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Investigation of nano-basic oxygen furnace slag and nano-banded iron formation on properties of high-performance geopolymer concrete

  • Ali H. AlAteah EMAIL logo
Published/Copyright: November 8, 2024
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REVIEWS ON ADVANCED MATERIALS SCIENCE
From the journal REVIEWS ON ADVANCED MATERIALS SCIENCE Volume 63 Issue 1

Abstract

Geopolymers have emerged as promising alternatives to traditional cement-based composites, offering enhanced sustainability and opportunities for recycling industrial waste. The incorporation of waste materials into the binding matrix of geopolymer concrete not only promotes environmental benefits but also significantly improves the overall performance, including mechanical strength, durability, and microstructural integrity of the matrix. This study explores the impact of incorporating varying dosages of nano-basic oxygen furnace slag (NBOFS) and nano-banded iron formation (NBIF) on the properties of high-performance geopolymer concrete (HPGC) that utilizes waste glass as 50% fine aggregate. The research focuses on evaluating both the fresh and mechanical properties, including compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, modulus of elasticity, and flexural strength. Additionally, this study investigated the transport properties of concrete under aggressive environments, such as resistance to chloride penetration, sulfate attack, and sorptivity. The microstructure was examined using scanning electron microscopy. The results demonstrated that the addition of 3% NBOFS and 2.5% NBIF significantly improved the fresh, mechanical, and transport properties of HPGC. These nanomaterials also enhance the splitting tensile strength, flexural strength, and elastic modulus under highly aggressive environmental conditions. The contribution of these nanomaterials to the strength and durability of concrete is particularly relevant in the construction of both substructures and superstructures. Additionally, geopolymer concrete significantly reduces CO2 emissions by eliminating the requirement for ordinary Portland cement and promoting the recycling of waste products, contributing to more environmentally friendly construction practices.

Keywords: high-performance geopolymer concrete; nano-banded iron formation; nano-basic oxygen furnace slag; mechanical properties; durability; microstructure

1 Introduction

In recent years, global crude steel production has increased significantly, with particularly impressive results observed in 2021 when the world produced 1,960 million tons of steel [1]. The Brazilian steel industry continues to rank among the top ten global steel producers, accounting for approximately 34 million metric tons of crude steel in 2022 [2,3]. The steel industry, along with iron and steel, generates substantial quantities of by-products. Consequently, the primary by-product of steel manufacturing is slag, which accounts for 90% of the total mass. Furthermore, as steel production increases, slag production also increases [4]. When comparing the production of by-products, the basic oxygen furnace (BOF) production line produces an average of 400 kg of by-products per ton of steel. In contrast, an electric arc furnace (EAF) slag production line produces 200 kg of by-products per ton of steel. Although both materials have certain characteristics, such as the presence of free oxides and a chemical composition based on iron oxides, aluminum, silicon, and calcium, they also exhibit significant differences. For example, (1) the levels of CaO and free CaO in BOF slag are elevated, (2) the FeO content in EAF slag is reduced; (3) EAF slag exhibits a higher SiO2 content; and (4) BOF slag contains a larger quantity of hydraulic silicate minerals [5]. These qualities pertain to the expanding nature of the slag and the interactions between the slag and the cementitious matrix. These facts establish BOF slag as a unique material, necessitating a detailed examination of its properties and the effects of its utilization [6]. Various efforts are underway to reduce the dependence on cement for construction activities by developing alternative binders that can substitute the traditional Portland cement. To mitigate the environmental impact and reduce the consumption of nonrenewable natural resources, it is necessary to decrease the production of ordinary Portland cement [7,8]. Various efforts are underway to utilize pozzolanic waste and materials as partial substitutes for cement to improve performance and reduce consumption. Recently, the focus has been on the development of alternative binders by employing alkaline-activated bond systems, also known as geopolymer bonding [9]. Silica (Si) and alumina (Al) react in a strong alkaline solution to form a three-dimensional polymer chain. This occurred because alumina and silica polycondensate created Si–O–Al–O linkages [10]. Metakaolin, fly ash (FA), and granulated blast furnace slag (GBFS) are commonly used precursors for manufacturing geopolymer concrete (GC) via alkaline activation [11,12]. The specific activators used, their concentrations, types of aluminosilicate materials employed, mixing ratios, and curing processes primarily influence the efficiency of GC [13]. GC has the potential to serve as a viable substitute for cement-based concretes. GC is characterized by its low permeability, strong early compressive strength (CS), and high resilience to fire and extreme environmental conditions [14].

High-performance geopolymer concrete (HPGC) is one type of GC that incorporates waste as a primary binder, resulting in improved mechanical strength, durability, and sustainability compared to traditional cement-based materials [15,16]. The rapid development of HPGC has enabled the effective adoption of alkaline-activated technology as a viable alternative for structural applications that offers enhanced sustainability and durability [17]. The production of HPGC depends on several factors: (1) the use of silica fume (SF) and ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) to improve the flow characteristics while maintaining low water-to-binder ratios and high alkali activation potentials [18] and (2) adding nanomaterials or increasing the surface area of the binder particles [19]. To achieve this, they mixed SF and hydroxide fiber with GGBS to produce concrete with a CS and flexural 28-day strength (FS) of 175 and 13.5 MPa, respectively. This finding is supported by Aydın and Baradan [20], who demonstrated that adding SF to GGBS to create HPGC increased the CS by more than 150 MPa compared with adding SF only. A study by Li et al. [21] found that adding 10–15 vol% GGBS to HPGC led to a maximum CS of 178.6 MPa. However, these studies have shown that 20–30% SF dosages make geopolymer concrete less flowable, but with significant contributions to mechanical and rheological properties at higher substitution rates. Previous studies [22,23,24,25] showed that increasing the amount of 10–30% SF improved the mechanical properties and made it easier for the fibers to bond with the matrix. Furthermore, the implementation of HPGC steel fibers enhances the ability of the material to deform without cracking. It also exhibited good resistance to cracking under stress and impact forces.

Nanomaterials are crucial for enhancing the microstructure [26,27], minimizing the porosity, and augmenting the mechanical strength of GC. The aim of this study is to investigate the influence of different dosages of nano-basic oxygen furnace slag (NBOFS) and nano-banded iron formations (NBIFs) on the properties of HPGC produced by GBFS, FA, and SF as environmental solutions for CO2 emissions, in addition to recycling the by-products of the steel manufacturing process. This investigation contributes to the development of sustainable construction materials and paves the way for future innovations in eco-friendly building technologies. The study could significantly impact the construction industry by providing a greener alternative to traditional concrete, with reduced environmental pollution that causes landfills.

2 Experimental program

2.1 Materials

GBFS is a by-product of iron manufacturing. Slag formation occurs when an iron foundry uses water to cool it. GBFS is used in the production of HPGC. GBFS was synthesized with a uniform density of 730 kg·m−3 for all mixes analyzed in this study. Table 1 presents the chemical and physical properties of the GBFS. FA is a by-product of coal-fired power plants in Cairo, Egypt. The ASTM C618 Class F [36] requirements were classified as Class F fly ash, whose oxide composition is shown in Table 1, together with SF and GBFS. SF is a by-product obtained from the manufacturing of ferrosilicon alloy. It meets the requirements set by ASTM C1240 [28] and SF has been employed for its pozzolanic action [29,30,31]. This study involved the synthesis of two types of nanomaterial powders: NBIFs with silica, iron oxide, and lime contents, as shown in Table 1. The steps of the milling process are illustrated in Figure 1. The additives, NBIFs, and NBOFS varied from 0.5 to 3.0 wt% of the total powder content (GBFS, FA, and SF) [9–11]. The physical properties of NBIFs and NBOFS are listed in Table 2. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) figures are shown in Figure 2. The filler employed in this study was quartz powder (QP) with particle sizes ranging from 10 to 25 µm [32,33]. Table 3 summarizes the characteristics of the QP. To enhance its consistency, quartz sand (fine aggregates) with a mean particle size of 4.75 mm was added to the mixture, with the grading curve shown in Figure 4. The fine aggregate characteristics were assessed in accordance with ES 1109/2008 and ASTM C33/C33M-18. Table 4 provides information regarding the physical parameters of the fine aggregates. Table 5 provides mixed proportions. The alkaline activator solutions used in the experiment included potassium hydroxide (KOH) with a purity of 98% and sodium silicate (Na2SiO3). NaOH was prepared 24 h before use. The experimental study employed a constant alkaline liquid ratio (SH:SS) of 1:3 and a consistent ratio of alkaline solution to binder materials (AA/total binder = 0.37 for all mixtures) [34,35,36]. High-range water-reducing agent (1.5 wt% of the precursor) was added to the mixture to improve the workability of HPGC. The material complies with the standards for SP (Viscocrete-5930) with a specific gravity of 1.09, according to ASTM-C-494 Type G and F [37] and the British Standard EN 934 Part 2:2001.

Table 1

Chemical composition and physical properties of binder materials

Chemical component (%) Physical characteristics
Characteristics SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO SO3 Na2O K2O MgO TiO2 Specific gravity Specific surface area (cm2·g−1)
GBFS 37.98 12.55 1.51 39.95 2.69 0.76 0.7 3.86 — 2.55 6,175
FA 59.45 21.42 5.91 6.73 0.15 1.5 1.66 1.78 1.4 2.34 6,840
SF 98.9 0.25 0.13 0.27 — 0.17 0.12 0.16 — 2.15 19,750
NBIF 15.3 — 16.2 52.3
NBOFS 15.5 — 28.2 37.9
Figure 1 Appearance of BOF slag.
Figure 1

Appearance of BOF slag.

Table 2

The physical properties of nanomaterials

Properties Form Particle size (nm) Color Molecular Weight (g·mol−1) Melting point (°C) Boiling point (°C) Density (g·cm−3) Specific gravity Water solubility
NBIF Powder 20 ± 5 Black 80.08 1,600 2,230 2.2–2.6 3.2 Insoluble
NBOFS Powder 5 Black 89.88 1,825 2,500–3,000 3.79 3.7 Insoluble
Figure 2 SEM images of the nanomaterials. (a) NBIFs. (b) NBOF.
Figure 2

SEM images of the nanomaterials. (a) NBIFs. (b) NBOF.

Table 3

Physical and chemical properties of the QP

Properties Physical properties Chemical compositions (%)
Specific gravity Specific area (cm2·g−1) Color SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO SO3
Quartz powder 2.56 4,090 White 98.68 0.16 0.1 0.1 1.11
Table 4

Fine aggregates physical properties

Property Specific gravity Unit weight (kg·m−3) Fineness modulus Water absorption (%) Clay and fine materials (%)
Sand 2.68 1,695 2.727 1.2 0.79
Waste glass 2.63 1,712 2.6 0.95 0.1
Table 5

Mix proportions for HPGC mixtures

Mixture ID GBFS FA SF NBIF NBOFS Waste glass Sand KHS SSS ASMA SP Curing
kg·m−3 kg·m−3 kg·m−3 % % kg·m−3 kg·m−3 Ratio Mol. Ratio Ratio % Time Hour Temp. °C
Control 200 200 40 0 0 750 750 1 14 3 0.4 1 48 70
NBIF 0.5 200 200 40 0.5 0 750 750 1 14 3 0.4 1 48 70
NBIF 1.0 200 200 40 1 0 750 750 1 14 3 0.4 1 48 70
NBIF 1.5 200 200 40 1.5 0 750 750 1 14 3 0.4 1 48 70
NBIF 2.0 200 200 40 2 0 750 750 1 14 3 0.4 1 48 70
NBIF 2.5 200 200 40 2.5 0 750 750 1 14 3 0.4 1 48 70
NBIF 3.0 200 200 40 3 0 750 750 1 14 3 0.4 1 48 70
NBOFS 0.5 200 200 40 0 0.5 750 750 1 14 3 0.4 1 48 70
NBOFS 1.0 200 200 40 0 1 750 750 1 14 3 0.4 1 48 70
NBOFS 1.5 200 200 40 0 1.5 750 750 1 14 3 0.4 1 48 70
NBOFS 2.0 200 200 40 0 2 750 750 1 14 3 0.4 1 48 70
NBOFS 2.5 200 200 40 0 2.5 750 750 1 14 3 0.4 1 48 70
NBOFS 3.0 200 200 40 0 3 750 750 1 14 3 0.4 1 48 70

GBFS: granulated blast furnace slag; FA: fly ash; SF: silica fume; KHS: potassium hydroxide solution; SSS: sodium silicate solution; Mol: molarity; AS/MA: alkaline solution to mineral additives; SP: superplasticizer; w/b: water–binder ratio.

2.2 Mixing procedures

This study used a paddle mixer to provide a consistent homogenous mixture for the HPGC. The alkali and sodium silicate solution were mixed in separate containers, and raw materials (GBFS, FA, and SF) were mixed with sand and glass waste for 3 min. After that, a homogenous solution was added and mixed for 3 min. A magnetic stirrer was used for full dispersion of nanoparticles, and then, nanosolution was added and mixed. All constituent materials were homogenously mixed for the next 3–5 min and then poured into molds. Finally, the specimens and molds were thermally cured in an oven at 80°C for 48 h and then demolded to produce HPGC. The demolded samples were cured at ambient temperature before being tested for their mechanical properties.

2.3 Test procedure

2.3.1 Fresh properties

The influence of different nanomaterial compositions on the ease of handling fresh HPGC composites was assessed by quantifying the flow diameter and air content percentage, following the guidelines provided by ASTM-C-143-15a and ASTM-C-231-17a.

2.3.2 Mechanical properties

The CSs at 3, 7, 28, and 90 days were determined by conducting tests on cubic specimens with dimensions of 100 mm × 100 mm × 100 mm, in accordance with the specifications outlined in BS-1881: part-116-2004. The tensile strength and elasticity modulus were determined by tests conducted on cylindrical specimens with a diameter of 150 mm and height of 300 mm, in accordance with the ASTM-C496-11 and ASTM-C469-14 standards, respectively. The 28-day flexural strength was evaluated by conducting tests on prism specimens with dimensions of 100 mm × 100 mm × 500 mm (ASTM-C78-16). The results were recorded as the average of the three specimens.

2.3.3 Physical properties

A water permeability test was performed on cylindrical specimens of 150 mm × 150 mm after 28 days, following the guidelines of BS EN 12390-8. The chloride penetration resistance was assessed by employing disc specimens with a diameter of 100 mm and thickness of 50 mm, in accordance with the guidelines specified in ASTM C1202-17 [38]. The water sorptivity test conducted after 28 days quantified the level of water absorption. The test was performed in accordance with the specifications provided in ASTM C1585-13 [39], using a cylindrical sample with dimensions of 50 mm × 100 mm.

2.3.4 Sulfate attack

The ability of the specimens to resist sulfate attack was assessed using the procedures described in ASTM C1012 and BS 8500-2. Sodium sulfate solutions with concentrations of 0, 5, 50, 75, and 100 g·L−1 were prepared for sample (70 mm × 70 mm × 70 mm) immersion, and the residual strengths were measured and recorded at 28, 90, and 180 days to examine the effects of short-, medium-, and long-term attacks, respectively.

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Workability

This study rigorously assessed the impact of varying the concentration of nano-banded iron NBIF (0.5–3%) on the slump flow of HPGC. Figure 3 shows a negative correlation with an increasing proportion of NBIFs usage. The unique interaction between the NBIF particles and geopolymer matrix caused a steady decline in the slump flow from 598 to 534.6 mm. The slump flow exhibited a distinct decreasing trend as the concentration of the NBOFS increased. The specific interactions between the nanoparticles of the NBOFS and geopolymer matrix account for the observed behavior. The results suggest that the incorporation of NBOFS influences the rheological properties of HPGC, leading to an increase in viscosity and a subsequent decrease in flowability [40,41,42], with values decreasing from 598.4 in the control mix to 537.9 when NBOFS was 3%. The addition of NBOFS resulted in the formation of more compact and less flexible geopolymer structures [43,44,45].

Figure 3 Flowability of HPGC incorporating NBIFS and NBOF.
Figure 3

Flowability of HPGC incorporating NBIFS and NBOF.

3.2 Mechanical properties

3.2.1 Compressive strength

Figures 4 and 5 show the CSs of HPGC samples, including NBIFs and NBOFS. The samples were tested at various percentages (0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, and 3.0) as additives from binder mass at various ages (3, 7, 28, 90, and 180 days). The mechanical properties are discussed in detail below.

Figure 4 Results of CS test of HPGC containing NBIFs at different test ages.
Figure 4

Results of CS test of HPGC containing NBIFs at different test ages.

Figure 5 Results of CS test of HPGC containing NBOFS at different curing ages.
Figure 5

Results of CS test of HPGC containing NBOFS at different curing ages.

3.2.1.1 Compressive strength for HSGC containing NBIFs

The inclusion of nanomaterials (specifically NBIFs) enhances the CS of HPGC. The results indicated that the 28-day CS values for 0–3% NBIF ranged between 73.8 and 98.9 MPa, respectively. Furthermore, 2.5% NBIFs were incorporated into the mixture to achieve the maximum static friction coefficient. The CS values were 161.0, 176.8, 198.7, 217.0, and 222.2 MPa for the ages of 3, 7, 28, 90, and 180 days, respectively. Consequently, increasing the proportion of NBIFs led to an improvement in CS, with a positive correlation between 0.5 and 2.5%. However, the use of quantities greater than 2.5% led to a decline in CS. Nevertheless, all percentages of NBIF added (ranging from 0.5 to 3.0%) resulted in higher CS values than those of the NBIF-free control mixtures. The results illustrated that adding nanomaterials, specifically NBIF, could strengthen the nanostructure of the sample [46]. The presence of NBIFs primarily affects the breakdown process during dissolution and potentially results in a faster geopolymerization rate. A previous study [47] has observed that the presence of slag positively affects the formation of reaction products and the extent of geopolymerization, leading to a more uniform and compact matrix.

3.2.1.2 Compressive strength for HSGC containing nano-basic iron formations

The results indicated that the inclusion of NBOF in HPGC enhanced the CS of concrete at various rates of addition (0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, and 3.0% of NBOFS) for all test ages compared with the reference control mixtures. The results demonstrated a positive correlation between the rate of NBOF addition and the CS increase in the presence of basalt fiber. Mixture NBOFS 3.0, with an addition rate of 3% NBOFS, achieved the highest CS compared to other mixtures containing NBOFS. The CS values were 75.46, 83.93, 94.32, 102.3, and 105.35 MPa at test ages of 3, 7, 28, 90, and 180 days, respectively. The advantageous impact of the NBOF on the microstructure could reduce CS. These effects include filling tiny pores within the geopolymer matrix with nanoparticles and fibers [48,49]. This process not only improves nucleation during the formation of crystal nuclei or the seeding effect but also results in a more uniform distribution of hydration products. The addition of NBOFS enhances the CS of graphene composites (GC) by approximately 2% [6,50]. Nanomaterials (NBOF and NBIF) affect the formation of reaction products and the extent of geopolymerization, leading to a more uniform and compact matrix [30].

3.2.2 Splitting tensile strength

Impact of varying the NBIF (0.5–3%) on the splitting tensile strength of HPGC. Notable patterns were observed in the experiments. The results in Figure 6 show a constant increase in the strength of the NBIF to 2.5%. The observed pattern indicates that a lower NBIF content enhances microstructural bonding within the geopolymer matrix, thereby resulting in a higher splitting tensile strength [51]. However, at a higher substitution of 3%, a change in the observed pattern occurred as the splitting tensile strength decreased [52,53]. Impact of NBOFS content on splitting tensile strength of HPGC at addition ratios ranging from 0.5 to 3%. An incremental improvement in splitting tensile strength was observed up to an addition ratio of 3%. This upward trajectory can be ascribed to the enhancement of pozzolanic reactivity and interfacial bonding in the geopolymer matrix [43]. The addition of NBOFS results in a more durable material when subjected to tensile stress, which is more significant in the presence of fibers [54,55].

Figure 6 Splitting tensile strength of HPGC incorporating NBIFs and NBOFS.
Figure 6

Splitting tensile strength of HPGC incorporating NBIFs and NBOFS.

3.2.3 Flexural strength

This study examined the effect of varying the NBIF content from 0.5 to 3% on the flexural strength of HPGC. The analysis showed a continuous pattern, where an increase in the ratio of NBIF of up to 2.5% was associated with a decrease in the flexural strength. The initial drop in flexural strength is related to the reactivity of NBIF, which improves the bonding within the geopolymer matrix. However, when the addition ratio exceeded 2%, a reverse trend was observed, indicating a decrease in flexural strength. The observed discrepancy may be ascribed to the possible agglomeration or excessive inclusion of NBIF, which disrupts the uniformity of the geopolymer structure and consequently undermines the flexural performance of the material [56]. These results emphasize the importance of carefully choosing the addition ratio of nano-banded iron in HPGC formulations to achieve a balance between enhanced mechanical quality and potential negative consequences.

This study found a continuous and favorable relationship between a higher proportion of NBOFS used as a substitute and the flexural strength of HPGC. The flexural strength of the geopolymer matrices increased proportionally with a gradual increase in the amount of NBOFS and fibers [57,58], demonstrating the potential of NBOFS as a reinforcing agent. The increase in flexural strength can be attributed to the pozzolanic reactivity of NBOFS with the surrounding matrix [4,43,44]. This leads to an increase in the resistance of the sample to the bending stress. These results emphasize the positive impact of NBOFS in enhancing the bending strength of HPGC, showing their potential use in the development of strong and long-lasting construction materials. NBIFs showed higher strength at all levels compared to all levels of NBOF (Figure 7).

Figure 7 Flexure strength of HPGC incorporating NBIFs and NBOF.
Figure 7

Flexure strength of HPGC incorporating NBIFs and NBOF.

3.2.4 Modulus of elasticity

The findings in Figure 8 indicate a complex correlation between NBIF concentrations and material parameters. This study demonstrated a gradual increase in the modulus of elasticity that peaked at an addition ratio of 2.5%. The first improvement is due to the pozzolanic properties of NBIFs, which enhance the microstructure and strengthen the bonding between geopolymeric materials. These characteristics enhance the rigidity and flexibility of materials. However, when the addition ratio exceeded 2.5%, this trend was reversed, leading to a subsequent decrease in the modulus of elasticity. This can be ascribed to the possible clumping or excessive integration of NBIFs, resulting in uneven dispersion within the geopolymer framework and the subsequent impairment of the elasticity of the material. These results highlight the significance of tailoring the addition ratios of nano-banded iron within a specified range to attain the required equilibrium between the enhanced modulus of elasticity and potential negative consequences [46,59]. Therefore, it is crucial to conduct additional research on microstructural changes and durability factors related to the formation of different concentrations of NBIFs. This will provide a thorough knowledge of the complex connection between the NBIF content and the modulus of elasticity in HPGC.

Figure 8 Modulus of elasticity of HPGC incorporating NBIFs and NBOF.
Figure 8

Modulus of elasticity of HPGC incorporating NBIFs and NBOF.

3.3 Physical properties

3.3.1 Water permeability

The results of the water permeability tests of the HPGC samples at a test age of 28 days are shown in Figure 9. Overall, the study indicated that the water permeability values of the HPGC samples varied between 0.90 × 10−11 and 1.38 × 10−11 (cm·s−1) for mixtures that included NBIFs. The water permeability values for HPGC samples varied between 0.5 × 10 and 1.43 × 10−11 (cm·s−1) when mixed with NBOFS. The control mixture without nanomaterials (NBIFs and NBOFS) had a water permeability value of 1.55 × 10−11 (cm·s−1). The results show that the inclusion of NBIFs in HPGC production significantly reduced the water permeability compared to the reference control mixture, and the results were 1.38, 1.27, 1.18, 1.10, 1.04, and 1.0 × 10−11 (cm·s−1) for NBIFs, for 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, and 3% NBIFs. The inclusion of nanoparticles improved the permeability resistance of the HPGC with an increase in the rate of addition. This is consistent with many previous studies that have confirmed that the use of nanomaterials plays an important role in filling micropores in addition to improving the density of the geopolymer paste matrix [60,61]. The incorporation of NBIFs has a positive impact on the porosity and pore structure of the matrix by reducing the number of macropores [62]. These findings indicate that incorporating NBIFs in the production of HPGC led to a significant reduction in the water permeability values compared to the reference mixture. The recorded values were 1.43, 1.32, 1.23, 1.14, 1.07, and 0.98 × 10−11 cm·s−1 for the NBOF 0.5, NBOF 1.0, NBOF 1.5, NBOF 2.0, NBOF 2.5, and NBOF 3.0, respectively. This observation indicated that the incorporation of NBOFS enhanced the impermeability resistance of HPGC. The results obtained from this study support the theory of previous research, confirming the positive role of adding nanoparticles to concrete to achieve lower permeability, and higher durability [15,43,46,54,63]. In general, NBIFs have lower water permeability than NBOF and, thus, have better resistance in this aspect.

Figure 9 Results of water permeability test of HPGC containing NBIFs and NBOF.
Figure 9

Results of water permeability test of HPGC containing NBIFs and NBOF.

3.3.2 Chloride penetration resistance

Figure 10 shows the results of the chloride penetration test for the HPGC samples at a test age of 28 days. Notably, the chloride penetration resistance of the HPGC samples containing nanomaterials improved. The chloride penetration values of the HPGC samples containing NBIFs ranged from 138 to 260 (coulombs). The chloride penetration test results for the HPGC samples that included NBOFS were between 272 and 130 (coulombs). For the control mixture without nanomaterials (NBIFs and NBOFS), the chloride penetration value is 340 (column b). Accordingly, the NBOFS 3.0 mixture achieved the lowest chloride permeability at 158 (column b), followed by the NBIFs 3.0 mixture at 163 (column b). From the presented results, it can be concluded that the addition of nanoparticles improves the impermeability of concrete. The permeability progressively decreases with an increase in the rate of nanomaterial addition [26]. This is attributed to the role of nanomaterials in improving the polymerization process and reducing pore size [44,64].

Figure 10 Results of chloride penetration test of HPGC containing NBIFs and NBOF.
Figure 10

Results of chloride penetration test of HPGC containing NBIFs and NBOF.

3.3.3 Sorptivity

The data presented in Figure 11 display the water sorptivity coefficient values for the HPGC samples after 28 days of testing. Based on these findings, it appears that the inclusion of NBIFs and NBOFS in HPGC samples leads to a reduction in water sorptivity coefficient values. The water sorptivity coefficient values for HPGC samples containing NBIFs were observed to range between 2.36 and 1.16 (10–4 mm·s−0.5). The water sorptivity coefficients of the HPGC samples containing NBOFS ranged from 2.36 to 1.18 (10–4 mm·s−0.5). In the case of the control mixture without NBIFs and NBOFS, the water sorptivity coefficient was measured to be 2.95 (10–4 mm·s−0.5). Based on the results, it appears that the NBOF 3.0 mixture demonstrated the most favorable water sorptivity coefficient value of 1.18 (10–4 mm·s−0.5), while the NBIFs 3.0 mixture exhibited a slightly higher water diffusion coefficient value of 1.16 (10–4 mm·s−0.5). Based on the presented findings, it appears that the inclusion of nanoparticles has a positive effect on the impermeability of concrete [65,66]. The results showed a clear correlation between the increase in the rate of nanomaterial addition and a gradual decrease in the water absorption coefficient. The water sorptivity in the case of NBOF showed a smaller decrease than the similar percentages in the case of NBIFs.

Figure 11 Results of water sorptivity test of HPGC containing NBIFs and NBOF.
Figure 11

Results of water sorptivity test of HPGC containing NBIFs and NBOF.

3.3.4 Correlation between physical properties and durability

Figures 12–14 show that according to previous studies, it has been suggested that geopolymer mixtures incorporating FA and GBFS with NBIFs or NBOFS can enhance the characteristics of GC, subject to the addition rate. The effectiveness of nanomaterials added to geopolymer mixtures depends on their chemical composition and fineness [43,46,64]. Based on the available results, the findings of previous studies on the mechanisms of action of nanomaterials were supported. These findings suggest that nanomaterials tend to focus on the following three aspects. This study primarily focused on the framework of nanomaterials (NBIFs and NBOFS) in HPGC. The unique properties of nanoparticles, such as (1) effect of small particle size, significant surface area, and high surface energy, have a significant impact on the potential impact of nanomaterials on the geopolymer matrix [61]; (2) in the phenomenon of nucleation, nanoparticles have significant surface area and surface energy, which serve as nucleation sites for a less porous geopolymer matrix. This accelerates the geopolymerization process [67]. (3) The effect of nanopore filling, which involves the incorporation of nanoparticles into the geopolymer matrix with the potential to improve the pore structure by filling nanopores [62]. Figures 14–16 show high correlations of more than 0.98 between the durability results, which is in agreement with similar relations presented in the literature [68,69].

Figure 12 The correlation between water permeability and water sorptivity coefficient.
Figure 12

The correlation between water permeability and water sorptivity coefficient.

Figure 13 The correlation between water permeability and water chloride penetration.
Figure 13

The correlation between water permeability and water chloride penetration.

Figure 14 The correlation between sorptivity coefficient and chloride penetration.
Figure 14

The correlation between sorptivity coefficient and chloride penetration.

Figure 15 Residual CS after exposure of concrete to the concentration of sodium sulfate of 100 gm·L−1 for 180 days.
Figure 15

Residual CS after exposure of concrete to the concentration of sodium sulfate of 100 gm·L−1 for 180 days.

Figure 16 Microstructural morphology of HPGC. (a) Control mix. (b) 2.5 NBIFs. (c) 3 NBOFs.
Figure 16

Microstructural morphology of HPGC. (a) Control mix. (b) 2.5 NBIFs. (c) 3 NBOFs.

3.4 Sulfate attack

Results of sulfate attack (Na2SO4) on HPGC at varying concentrations of 0.0–100.0 gm·L−1 over periods of 28, 90, and 180 days are shown. Figure 15 illustrates the CS of no sulfate-attacked HPGC, where 0.0 mg·L−1 (no attack) is the reference mixture for calculating a loss in CS upon sulfate attack exposure. As shown in Figure 15, the CS of HPGC was not significantly affected by sulfate attack at concentrations as low as 5 mg·L−1 (low attack) over 180 days. The reduction in CS was between 1.7 and 3.9% for CS without sulfate attack. In addition, as shown in Figure 15c and d, the CS decreased more rapidly when the sulfate attack exposure at the concentration increased by 50 mg·L−1 (medium attack) and 75 mg·L−1 (high attack) over 180 days. When subjected to a sulfate attack at a concentration of 50 mg·L−1, the decrease in the CS of the HPGC ranged from 4.6 to 11.3% compared to the reference mixture. The decrease in CS ranged from 11.8 to 20.0% after exposure to 75 mg·L−1. Moreover, Figure 15 shows a significant decrease in the CS of the HPGC samples subjected to 100 mg·L−1 sulfate attack owing to severe deterioration (extreme attack), with the level of severity being more pronounced with age (worst at 180 days). The decrease in the CS of HPGC ranged from 21.5 to 30.8% compared with that of the control.

3.5 Microstructure

Figure 16 shows the SEM micrographs of the three HPGC mixtures. The addition of 2% nano-banded iron to HPGC has a substantial impact on the microstructure of the material. The utilization of NBIF particles enhances the geopolymer matrix owing to their substantial surface area and pozzolanic properties. The SEM study demonstrated a denser and more compact microstructure with a decreased porosity. The interfacial bonding between the geopolymer gel and aggregates was also enhanced. The formation of nano-banded iron facilitates the generation of supplementary reaction products, thereby augmenting the total crystalline architecture. The enhanced microstructure was associated with enhanced mechanical qualities, including CS and durability, making the HPGC with 2% NBIF a highly promising option for high-performance construction applications. In contrast, the microstructure of the HPGC containing 3% NBOFS exhibited different alterations compared to those of the NBOF-free samples. SEM revealed a distinct morphology characterized by evenly distributed NBOFS particles within the geopolymer matrix. The inclusion of NBOFs enhanced the microstructure, resulting in more consistent and even dispersion of the particles. Owing to this modification, there was an enhancement in the bonding between the interfaces and an increase in the packing density, resulting in a greater strength and endurance. Nevertheless, when using larger addition ratios such as 3%, it is crucial to carefully consider the possible occurrence of agglomeration effects [8]. Analysis of the microstructure revealed the complex function of NBOFS in enhancing the internal structure of HPGC, underscoring the need for the careful incorporation of nano-additives to attain exceptional material performance [3]. Comparative evaluations demonstrated that the changes in the microstructure caused by the addition of 3% NBOFS had a beneficial impact on the mechanical and durability characteristics of HPGC, thereby providing valuable information for the development of durable construction materials.

4 Discussion

The observed decrease in slump flow highlights the need for a thorough understanding of the role of NBOFS in HPGC mixtures. In conclusion, using NBIFs decreases the slump more than using NBOF, but both nanomaterials decrease the slump owing to their composition, fineness, and chemical reactions. In addition, in studies [34,70], the addition of iron to the products enhanced the CS of the GPC. These studies demonstrated that a precise dosage of NBIFs can result in an increase in CS based on the results of a previous study [61]. Precise dosages of NBIFs can increase the CS [15,71]. Finally, adding 2.5% NBIFs has a significant effect in improving CS than 3% NBOF at all ages. This study found a reliable and favorable relationship between the increasing ratio of NBOFS substitution and the elastic modulus of HPGC. With an increase in NBOFS content, there was a proportional and gradual increase in the elastic modulus of the material. The observed improvement indicated that the presence of NBOFS nanoparticles had a positive effect on the rigidity and elasticity of the geopolymer matrix [67]. The pozzolanic reactivity of NBOF is likely responsible for the enhanced microstructure, thus facilitating better interfacial bonding inside the HPGC. A higher modulus of elasticity indicates stronger resistance to deformation and enhanced structural integrity, making NBOFS a potential enhancer of the elastic properties of HPGC [43,44]. The results illustrate the deterioration in the CS of concrete after exposure to Na2SO4 for 180 days, with the lowest values recorded for 3% NBIFs and NBOFS, with retentions of 78.5 and 78%, respectively. Using nanomaterials like NBOFS and NBIFs in HPGC improves mechanical strength, durability, and microstructural integrity while reducing porosity. NBOFS and NBIFs in HPGC also support sustainability by recycling industrial by-products, contributing to waste reduction. Furthermore, NBOFS and NBIFs in HPGC inclusion help lower carbon emissions, offering a more environmentally friendly alternative to traditional cement-based concrete. Investigating new nanomaterials and studying the radiation resistance of BOFS and BIFs are recommended for future work. Also, future studies could optimize the dosages of NBOFS and NBIFs in HPGC to achieve long-term performance, including exposure to environmental factors such as freeze–thaw cycles and chemical attacks. Life cycle assessments and economic evaluations should also be conducted to determine the sustainability and cost-effectiveness of NBOFS and NBIFs in HPGC compared to conventional HPGC.

5 Conclusions

This study investigates the effects of utilizing different amounts of NBOFS and NBIF ranging from 0.5 to 3% on HPGC. Slump and mechanical properties, including compression, splitting, modulus of elasticity, and flexural strength, are studied. In addition, durability tests such as chloride penetration, sulfate attack, and sorptivity were investigated. Moreover, microstructural analysis was conducted, and the results are presented below.

The addition of NBIFs and NBOFS resulted in a slight decrease in workability by 17 and 13%, respectively, because the nanoparticles caused a steady decline in the rheology of the sample at the 3% replacement level.

  1. The optimum replacement levels in the NBIFs and NBOFS for the optimum 180-day CS were 2.5 and 3% to achieve 222.2 and 215 MPa, respectively.

  2. The splitting tensile strength improved at all levels of 2.5% NBOFS and 3% NBOFS increased by 23% compared to the reference (control) mix.

  3. The flexural strengths at all levels of NBOFS, especially at 2.5% NBIFs and 3% NBOF, increased by 22 and 27%, respectively, compared to the control.

  4. The inclusion of NBIFs significantly reduced the water permeability values compared with the reference control mixture. The control mixture recorded a water permeability value of 1.55 × 10−11 (cm·s−1) reduced to 1.0 × 10−11 (cm·s−1) and 0.98 × 10−11 (cm·s−1) in 2.5% NBIFs and 3% NBOF, respectively.

  5. A higher quantity of added nanomaterials enhances transport properties such as chloride penetration, sorptivity, and water absorption. Sorptivity and water absorption decreased by 59 and 61.7% in NBIFs and NBOFS, respectively.

  6. NBIFs and NBOFS induce crystalline microstructural densities or networks by generating additional reaction products.

Acknowledgments

The author acknowledges the facilities and support provided by the University of Hafr Al Batin, Saudi Arabia.

  1. Funding information: The author states no funding involved.

  2. Author contribution: The author has accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and approved its submission.

  3. Conflict of interest: The author states no conflict of interest.

  4. Data availability statement: The datasets generated and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Received: 2024-09-08
Revised: 2024-10-06
Accepted: 2024-10-17
Published Online: 2024-11-08

© 2024 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Review Articles
  2. Effect of superplasticizer in geopolymer and alkali-activated cement mortar/concrete: A review
  3. Experimenting the influence of corncob ash on the mechanical strength of slag-based geopolymer concrete
  4. Powder metallurgy processing of high entropy alloys: Bibliometric analysis and systematic review
  5. Exploring the potential of agricultural waste as an additive in ultra-high-performance concrete for sustainable construction: A comprehensive review
  6. A review on partial substitution of nanosilica in concrete
  7. Foam concrete for lightweight construction applications: A comprehensive review of the research development and material characteristics
  8. Modification of PEEK for implants: Strategies to improve mechanical, antibacterial, and osteogenic properties
  9. Interfacing the IoT in composite manufacturing: An overview
  10. Advances in processing and ablation properties of carbon fiber reinforced ultra-high temperature ceramic composites
  11. Advancing auxetic materials: Emerging development and innovative applications
  12. Revolutionizing energy harvesting: A comprehensive review of thermoelectric devices
  13. Exploring polyetheretherketone in dental implants and abutments: A focus on biomechanics and finite element methods
  14. Smart technologies and textiles and their potential use and application in the care and support of elderly individuals: A systematic review
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  17. Review on geopolymer concrete incorporating Alccofine-1203
  18. Advancements in surface treatments for aluminum alloys in sports equipment
  19. Ionic liquid-modified carbon-based fillers and their polymer composites – A Raman spectroscopy analysis
  20. Emerging boron nitride nanosheets: A review on synthesis, corrosion resistance coatings, and their impacts on the environment and health
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  29. Characterization of sandwich materials – Nomex-Aramid carbon fiber performances under mechanical loadings: Nonlinear FE and convergence studies
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  32. Finite element analysis of deterioration of axial compression behavior of corroded steel-reinforced concrete middle-length columns
  33. Grinding force model for ultrasonic assisted grinding of γ-TiAl intermetallic compounds and experimental validation
  34. Enhancement of hardness and wear strength of pure Cu and Cu–TiO2 composites via a friction stir process while maintaining electrical resistivity
  35. Effect of sand–precursor ratio on mechanical properties and durability of geopolymer mortar with manufactured sand
  36. Research on the strength prediction for pervious concrete based on design porosity and water-to-cement ratio
  37. Development of a new damping ratio prediction model for recycled aggregate concrete: Incorporating modified admixtures and carbonation effects
  38. Exploring the viability of AI-aided genetic algorithms in estimating the crack repair rate of self-healing concrete
  39. Modification of methacrylate bone cement with eugenol – A new material with antibacterial properties
  40. Numerical investigations on constitutive model parameters of HRB400 and HTRB600 steel bars based on tensile and fatigue tests
  41. Research progress on Fe3+-activated near-infrared phosphor
  42. Discrete element simulation study on effects of grain preferred orientation on micro-cracking and macro-mechanical behavior of crystalline rocks
  43. Ultrasonic resonance evaluation method for deep interfacial debonding defects of multilayer adhesive bonded materials
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  46. Theoretical study of the effect of orientations and fibre volume on the thermal insulation capability of reinforced polymer composites
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  48. Couple effects of multi-impact damage and CAI capability on NCF composites
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  53. Impact of carbon content on the phase structure and mechanical properties of TiBCN coatings via direct current magnetron sputtering
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  83. Prediction of flexural strength of concrete with eggshell and glass powders: Advanced cutting-edge approach for sustainable materials
  84. Efficacy of sustainable cementitious materials on concrete porosity for enhancing the durability of building materials
  85. Phase and microstructural characterization of swat soapstone (Mg3Si4O10(OH)2)
  86. Effect of waste crab shell powder on matrix asphalt
  87. Improving effect and mechanism on service performance of asphalt binder modified by PW polymer
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  102. Mechanically sustainable and primary recycled thermo-responsive ABS–PLA polymer composites for 4D printing applications: Fabrication and studies
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  104. Low-carbon embodied alkali-activated materials for sustainable construction: A comparative study of single and ensemble learners
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  106. Special Issue on Recent Advancement in Low-carbon Cement-based Materials - Part I
  107. Supplementary cementitious materials-based concrete porosity estimation using modeling approaches: A comparative study of GEP and MEP
  108. Modeling the strength parameters of agro waste-derived geopolymer concrete using advanced machine intelligence techniques
  109. Promoting the sustainable construction: A scientometric review on the utilization of waste glass in concrete
  110. Incorporating geranium plant waste into ultra-high performance concrete prepared with crumb rubber as fine aggregate in the presence of polypropylene fibers
  111. Investigation of nano-basic oxygen furnace slag and nano-banded iron formation on properties of high-performance geopolymer concrete
  112. Effect of incorporating ultrafine palm oil fuel ash on the resistance to corrosion of steel bars embedded in high-strength green concrete
  113. Influence of nanomaterials on properties and durability of ultra-high-performance geopolymer concrete
  114. Influence of palm oil ash and palm oil clinker on the properties of lightweight concrete
https://doi.org/10.1515/rams-2024-0067
Keywords for this article
high-performance geopolymer concrete; nano-banded iron formation; nano-basic oxygen furnace slag; mechanical properties; durability; microstructure
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Review Articles
  2. Effect of superplasticizer in geopolymer and alkali-activated cement mortar/concrete: A review
  3. Experimenting the influence of corncob ash on the mechanical strength of slag-based geopolymer concrete
  4. Powder metallurgy processing of high entropy alloys: Bibliometric analysis and systematic review
  5. Exploring the potential of agricultural waste as an additive in ultra-high-performance concrete for sustainable construction: A comprehensive review
  6. A review on partial substitution of nanosilica in concrete
  7. Foam concrete for lightweight construction applications: A comprehensive review of the research development and material characteristics
  8. Modification of PEEK for implants: Strategies to improve mechanical, antibacterial, and osteogenic properties
  9. Interfacing the IoT in composite manufacturing: An overview
  10. Advances in processing and ablation properties of carbon fiber reinforced ultra-high temperature ceramic composites
  11. Advancing auxetic materials: Emerging development and innovative applications
  12. Revolutionizing energy harvesting: A comprehensive review of thermoelectric devices
  13. Exploring polyetheretherketone in dental implants and abutments: A focus on biomechanics and finite element methods
  14. Smart technologies and textiles and their potential use and application in the care and support of elderly individuals: A systematic review
  15. Reinforcement mechanisms and current research status of silicon carbide whisker-reinforced composites: A comprehensive review
  16. Innovative eco-friendly bio-composites: A comprehensive review of the fabrication, characterization, and applications
  17. Review on geopolymer concrete incorporating Alccofine-1203
  18. Advancements in surface treatments for aluminum alloys in sports equipment
  19. Ionic liquid-modified carbon-based fillers and their polymer composites – A Raman spectroscopy analysis
  20. Emerging boron nitride nanosheets: A review on synthesis, corrosion resistance coatings, and their impacts on the environment and health
  21. Mechanism, models, and influence of heterogeneous factors of the microarc oxidation process: A comprehensive review
  22. Synthesizing sustainable construction paradigms: A comprehensive review and bibliometric analysis of granite waste powder utilization and moisture correction in concrete
  23. 10.1515/rams-2025-0086
  24. Research Articles
  25. Coverage and reliability improvement of copper metallization layer in through hole at BGA area during load board manufacture
  26. Study on dynamic response of cushion layer-reinforced concrete slab under rockfall impact based on smoothed particle hydrodynamics and finite-element method coupling
  27. Study on the mechanical properties and microstructure of recycled brick aggregate concrete with waste fiber
  28. Multiscale characterization of the UV aging resistance and mechanism of light stabilizer-modified asphalt
  29. Characterization of sandwich materials – Nomex-Aramid carbon fiber performances under mechanical loadings: Nonlinear FE and convergence studies
  30. Effect of grain boundary segregation and oxygen vacancy annihilation on aging resistance of cobalt oxide-doped 3Y-TZP ceramics for biomedical applications
  31. Mechanical damage mechanism investigation on CFRP strengthened recycled red brick concrete
  32. Finite element analysis of deterioration of axial compression behavior of corroded steel-reinforced concrete middle-length columns
  33. Grinding force model for ultrasonic assisted grinding of γ-TiAl intermetallic compounds and experimental validation
  34. Enhancement of hardness and wear strength of pure Cu and Cu–TiO2 composites via a friction stir process while maintaining electrical resistivity
  35. Effect of sand–precursor ratio on mechanical properties and durability of geopolymer mortar with manufactured sand
  36. Research on the strength prediction for pervious concrete based on design porosity and water-to-cement ratio
  37. Development of a new damping ratio prediction model for recycled aggregate concrete: Incorporating modified admixtures and carbonation effects
  38. Exploring the viability of AI-aided genetic algorithms in estimating the crack repair rate of self-healing concrete
  39. Modification of methacrylate bone cement with eugenol – A new material with antibacterial properties
  40. Numerical investigations on constitutive model parameters of HRB400 and HTRB600 steel bars based on tensile and fatigue tests
  41. Research progress on Fe3+-activated near-infrared phosphor
  42. Discrete element simulation study on effects of grain preferred orientation on micro-cracking and macro-mechanical behavior of crystalline rocks
  43. Ultrasonic resonance evaluation method for deep interfacial debonding defects of multilayer adhesive bonded materials
  44. Effect of impurity components in titanium gypsum on the setting time and mechanical properties of gypsum-slag cementitious materials
  45. Bending energy absorption performance of composite fender piles with different winding angles
  46. Theoretical study of the effect of orientations and fibre volume on the thermal insulation capability of reinforced polymer composites
  47. Synthesis and characterization of a novel ternary magnetic composite for the enhanced adsorption capacity to remove organic dyes
  48. Couple effects of multi-impact damage and CAI capability on NCF composites
  49. Mechanical testing and engineering applicability analysis of SAP concrete used in buffer layer design for tunnels in active fault zones
  50. Investigating the rheological characteristics of alkali-activated concrete using contemporary artificial intelligence approaches
  51. Integrating micro- and nanowaste glass with waste foundry sand in ultra-high-performance concrete to enhance material performance and sustainability
  52. Effect of water immersion on shear strength of epoxy adhesive filled with graphene nanoplatelets
  53. Impact of carbon content on the phase structure and mechanical properties of TiBCN coatings via direct current magnetron sputtering
  54. Investigating the anti-aging properties of asphalt modified with polyphosphoric acid and tire pyrolysis oil
  55. Biomedical and therapeutic potential of marine-derived Pseudomonas sp. strain AHG22 exopolysaccharide: A novel bioactive microbial metabolite
  56. Effect of basalt fiber length on the behavior of natural hydraulic lime-based mortars
  57. Optimizing the performance of TPCB/SCA composite-modified asphalt using improved response surface methodology
  58. Compressive strength of waste-derived cementitious composites using machine learning
  59. Melting phenomenon of thermally stratified MHD Powell–Eyring nanofluid with variable porosity past a stretching Riga plate
  60. Development and characterization of a coaxial strain-sensing cable integrated steel strand for wide-range stress monitoring
  61. Compressive and tensile strength estimation of sustainable geopolymer concrete using contemporary boosting ensemble techniques
  62. Customized 3D printed porous titanium scaffolds with nanotubes loading antibacterial drugs for bone tissue engineering
  63. Facile design of PTFE-kaolin-based ternary nanocomposite as a hydrophobic and high corrosion-barrier coating
  64. Effects of C and heat treatment on microstructure, mechanical, and tribo-corrosion properties of VAlTiMoSi high-entropy alloy coating
  65. Study on the damage mechanism and evolution model of preloaded sandstone subjected to freezing–thawing action based on the NMR technology
  66. Promoting low carbon construction using alkali-activated materials: A modeling study for strength prediction and feature interaction
  67. Entropy generation analysis of MHD convection flow of hybrid nanofluid in a wavy enclosure with heat generation and thermal radiation
  68. Friction stir welding of dissimilar Al–Mg alloys for aerospace applications: Prospects and future potential
  69. Fe nanoparticle-functionalized ordered mesoporous carbon with tailored mesostructures and their applications in magnetic removal of Ag(i)
  70. Study on physical and mechanical properties of complex-phase conductive fiber cementitious materials
  71. Evaluating the strength loss and the effectiveness of glass and eggshell powder for cement mortar under acidic conditions
  72. Effect of fly ash on properties and hydration of calcium sulphoaluminate cement-based materials with high water content
  73. Analyzing the efficacy of waste marble and glass powder for the compressive strength of self-compacting concrete using machine learning strategies
  74. Experimental study on municipal solid waste incineration ash micro-powder as concrete admixture
  75. Parameter optimization for ultrasonic-assisted grinding of γ-TiAl intermetallics: A gray relational analysis approach with surface integrity evaluation
  76. Producing sustainable binding materials using marble waste blended with fly ash and rice husk ash for building materials
  77. Effect of steam curing system on compressive strength of recycled aggregate concrete
  78. A sawtooth constitutive model describing strain hardening and multiple cracking of ECC under uniaxial tension
  79. Predicting mechanical properties of sustainable green concrete using novel machine learning: Stacking and gene expression programming
  80. Toward sustainability: Integrating experimental study and data-driven modeling for eco-friendly paver blocks containing plastic waste
  81. A numerical analysis of the rotational flow of a hybrid nanofluid past a unidirectional extending surface with velocity and thermal slip conditions
  82. A magnetohydrodynamic flow of a water-based hybrid nanofluid past a convectively heated rotating disk surface: A passive control of nanoparticles
  83. Prediction of flexural strength of concrete with eggshell and glass powders: Advanced cutting-edge approach for sustainable materials
  84. Efficacy of sustainable cementitious materials on concrete porosity for enhancing the durability of building materials
  85. Phase and microstructural characterization of swat soapstone (Mg3Si4O10(OH)2)
  86. Effect of waste crab shell powder on matrix asphalt
  87. Improving effect and mechanism on service performance of asphalt binder modified by PW polymer
  88. Influence of pH on the synthesis of carbon spheres and the application of carbon sphere-based solid catalysts in esterification
  89. Experimenting the compressive performance of low-carbon alkali-activated materials using advanced modeling techniques
  90. Thermogravimetric (TG/DTG) characterization of cold-pressed oil blends and Saccharomyces cerevisiae-based microcapsules obtained with them
  91. Investigation of temperature effect on thermo-mechanical property of carbon fiber/PEEK composites
  92. Computational approaches for structural analysis of wood specimens
  93. Integrated structure–function design of 3D-printed porous polydimethylsiloxane for superhydrophobic engineering
  94. Exploring the impact of seashell powder and nano-silica on ultra-high-performance self-curing concrete: Insights into mechanical strength, durability, and high-temperature resilience
  95. Axial compression damage constitutive model and damage characteristics of fly ash/silica fume modified magnesium phosphate cement after being treated at different temperatures
  96. Integrating testing and modeling methods to examine the feasibility of blended waste materials for the compressive strength of rubberized mortar
  97. Special Issue on 3D and 4D Printing of Advanced Functional Materials - Part II
  98. Energy absorption of gradient triply periodic minimal surface structure manufactured by stereolithography
  99. Marine polymers in tissue bioprinting: Current achievements and challenges
  100. Quick insight into the dynamic dimensions of 4D printing in polymeric composite mechanics
  101. Recent advances in 4D printing of hydrogels
  102. Mechanically sustainable and primary recycled thermo-responsive ABS–PLA polymer composites for 4D printing applications: Fabrication and studies
  103. Special Issue on Materials and Technologies for Low-carbon Biomass Processing and Upgrading
  104. Low-carbon embodied alkali-activated materials for sustainable construction: A comparative study of single and ensemble learners
  105. Study on bending performance of prefabricated glulam-cross laminated timber composite floor
  106. Special Issue on Recent Advancement in Low-carbon Cement-based Materials - Part I
  107. Supplementary cementitious materials-based concrete porosity estimation using modeling approaches: A comparative study of GEP and MEP
  108. Modeling the strength parameters of agro waste-derived geopolymer concrete using advanced machine intelligence techniques
  109. Promoting the sustainable construction: A scientometric review on the utilization of waste glass in concrete
  110. Incorporating geranium plant waste into ultra-high performance concrete prepared with crumb rubber as fine aggregate in the presence of polypropylene fibers
  111. Investigation of nano-basic oxygen furnace slag and nano-banded iron formation on properties of high-performance geopolymer concrete
  112. Effect of incorporating ultrafine palm oil fuel ash on the resistance to corrosion of steel bars embedded in high-strength green concrete
  113. Influence of nanomaterials on properties and durability of ultra-high-performance geopolymer concrete
  114. Influence of palm oil ash and palm oil clinker on the properties of lightweight concrete
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