clinker on the properties of lightweight concrete
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