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Influence of nanomaterials on properties and durability of ultra-high-performance geopolymer concrete

  • Abdullah M. Zeyad EMAIL logo , Khaled H. Bayagoob , Mohamed Amin , Sahar A. Mostafa and Ibrahim Saad Agwa
Published/Copyright: December 9, 2024
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REVIEWS ON ADVANCED MATERIALS SCIENCE
From the journal REVIEWS ON ADVANCED MATERIALS SCIENCE Volume 63 Issue 1

Abstract

This study examines the effect of adding different dosages of nontitanium (NT) and nano-silica (NS) ranging from 0.5 to 4% by weight of binder materials on ultra-high-performance geopolymer concrete (UHPGC). The material’s feasibility was evaluated using slump flow measurements. A detailed analysis of its compressive strength (CS), transport properties, and sulfate attack was conducted. The addition of 2.5% NS and 4% NT improved the CS and transport properties of UHPGC compositions, creating a denser and more durable microstructure with enhanced interfacial bonding, as confirmed by the microstructure study. According to this study, the most effective doses for enhancing UHPGC performance in various aspects are 2.5% NS and 4% NT. The CS was recorded at 198.7 MPa for 2.5% NS mixes and 197.6 MPa for 4% NT mixes for ages test 28 days. These findings provide valuable insights into developing and utilizing advanced, high-efficiency UHPGC for sustainable and sturdy construction techniques.

Keywords: UHPGC; nano-silica; nano-titanium; compressive strength; transport properties; sulfate attack; ultra-high-performance geopolymer concrete

1 Introduction

The cement-based concrete industry is struggling to keep up with the growing demand for cement. It faces many challenges, such as environmental damage due to carbon dioxide emissions, limited limestone reserves, high energy consumption, and slow manufacturing growth. Efforts are being made to find alternative binders to traditional Portland cement to reduce its production and the use of non-renewable natural resources. Researchers are exploring the use of pozzolanic waste and materials as partial cement replacements to enhance concrete performance. Another area of recent study is the development of concrete using alkaline-activated bond systems (geopolymer bonds). Alkaline activation of aluminosilicate powder results in the formation of inorganic geopolymer bonds.

Geopolymer bonds combine the polymer and cement properties [1]. Silica and alumina react in an alkaline medium to create a three-dimensional polymer chain through polycondensation, forming Si–O–Al–O bonds [2]. Metakaolin, fly ash (FA), and blast furnace slag are commonly used to make geopolymer concrete [3]. Geopolymer concrete (GC) efficiency depends on activators, aluminosilicate types, mixing ratios, and curing methods [4]. GC is a promising substitute for cement-based concrete. It has low permeability and high early compressive strength (CS) and can withstand harsh conditions [5]. The production of ultra-high-performance geopolymer concrete (UHPGC) has been accelerated, allowing for the successful use of alkaline-activated technology in structural applications with improved sustainability and durability [6].

The production of UHPGC depends on several key factors, including: (1) engaging silica fume (SF) and Ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) to improve flow properties with low water/binder rates and high activation potentials for alkali [7]; (2) increasing the surface area of the binder particles or adding nanomaterials (NMs) [8]; (3) the use of steel fibers (St.F) and silica sand [9]; and (4) the adoption of the heat treatment method [10]. Ambily et al. [8] reported that adding SF with GGBS activated with an alkali silicate solution and hydroxide fibers to produced UHPGC containing 2% by volume St.F achieved CS and flexural strength (FS) of 175 and 13.5 MPa in 28 days. This finding is supported by Aydın and Baradan [11], which found that adding SF to GGBS to make UHPGC increased CS by more than 150 MPa when compared to mixtures without SF. According to Wetzel and Middendorf [7], UHPGC with a volume substitution rate of 10–15% of GGBS with SF obtained the highest CS (178.6 MPa). SF dosages of 20–30% were found to reduce GC flowability, despite SF’s significant impact on rheological and mechanical properties at higher substitution rates. In another study, Liu et al. [12] reported that increasing the SF6 content from 10 to 30% leads to higher mechanical performance and improves the bond strength between the fiber and the matrix. Moreover, the introduction of UHPGC St.F improves ductility, fracture resistance, and impact resistance. According to Wu et al. [13], the ideal addition of St.F varies from 1 to 3% by volume, which improves the mechanical characteristics of UHPGC in terms of CS and FS. According to Yoo et al. [14], increasing the content of St.F by 2% by volume limits the efficacy of enhancing the characteristics of UHPGC. In fact, it is preferable to keep the fiber content under tight control to minimize workability deterioration and relatively high costs [34].

NM has a significant effect on enhancing the microstructure, decreasing porosity, and boosting the mechanical strength of GC [15]. By incorporating NM into the geopolymer matrix, the properties of concrete are improved, as the nanoparticles can diffuse into ultra-fine pores and function as a filler. In addition, their role in pozzolanic processes leads to increased gel production [16]. Nanoparticles strengthen the bond between binders and assemblies, increase strength properties, prevent cracks, and improve fiber crosslinking [17]. Researchers are focusing their efforts on the incorporation of various NM into the production of UHPGC [18,19]. Nano-silica (NS) [20,21], nano-Al2O3 [22], nontitanium (NT) [23,24,25], nano-clay [26], and carbon nanotubes [27] are among the most frequent of these NM [28]. Incorporating NS into GC typically results in enhanced mechanical performance and increased durability [20]. NS improves concrete properties through active pozzolanic properties and a finer texture that helps fill ultrafine pores, resulting in higher packing density [29,30]. NS was used to decrease concrete permeability while enhancing mechanical properties and resistance to deterioration [19,20]. There is limited information in the literature about how adding NS affects the mechanical performance of UHPGC. Furthermore, it is rare to find information about how NS can enhance the mechanical performance of UHPGC.

The effect of NS on modifying the properties of geopolymers is contingent upon its dosage amounts, particle size, shape, and degree of dispersion in the geopolymer matrix, as indicated by the previous studies. Consequently, it is possible to conclude that the most effective quantity of NS for modifying the properties of geopolymer composites, such as strength, transport properties, and microstructure, is in the range of 1–3% by mass of alkali-activated materials [31,32].

His study investigates the impact of incorporating different percentages of NT and NS, ranging from 0.5 to 4% of the total weight of binders, on the characteristics of UHPGC. Seventeen mixes were created to investigate the characteristics of fresh, hardened, transport, sulfate attack (SA), and microstructure.

1.1 Research significance

The significance of this research lies in its potential to advance the understanding and application of UHPGC, a material known for its exceptional mechanical properties and durability. By exploring the effects of incorporating NS and NT, this study seeks to enhance the CS of UHPGC, which is crucial for its structural applications. Additionally, this research aims to fill the gap in the existing literature regarding the influence of NS and NT on the transport properties and SA resistance of UHPGC. The findings from this study could lead to significant improvements in the performance and longevity of UHPGC in various environmental conditions, promoting its use in sustainable and resilient construction practices. By providing new insights into the NM modifications of UHPGC, this research could also pave the way for future studies and innovations in the field of advanced concrete technology.

2 Experimental program

2.1 Materials

2.1.1 Ground granulated blast furnace slag (GBFS)

GBFS is a byproduct of the iron manufacturing process. It is formed when the iron foundry cools the slag using water. GBFS was employed to manufacture UHPGC [33,34]. The GBFS was formulated with a consistent density of 730 kg·m−3 for all mixtures examined in this investigation. Table 1 displays the chemical and physical characteristics of GBFS.

Table 1

Properties of binder materials

Characteristics GBFS FA SF QP
Chemical component
SiO2 37.98 59.45 98.90 97.88
Al2O3 12.55 21.42 0.25 0.26
Fe2O3 1.51 5.91 0.13 0.15
CaO 39.95 6.73 0.27 0.2
SO3 2.69 0.15 — 1.51
Na2O 0.76 1.50 0.17 —
K2O 0.70 1.66 0.12 —
MgO 3.86 1.78 0.16 —
TiO2 — 1.40 — —
Physical characteristics
Specific surface area (cm2·g−1) 6,175 6,840 19,750 4,085
Specific gravity 2.55 2.34 2.15 2.58

2.1.2 FA

FA is a residual material produced by coal-fired power stations. It is categorized as class F FA based on the specifications outlined in ASTM C618 Class F [35]. The earlier studies [36,37] established a constant concentration of 270 kg·m−3 for FA. The characteristics of the utilized FA are presented in Table 1.

2.1.3 SF

SF was obtained from Sika Company, and it is in accordance with ASTM C1240 standards [38]. SF can be defined as a by-product of ferrosilicon alloy production and was used as a pozzolanic effect [39,40,41]. The physical and chemical properties of SF are tabulated in Table 1.

In conclusion, Table 1 shows the chemical composition of binder materials used in this study to show the materials components that have a vital role in reactions hence concrete performance. Results were obtained via performing XRF X-ray fluorescence on small samples, then compressed, and heated for testing.

2.1.4 NM

This study used two types of NM: NS with 99.5% SiO2 and NT with 99.0% TiO2. The NM (NS and NT) was synthesized in the science laboratory of Beni Suef University, Egypt. In comparison, NS or NT was added at nine contents: 0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 3.5, and 4.0% by weight of binder materials (GBFS and FA and SF) [28,42,43]. Table 2 summarizes the physical characteristics of NM provided by the manufacturer.

Table 2

Properties of NM

Properties NS NT
Form Powder Powder
Boiling point 2,230°C 2,500–3,000°C
Formula 99.5% SiO2 99% TiO2
Density 2.2–2.6 g·cm−3 3.79 g·cm−3
Color White White
Particle size 20 ± 5 nm 5 nm
Water solubility Insoluble Insoluble
Melting point 1,600°C 1,825°C
Molecular weight 60.08 g·mol−1 79.88 g·mol−1
Specific gravity 2.2 3.85

2.1.5 St.F

St.F at a constant content of 1% in terms of volume were used to reinforce the UHPGC mixes, based on the previous work [30,44,45]. The St.F used in this study was obtained from Hany Mahros Steel Fiber, Kaluob, Egypt. St.F properties from the source (manufacturing company) are shown in Table 3.

Table 3

Properties of St.F

St.F
Diameter (mm) 0.12
Length (mm) 12
Aspect (ratio) 100
Density (kg·m−3) 7,800
Elastic modulus (GPa) 194
Tensile strength (GPa) 1.82

2.1.6 Quartz powder (QP)

The filler utilized in this article is QP with an average particle size of approximately between 10 and 25 µm [46,47]. The characteristics of QP are displayed in Table 4.

Table 4

Properties of the QP

Physical properties Chemical compositions (%)
Colour Specific area (cm2·g−1) Specific gravity SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO SO3
White 4,085 2.58 97.88 0.26 0.15 0.2 1.51

2.1.7 Quartz sand

To enhance the uniformity of the fine aggregate, quartz sand was utilized as a fine aggregate, and its average particle size was decreased to 4.75 mm. All mixtures in this study are based on 100% fine aggregate [48]. The properties of the fine aggregate were evaluated according to the requirements of ASTM C33/C33M-18 [49]. The physical properties and the grading curve of the fine aggregate are given in Table 5 and Figure 1, respectively.

Table 5

Properties of quartz sand

Specific gravity Unit weight (kg·m−3) Fineness modulus Water absorption (%) Clay and fine materials (%)
2.66 1,690 2.627 0.96 0.78
Figure 1 Grading curve of used quartz sand.
Figure 1

Grading curve of used quartz sand.

2.1.8 Alkaline solutions

The alkaline activator solutions used were sodium hydroxide (NaOH) with a 98% purity and sodium silicate (Na2SiO3) composed of 34.42% SiO2, 15.26% Na2O, and 50.32% H2O. The alkaline solution containing NaOH and Na2SiO3 was acquired from El-Epour City, Egypt. The concentration of NaOH remained constant at 16M based on the previous research to produce UHPGC [7,12,50–54], while the concentration of Na2SiO3 varied in the synthesis of the alkaline activator. To create a solution with the desired concentration, it is necessary to dissolve the solids in water. It is highly recommended to prepare the sodium hydroxide solution (SHS) at least 24 h before using it. During the experimental work, a consistent alkaline liquid ratio of 1:3 (SHS:sodium silicate solution [SSS]) and an alkaline solution to binder materials ratio of 0.37 were utilized for all the mixes [55–57].

2.1.9 Superplasticizer (SP)

A high-range water-reducing additive, SP (Viscocrete-5930), was used to enhance the workability of UHPGC. The material meets specifications for ASTM-C-494 Types G and F, with a specific gravity of 1.09 [58]. The materials used in this study are seen in Figure 2.

Figure 2 Materials used in this study.
Figure 2

Materials used in this study.

2.2 Mix ratios and mixing procedure

This study investigated the effect of adding NM to UHPGC mixtures. Three groups of 17 mixtures were examined, with the first group acting as a control mixture without any NM. The second set of mix ratios was examined, consisting of eight distinct mixes with varying NS contents (0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 3.5, and 4.0%) by weight of binder materials to produce UHPGC. The third group is the same as the second group, except it uses NT with identical content. The mix design for UHPGC included constant proportions of 730 kg·m−3 GBFS, 270 kg·m−3 FA, 150 kg·m−3 SF, and 200 kg·m−3 QP. Table 6 shows different ratios of UHPGC mixtures, with a fixed proportion of 0.37 for the alkaline activator solution to the binder.

Table 6

Mix proportions for UHPGC mixtures

Mixtures ID GBFS FA SF NS NT St.F QP Sand SHS SSS AS/MA SP
kg·m−3 kg·m−3 kg·m−3 % % % kg·m−3 % Ratio Mol. Ratio Ratio %
Control 730 270 150 0 0 1.0 200 100 1 16 3 0.37 1.5
NS 0.5 730 270 150 0.5 0 1.0 200 100 1 16 3 0.37 1.5
NS 1.0 730 270 150 1.0 0 1.0 200 100 1 16 3 0.37 1.5
NS 1.5 730 270 150 1.5 0 1.0 200 100 1 16 3 0.37 1.5
NS 2.0 730 270 150 2.0 0 1.0 200 100 1 16 3 0.37 1.5
NS 2.5 730 270 150 2.5 0 1.0 200 100 1 16 3 0.37 1.5
NS 3.0 730 270 150 3.0 0 1.0 200 100 1 16 3 0.37 1.5
NS 3.5 730 270 150 3.5 0 1.0 200 100 1 16 3 0.37 1.5
NS 4.0 730 270 150 4.0 0 1.0 200 100 1 16 3 0.37 1.5
NT 0.5 730 270 150 0 0.5 1.0 200 100 1 16 3 0.37 1.5
NT 1.0 730 270 150 0 1.0 1.0 200 100 1 16 3 0.37 1.5
NT 1.5 730 270 150 0 1.5 1.0 200 100 1 16 3 0.37 1.5
NT 2.0 730 270 150 0 2.0 1.0 200 100 1 16 3 0.37 1.5
NT 2.5 730 270 150 0 2.5 1.0 200 100 1 16 3 0.37 1.5
NT 3.0 730 270 150 0 3.0 1.0 200 100 1 16 3 0.37 1.5
NT 3.5 730 270 150 0 3.5 1.0 200 100 1 16 3 0.37 1.5
NT 4.0 730 270 150 0 4.0 1.0 200 100 1 16 3 0.37 1.5

SHS is a sodium hydroxide solution.

SSS is a sodium silicate solution.

Mol. is a molarity.

AS/MA is an alkaline solution to mineral additives.

SP is a superplasticizer.

For this study, an axial mixer was used to uniformly mix UHPGC, which was poured into molds to create specimens. The mix contained sodium hydroxide flakes, SSS, and a blend of dry components, including binder materials (GBFS, FA, SF), QP, quartz sand, and St.F. The mixture was blended for 5 min in a blender and an additional 5 min in a mixer. The cured specimens were evaluated for age after being kept in an oven at 80°C for 48 h and then cured at room temperature.

2.3 Test procedure

NM compositions’ impact on the workability of UHPGC composites was evaluated using ASTM-C-143-15a for flow diameter. The compression test of the cubic UHPGC specimens measuring 100 mm × 100 mm × 100 mm was measured at 3, 7, 28, and 90 days following the guidelines of BS-1881:part-116-2004. For each test period, we averaged three specimens. All specimens were tested in a hydraulic testing machine with a capacity of 200 tons and an accuracy of 0.5 tons. The CS “f c” was calculated using the formula:

f c = P c A ,

where P c is the maximum load in compression and A is the cross-sectional area of the specimen.

The water permeability (WP) test was conducted on cylindrical specimens of 150 mm × 150 mm at 28 days, according to BS EN 12390-8 [59]. 100 mm diameter and 50 mm thickness disk specimens were tested for chloride penetration (CP) test using the ASTM C1202-17 [60] procedure. The water sorptivity (WS) test at 28 days measures the water absorption rate according to ASTM C1585-13 [61] on a 100 mm × 50 mm cylinder. To assess sulfate resistance in specimens, follow ASTM C1012 [62]. Add 0–100 g·L−1 sodium sulfate solution to a water pool. Test 70 mm × 70 mm × 70 mm specimens for CS at 28, 90, and 180 days to investigate short-, medium-, and long-term impacts. The testing procedure in this study is seen in Figure 3.

Figure 3 Testing procedure in this study: (a) slump flow test, (b) concrete samples, (c) compression test, and (d) WP.
Figure 3

Testing procedure in this study: (a) slump flow test, (b) concrete samples, (c) compression test, and (d) WP.

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Fresh properties

Figure 4 shows how the slump flow of UHPGC is affected by NS and NT concentration. The focus was on replacement ratios ranging from 0.5 to 4%. An unfavorable correlation was observed with the increasing ratio of NS usage. NS reduces slump flow due to its interaction with the geopolymer matrix, resulting in a gradual decrease from 544 to 450 mm. An increase in the replacement ratio of NS is likely to enhance the reactivity and bonding with alkali-activated geopolymer gel due to its large surface area and pozzolanic properties [20,63]. The increased contact between the components results in a less flexible and more compact geopolymer structure. This causes a reduction in the slump flow, indicating decreased ease of handling.

Figure 4 Slump flow of UHPGC incorporating NS and NT.
Figure 4

Slump flow of UHPGC incorporating NS and NT.

This study investigates the impact of NT on the slump flow of UHPGC at different replacement ratios ranging from 0.5 to 4%. The concentration of NT increased and caused a corresponding reduction in the slump flow, which is a crucial measure of the workability of concrete, as demonstrated by a clear pattern of decline. The observed behavior can be explained by the distinct interactions between the nano-titanium and the geopolymer matrix. The addition of 4% NT is expected to increase the viscosity and decrease the flowability of UHPGC, resulting in a decrease from 544 to 470 in the rheological characteristics compared to the control mix. The addition of NT, which has pozzolanic and cementitious properties, may improve the formation of more compact and less pliable geopolymer structures [23,64,65]. The decrease in slump flow highlights the importance of understanding the role of NT in UHPGC mixtures.

3.2 CS

Figures 5 and 6 show the CS of UHPGC containing NS and NT by 0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 3.5, and 4.0% of binder materials, at test ages of 3, 7, 28, 90, and 180 days. The use of NS improved the strength properties of UHPGC. Therefore, the CS of UHPGC was 150.8, 159.7, 169.0, 177.9, 188.6, 198.7, 183.5, 175.7, and 171.9 MPa at 28 days of test age, with the addition of 0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 3.5, and 4.0% of NS, respectively. It is also noted that the highest CS was achieved for the mixture NS 2.5 when adding 2.5% of NS. It was the CS of 161.0, 176.8, 198.7, 217.0, and 222.2 MPa for ages test 3, 7, 28, 90, and 180 days, respectively. Accordingly, increasing the addition percentage of NS contributed to improving the CS with an upward relationship from 0.5 to 2.5%, while the CS decreased at higher addition rates. However, all percentages of NS addition ranging from 0.5 to 4.0% resulted in higher CS compared to the reference mixture. Previous research indicates the incorporation of NM, in particular NS, contributed to the improvement in CS when compared to geopolymer-free nanostructured materials. It is possible that the enhanced strength of UHPGC is a result of the presence of NS, which may fill the nanopores within the geopolymer matrix, producing a more densely packed matrix. Furthermore, it has been observed that the chemical properties of silica-rich NS have a significant impact on the acceleration of geopolymer reactions, resulting in a stronger geopolymer matrix and ultimately leading to enhanced sample strength. In previous studies, researchers have found that the optimal amount of NS content to improve the CS is between 1.0 and 4.0%. However, it was observed that after this dose, there was a slight reduction in CS due to the flooding in the un-interacted NS particle matrix. The optimal rate of NS incorporation to enhance CS is 2.5%, as indicated by the findings of this study. Consequently, the slight reduction in CS that occurs when the concentration of NS exceeds 2.5% may be attributed to the presence of unreacted NS particles in the matrix. Consequently, the agglomeration of NS particles between themselves prevents the dissolution of silica and leads to the formation of voids, thereby reducing the CS of geopolymer concrete. Nuaklong et al. discovered that a slight decrease in CS occurred when the concentration of NS exceeded 2% [66]. This, in turn, led to the formation of voids and a subsequent decrease in the CS of GC. In previous studies conducted by researchers [66–68], it was found that the CS of GC can be enhanced by the addition of NS. These studies revealed that a specific dose of NS can lead to an increase in CS. According to the findings of Nuaklong et al. [66], the addition of NS has been shown to enhance the CS of GC by approximately 2%.

Figure 5 Results of CS test of UHPGC containing NS.
Figure 5

Results of CS test of UHPGC containing NS.

Figure 6 Results of CS test of UHPGC containing NT.
Figure 6

Results of CS test of UHPGC containing NT.

The inclusion of NS primarily impacts the dissolution phase of geopolymerization, potentially leading to an improvement in the rate of geopolymerization. It appears that the inclusion of NS has a positive impact on the production of reaction products and the degree of geopolymerization, leading to a more consistent and condensed matrix [69]. The results also illustrate that the addition of NT to the UHPGC contributed to the improvement of the CS of the concrete at all rates of addition (0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 3.5, 4.0% NT) for all test ages compared to the reference mixture. The results showed that a higher rate of NT addition led to an increase in the CS. The mixture NT4.0 which includes an addition rate of 4% NT achieved the highest CS among the mixtures containing NT. The CS was from 158.3, 176.4, 97.6, 214.8, 215.0, and MPa at test ages 3, 7, 28, 90, and 180 days, respectively. The observed increase in CS can be attributed to the beneficial effects of NT in the microstructure. These effects include the filling of nanopores within the geopolymer matrix, in addition to promoting nucleation during fermentation (crystal nucleus effect or seeding effect), resulting in a more uniform distribution of hydration products [23]. This is consistent with the statement of Sanalkumar and Yang that the addition of 1–10% NT leads to an enhancement of the CS of GC mixtures [70].

3.3 Microstructure

SEM micrographs of three UHPGC mixes, control, NS 2.5, and NT 4, are shown in Figure 7a–c, respectively. The addition of 2.5% NS to UHPGC significantly alters its microstructure. The use of NS particles improves the geopolymer matrix due to its large surface area and pozzolanic properties. A study using SEM showed that the resulting microstructure is denser and more compact, with lower porosity and improved bonding between the geopolymer gel and the aggregates. The addition of 2.5% NS to UHPGC facilitates the creation of additional reaction products. This leads to an improvement in the overall crystalline structure, resulting in enhanced CS, transport properties, and SA. As a result, UHPGC with 2.5% NS is a highly promising option for high-performance construction applications [24]. In contrast, the microstructure of UHPGC containing 4% NT exhibits different alterations compared to the version without nano-additions A distinct morphology was observed in the SEM images, with evenly dispersed nanoscale titanium particles within the geopolymeric matrix. The addition of NT improved the microstructure, resulting in a more uniform distribution of the particles. As a result of this modification, there was an increase in the bonding between the interfaces and a higher packing density [71]. This led to improved strength and endurance. When using larger replacement ratios, such as 4%, it is important to consider the possibility of agglomeration effects. An analysis of the microstructure reveals the complex function of nano-additives in enhancing the internal structure of UHPGC. Therefore, careful incorporation of these additives is necessary to achieve exceptional material performance [72]. Comparative evaluations have shown that the changes in the microstructure caused by the addition of 4% nano-additives have a beneficial impact on the mechanical [73] and durability characteristics of UHPGC [74], providing valuable information for the development and use of sophisticated construction materials.

Figure 7 SEM for UHPGC. (a) Control, (b) NS 2.5, and (c) NT 4.
Figure 7

SEM for UHPGC. (a) Control, (b) NS 2.5, and (c) NT 4.

3.4 Transport properties

3.4.1 WP

The findings from the WP test on UHPGC samples after 28 days are shown in Figure 8. Overall, the study indicates that the WP values of the UHPGC samples varied between 0.90 and 1.38 × 10−11 cm·s−1 for mixtures that included NS. The study’s findings indicate that the WP values for UHPGC samples varied between 0.85 and 1.43 × 10−11 cm·s−1 when mixed with NT. The control mixture lacking NM (NS and NT) had a WP value of 1.55 × 10−11 cm·s−1, as observed during the study. The results show that the inclusion of NS in UHPGC production significantly reduced the WP values compared to the reference mixture, and the results were 1.38, 1.27, 1.18, 1.10, 1.04, 1.0, 0.95, and 0.90 × 10−11 cm·s−1 for the NS 0.5, NS 1.0, NS 1.5, NS 2.0, NS 2.5, NS 3.0, NS 3.5, and NS 4.0, respectively. According to the observation, the addition of nanoparticles has resulted in better resistance to permeability in UHPGC. The improvement in resistance was noted with an increase in the rate of addition. This finding is consistent with many other previous studies that have confirmed the crucial role of NM in filling micropores and increasing the density of the geopolymer paste matrix [69,75]. The incorporation of NS led to a positive impact on the porosity and pore structure of the matrix by reducing the number of macropores [76]. The findings indicate that the incorporation of NS in the production of UHPGC led to a significant reduction in WP values in comparison to the reference mixture. The recorded values were 1.43, 1.32, 1.23, 1.14, 1.07, 0.98, 0.92, and 0.85 × 10−11 cm·s−1 for the NT0.5, NT 1.0, NT 1.5, NT 2.0, NT 2.5, NT 3.0, NT 3.5, and NT 4.0, respectively. This observation indicates that the incorporation of NT resulted in an enhancement of the UHPGC’s impermeability resistance, which was proportional to the rate of addition. This is attributed to the role of NM in reducing the size of the pores, closing them, or cutting the pathways connected to them, which prevents or reduces the WP through the geopolymer paste. The results obtained from this study support the theory of previous research, which confirms the positive role of adding nanoparticles to concrete to achieve lower permeability and higher durability [64,77].

Figure 8 Results of WP test of UHPGC containing NS and NT.
Figure 8

Results of WP test of UHPGC containing NS and NT.

3.4.2 CP

Figure 9 shows the results of the CP test for UHPGC samples at a test age of 28 days. It is noticeable that the CP of UHPGC samples that contain NM is improved. The CP values for UHPGC samples that contained NS ranged between 138 and 260 (Columb). While the CP test results for UHPGC samples that included NT were between 272 and 130 (Columb). As for the control mixture without NM (NS and NT), the CP value was 340 (Columb). Accordingly, the NT4.0 mixture achieved the lowest chloride permeability at 130 (Columb), followed by the NS4.0 mixture with a permeability value of 138 (Columb). Based on the results presented, it can be concluded that incorporating nanoparticles in concrete improves its impermeability. As the rate of addition of NM increases, the permeability of concrete decreases gradually. This is due to the ability of NM to enhance the polymerization process and reduce pore size [23,78].

Figure 9 Results of CP test of UHPGC containing NS and NT.
Figure 9

Results of CP test of UHPGC containing NS and NT.

3.4.3 WS

The data presented in Figure 10 display the WS coefficient values for UHPGC samples after 28 days of testing. Based on the findings, it appears that the inclusion of NM (NS or NT) in UHPGC samples led to a reduction in the WS coefficient values. The WS coefficient values for UHPGC samples containing NS were observed to range between 2.4 and 1.28 (10−4 mm·s−1 0.5). The WS coefficient values for UHPGC samples containing NT ranged from 2.55 to 1.20 (10−4 mm·s−1 0.5). In the case of the control mixture without NS and NT, the WS coefficient was measured to be 2.95 (10−4 mm·s−1 0.5). Based on the results, it appears that the NT4.0 mixture demonstrated the most favorable WS coefficient value of 1.20 (10−4 mm·s−1 0.5), while the NS4.0 mixture exhibited a slightly higher water diffusion coefficient value of 1.28 (10−4 mm·s−1 0.5). Based on the findings presented it appears that the inclusion of nanoparticles has a positive impact on the impermeability of concrete. The results show a clear correlation between the increase in the rate of addition of NM and the gradual decrease in the water absorption coefficient. This may be attributed to the role played by NM in enhancing the polymerization process and reducing pore size [23,78].

Figure 10 Results of WS test of UHPGC containing NS and NT.
Figure 10

Results of WS test of UHPGC containing NS and NT.

According to previous studies, it has been suggested that geopolymer mixtures incorporating FA and GBFS with NS or NT can enhance the characteristics of GC, subject to the addition rate. The effectiveness of the added NM to geopolymer mixtures is contingent upon their chemical composition and fineness [64,77,78]. Based on the available results, it appears that the findings of previous researchers regarding the mechanism of action of NM can be supported. These findings suggest that NM tends to concentrate on three specific points. This study primarily focuses on the framework of NM (NS and NT) on UHPGC. The unique properties of nanoparticles, such as (1) the effect of small particle size, significant surface area, and high surface energy have a significant impact on the potential impact of NM on the geopolymer matrix [69]. (2) The phenomenon of nucleation, the nanoparticles have a significant surface area and surface energy, which serve as a nucleation for a less porous geopolymer matrix. This, in turn, causes the geopolymerization process to accelerate [63]. (3) The effect of nanopore filling, which is the incorporation of nanoparticles into the geopolymer matrix with the potential to improve pore structure by filling the nanopores [76].

3.4.4 Relationship between the transport properties of UHPGC

Transport properties such as CP, WP, and WS in UHPGC-embedded NM have a strong correlation because they are all influenced by the same factors. The permeability of UHPGC is primarily determined by the pores, their diffusion, their connectivity, and their continuity within the microstructure. In this study, the hypothesis that transport characteristics are interrelated was confirmed, and a relationship was established that demonstrated the validity of tests conducted on UHPGC at 28 days of age. Figures 11–13 illustrate the results, which indicate that there is a significant correlation between WP and WS, as indicated by a correlation coefficient of R 2 = 0.99; a significant correlation coefficient between WS and CP, as indicated by a correlation coefficient of R 2 = 0.99; and a significant correlation between WP and CP, as indicated by a correlation coefficient of R 2 = 0.97. A correlation coefficient, R, demonstrates that these findings are related. In addition, it is stated that all correlation coefficients are exceedingly high, exceeding (R 2 = 0.97) with regard to the transport properties of UHPGC. Due to the exceedingly high correlation between the transport properties of UHPC and UHPGC, it appears that concrete samples with high robustness also have low WP. The low WP indicates the effectiveness of preventing the penetration of chloride ions, whose diffusion within concrete can result in corrosion of the steel reinforcement. In addition, the reduction in WP exacerbates the reduction in the rise of gases and liquids within the concrete, thereby reducing concrete deterioration over time. Several studies in the past have confirmed the existence of a significant correlation between the conveyance properties of concrete [79–81].

Figure 11 Relationship between WP and WS of UHPGC.
Figure 11

Relationship between WP and WS of UHPGC.

Figure 12 Relationship between WS and CP of UHPGC.
Figure 12

Relationship between WS and CP of UHPGC.

Figure 13 Relationship between WP and CP of UHPGC.
Figure 13

Relationship between WP and CP of UHPGC.

3.5 SA

The results of SA (Na2SO4) on UHPGC at varying concentrations of 0.0–100.0 g·L−1 over a period of 28, 90, and 180 days are shown in Figure 14a–e. Figure 14a illustrates the CS of no SA of UHPGC, where 0.0 mg·L−1 (no attack) is the reference mixture for calculating a loss in CS upon SA exposure. As shown in Figure 14b, the CS of UHPGC was not significantly affected by SA at concentrations as low as 5 mg·L−1 (low attack) over a period of 180 days. The reduction in CS was between 1.7 and 3.9% of the CS without SA. In addition, it can be seen in Figure 14c and d that the CS decreased more rapidly when SA exposure at the concentration was increased by 50 mg·L−1 (medium attack) and 75 mg·L−1 (high attack) over a period of 180 days. When subjected to SA at a concentration of 50 mg·L−1, the decrease in CS of UHPGC ranged from 4.6 to 11.3% compared to the reference mixture, while the decrease in CS ranged from 11.8 to 20.0% of UHPGC upon exposure to a concentration of 75 mg·L−1. Moreover, Figure 14e shows a significant decrease in the CS of the UHPGC samples subjected to 100 mg·L−1 SA (extreme attack). This decrease in CS due to SA is most pronounced at an advanced age of 180 days. The decrease in CS of UHPGC ranges from 21.5 to 30.8% of the CS before SA. According to a previous study conducted by Bakharev et al. [82], it has been suggested that GC exhibits superior performance in sodium and magnesium sulfate environments compared to Portland cement concrete. Moreover, the incorporation of NM into GC has had a positive effect. According to the findings, UHPGCs that included NS or NT demonstrated superior efficacy in comparison to the control mixture [83].

Figure 14 SA (Na2SO4) of UHPGC. (a) Concentrations of sodium sulfate of no attack. (b) Concentrations of sodium sulfate of low attack. (c) Concentrations of sodium sulfate of medium attack. (d) Concentrations of sodium sulfate of high attack. (e) Concentrations of sodium sulfate of severe attack.
Figure 14

SA (Na2SO4) of UHPGC. (a) Concentrations of sodium sulfate of no attack. (b) Concentrations of sodium sulfate of low attack. (c) Concentrations of sodium sulfate of medium attack. (d) Concentrations of sodium sulfate of high attack. (e) Concentrations of sodium sulfate of severe attack.

Figure 15 illustrates the deterioration in concrete’s CS after being exposed to Na2SO4 attack for 180 days. The results show that the lowest loss in CS was from half of the mixture NS4.0 and NT4.0 by the amount of retention of 78.5 and 78%, respectively.

Figure 15 Residual CS after exposure of concrete to the concentration of sodium sulfate of 100 g·L−1 for 180 days.
Figure 15

Residual CS after exposure of concrete to the concentration of sodium sulfate of 100 g·L−1 for 180 days.

4 Conclusions

This study aims to assess the effectiveness of UHPGC by analyzing its properties with varying amounts of NS and NT. The research examines how different concentrations affect key parameters such as CS, transport properties, and resistance to SA. After analyzing the data presented in this study, the following conclusions can be drawn:

  • Gradual decreases in slump flow diameter were observed for cement additions with NS and NT, with reductions of 17 and 13%, respectively.

  • Adding 2.5% of NS to the mixture NS2.5 resulted in the highest CS of 161.0, 176.8, 198.7, 217.0, and 222.2 MPa for ages 3, 7, 28, 90, and 180 days, respectively.

  • The CS of 4% NT mix was recorded as 158.3, 176.4, 97.6, 214.8, and 215.0 MPa at test ages of 3, 7, 28, 90, and 180 days, respectively.

  • The higher the adding dosage of NS or NT, the lower the WS, with reductions up to 59% in the case of NS and 61.7% in the case of NT.

  • NS and NT facilitate the formation of additional reaction products, thereby enhancing the overall crystalline structure. The improved microstructure is correlated with superior mechanical properties.

  • CP test results for UHPGC samples that included NT were between 272 and 130 (Columb). As for the control mixture without NM (NS and NT), the CP value was 340 (Columb). Accordingly, the NT4.0 mixture achieved the lowest chloride permeability at 130 (Columb),

  • Significant decrease in the CS of the UHPGC samples subjected to 100 mg·L−1 SA (extreme attack). This decrease in CS due to SA is most pronounced at an advanced age of 180 days. The decrease in CS of UHPGC ranges from 21.5 to 30.8% of the CS before SA.

5 Recommendations for future work

The performance of UHPGC in the presence of different NMs also in different durability investigations such as CP SA, corrosion, and elevated temperature needed to be performed.

Acknowledgments

The authors are thankful to the Deanship of Graduate Studies and Scientific Research at the University of Bisha for supporting this work through the Fast-Track Research Support Program.

  1. Funding information: This work was supported by the Deanship of Graduate Studies and Scientific Research at the University of Bisha through the Fast-Track Research Support Program.

  2. Author contributions: All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and approved its submission.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.

  4. Data availability statement: All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article.

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Received: 2024-05-15
Revised: 2024-09-09
Accepted: 2024-11-06
Published Online: 2024-12-09

© 2024 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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  37. Development of a new damping ratio prediction model for recycled aggregate concrete: Incorporating modified admixtures and carbonation effects
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https://doi.org/10.1515/rams-2024-0071
Keywords for this article
UHPGC; nano-silica; nano-titanium; compressive strength; transport properties; sulfate attack; ultra-high-performance geopolymer concrete
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Review Articles
  2. Effect of superplasticizer in geopolymer and alkali-activated cement mortar/concrete: A review
  3. Experimenting the influence of corncob ash on the mechanical strength of slag-based geopolymer concrete
  4. Powder metallurgy processing of high entropy alloys: Bibliometric analysis and systematic review
  5. Exploring the potential of agricultural waste as an additive in ultra-high-performance concrete for sustainable construction: A comprehensive review
  6. A review on partial substitution of nanosilica in concrete
  7. Foam concrete for lightweight construction applications: A comprehensive review of the research development and material characteristics
  8. Modification of PEEK for implants: Strategies to improve mechanical, antibacterial, and osteogenic properties
  9. Interfacing the IoT in composite manufacturing: An overview
  10. Advances in processing and ablation properties of carbon fiber reinforced ultra-high temperature ceramic composites
  11. Advancing auxetic materials: Emerging development and innovative applications
  12. Revolutionizing energy harvesting: A comprehensive review of thermoelectric devices
  13. Exploring polyetheretherketone in dental implants and abutments: A focus on biomechanics and finite element methods
  14. Smart technologies and textiles and their potential use and application in the care and support of elderly individuals: A systematic review
  15. Reinforcement mechanisms and current research status of silicon carbide whisker-reinforced composites: A comprehensive review
  16. Innovative eco-friendly bio-composites: A comprehensive review of the fabrication, characterization, and applications
  17. Review on geopolymer concrete incorporating Alccofine-1203
  18. Advancements in surface treatments for aluminum alloys in sports equipment
  19. Ionic liquid-modified carbon-based fillers and their polymer composites – A Raman spectroscopy analysis
  20. Emerging boron nitride nanosheets: A review on synthesis, corrosion resistance coatings, and their impacts on the environment and health
  21. Mechanism, models, and influence of heterogeneous factors of the microarc oxidation process: A comprehensive review
  22. Synthesizing sustainable construction paradigms: A comprehensive review and bibliometric analysis of granite waste powder utilization and moisture correction in concrete
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  26. Study on dynamic response of cushion layer-reinforced concrete slab under rockfall impact based on smoothed particle hydrodynamics and finite-element method coupling
  27. Study on the mechanical properties and microstructure of recycled brick aggregate concrete with waste fiber
  28. Multiscale characterization of the UV aging resistance and mechanism of light stabilizer-modified asphalt
  29. Characterization of sandwich materials – Nomex-Aramid carbon fiber performances under mechanical loadings: Nonlinear FE and convergence studies
  30. Effect of grain boundary segregation and oxygen vacancy annihilation on aging resistance of cobalt oxide-doped 3Y-TZP ceramics for biomedical applications
  31. Mechanical damage mechanism investigation on CFRP strengthened recycled red brick concrete
  32. Finite element analysis of deterioration of axial compression behavior of corroded steel-reinforced concrete middle-length columns
  33. Grinding force model for ultrasonic assisted grinding of γ-TiAl intermetallic compounds and experimental validation
  34. Enhancement of hardness and wear strength of pure Cu and Cu–TiO2 composites via a friction stir process while maintaining electrical resistivity
  35. Effect of sand–precursor ratio on mechanical properties and durability of geopolymer mortar with manufactured sand
  36. Research on the strength prediction for pervious concrete based on design porosity and water-to-cement ratio
  37. Development of a new damping ratio prediction model for recycled aggregate concrete: Incorporating modified admixtures and carbonation effects
  38. Exploring the viability of AI-aided genetic algorithms in estimating the crack repair rate of self-healing concrete
  39. Modification of methacrylate bone cement with eugenol – A new material with antibacterial properties
  40. Numerical investigations on constitutive model parameters of HRB400 and HTRB600 steel bars based on tensile and fatigue tests
  41. Research progress on Fe3+-activated near-infrared phosphor
  42. Discrete element simulation study on effects of grain preferred orientation on micro-cracking and macro-mechanical behavior of crystalline rocks
  43. Ultrasonic resonance evaluation method for deep interfacial debonding defects of multilayer adhesive bonded materials
  44. Effect of impurity components in titanium gypsum on the setting time and mechanical properties of gypsum-slag cementitious materials
  45. Bending energy absorption performance of composite fender piles with different winding angles
  46. Theoretical study of the effect of orientations and fibre volume on the thermal insulation capability of reinforced polymer composites
  47. Synthesis and characterization of a novel ternary magnetic composite for the enhanced adsorption capacity to remove organic dyes
  48. Couple effects of multi-impact damage and CAI capability on NCF composites
  49. Mechanical testing and engineering applicability analysis of SAP concrete used in buffer layer design for tunnels in active fault zones
  50. Investigating the rheological characteristics of alkali-activated concrete using contemporary artificial intelligence approaches
  51. Integrating micro- and nanowaste glass with waste foundry sand in ultra-high-performance concrete to enhance material performance and sustainability
  52. Effect of water immersion on shear strength of epoxy adhesive filled with graphene nanoplatelets
  53. Impact of carbon content on the phase structure and mechanical properties of TiBCN coatings via direct current magnetron sputtering
  54. Investigating the anti-aging properties of asphalt modified with polyphosphoric acid and tire pyrolysis oil
  55. Biomedical and therapeutic potential of marine-derived Pseudomonas sp. strain AHG22 exopolysaccharide: A novel bioactive microbial metabolite
  56. Effect of basalt fiber length on the behavior of natural hydraulic lime-based mortars
  57. Optimizing the performance of TPCB/SCA composite-modified asphalt using improved response surface methodology
  58. Compressive strength of waste-derived cementitious composites using machine learning
  59. Melting phenomenon of thermally stratified MHD Powell–Eyring nanofluid with variable porosity past a stretching Riga plate
  60. Development and characterization of a coaxial strain-sensing cable integrated steel strand for wide-range stress monitoring
  61. Compressive and tensile strength estimation of sustainable geopolymer concrete using contemporary boosting ensemble techniques
  62. Customized 3D printed porous titanium scaffolds with nanotubes loading antibacterial drugs for bone tissue engineering
  63. Facile design of PTFE-kaolin-based ternary nanocomposite as a hydrophobic and high corrosion-barrier coating
  64. Effects of C and heat treatment on microstructure, mechanical, and tribo-corrosion properties of VAlTiMoSi high-entropy alloy coating
  65. Study on the damage mechanism and evolution model of preloaded sandstone subjected to freezing–thawing action based on the NMR technology
  66. Promoting low carbon construction using alkali-activated materials: A modeling study for strength prediction and feature interaction
  67. Entropy generation analysis of MHD convection flow of hybrid nanofluid in a wavy enclosure with heat generation and thermal radiation
  68. Friction stir welding of dissimilar Al–Mg alloys for aerospace applications: Prospects and future potential
  69. Fe nanoparticle-functionalized ordered mesoporous carbon with tailored mesostructures and their applications in magnetic removal of Ag(i)
  70. Study on physical and mechanical properties of complex-phase conductive fiber cementitious materials
  71. Evaluating the strength loss and the effectiveness of glass and eggshell powder for cement mortar under acidic conditions
  72. Effect of fly ash on properties and hydration of calcium sulphoaluminate cement-based materials with high water content
  73. Analyzing the efficacy of waste marble and glass powder for the compressive strength of self-compacting concrete using machine learning strategies
  74. Experimental study on municipal solid waste incineration ash micro-powder as concrete admixture
  75. Parameter optimization for ultrasonic-assisted grinding of γ-TiAl intermetallics: A gray relational analysis approach with surface integrity evaluation
  76. Producing sustainable binding materials using marble waste blended with fly ash and rice husk ash for building materials
  77. Effect of steam curing system on compressive strength of recycled aggregate concrete
  78. A sawtooth constitutive model describing strain hardening and multiple cracking of ECC under uniaxial tension
  79. Predicting mechanical properties of sustainable green concrete using novel machine learning: Stacking and gene expression programming
  80. Toward sustainability: Integrating experimental study and data-driven modeling for eco-friendly paver blocks containing plastic waste
  81. A numerical analysis of the rotational flow of a hybrid nanofluid past a unidirectional extending surface with velocity and thermal slip conditions
  82. A magnetohydrodynamic flow of a water-based hybrid nanofluid past a convectively heated rotating disk surface: A passive control of nanoparticles
  83. Prediction of flexural strength of concrete with eggshell and glass powders: Advanced cutting-edge approach for sustainable materials
  84. Efficacy of sustainable cementitious materials on concrete porosity for enhancing the durability of building materials
  85. Phase and microstructural characterization of swat soapstone (Mg3Si4O10(OH)2)
  86. Effect of waste crab shell powder on matrix asphalt
  87. Improving effect and mechanism on service performance of asphalt binder modified by PW polymer
  88. Influence of pH on the synthesis of carbon spheres and the application of carbon sphere-based solid catalysts in esterification
  89. Experimenting the compressive performance of low-carbon alkali-activated materials using advanced modeling techniques
  90. Thermogravimetric (TG/DTG) characterization of cold-pressed oil blends and Saccharomyces cerevisiae-based microcapsules obtained with them
  91. Investigation of temperature effect on thermo-mechanical property of carbon fiber/PEEK composites
  92. Computational approaches for structural analysis of wood specimens
  93. Integrated structure–function design of 3D-printed porous polydimethylsiloxane for superhydrophobic engineering
  94. Exploring the impact of seashell powder and nano-silica on ultra-high-performance self-curing concrete: Insights into mechanical strength, durability, and high-temperature resilience
  95. Axial compression damage constitutive model and damage characteristics of fly ash/silica fume modified magnesium phosphate cement after being treated at different temperatures
  96. Integrating testing and modeling methods to examine the feasibility of blended waste materials for the compressive strength of rubberized mortar
  97. Special Issue on 3D and 4D Printing of Advanced Functional Materials - Part II
  98. Energy absorption of gradient triply periodic minimal surface structure manufactured by stereolithography
  99. Marine polymers in tissue bioprinting: Current achievements and challenges
  100. Quick insight into the dynamic dimensions of 4D printing in polymeric composite mechanics
  101. Recent advances in 4D printing of hydrogels
  102. Mechanically sustainable and primary recycled thermo-responsive ABS–PLA polymer composites for 4D printing applications: Fabrication and studies
  103. Special Issue on Materials and Technologies for Low-carbon Biomass Processing and Upgrading
  104. Low-carbon embodied alkali-activated materials for sustainable construction: A comparative study of single and ensemble learners
  105. Study on bending performance of prefabricated glulam-cross laminated timber composite floor
  106. Special Issue on Recent Advancement in Low-carbon Cement-based Materials - Part I
  107. Supplementary cementitious materials-based concrete porosity estimation using modeling approaches: A comparative study of GEP and MEP
  108. Modeling the strength parameters of agro waste-derived geopolymer concrete using advanced machine intelligence techniques
  109. Promoting the sustainable construction: A scientometric review on the utilization of waste glass in concrete
  110. Incorporating geranium plant waste into ultra-high performance concrete prepared with crumb rubber as fine aggregate in the presence of polypropylene fibers
  111. Investigation of nano-basic oxygen furnace slag and nano-banded iron formation on properties of high-performance geopolymer concrete
  112. Effect of incorporating ultrafine palm oil fuel ash on the resistance to corrosion of steel bars embedded in high-strength green concrete
  113. Influence of nanomaterials on properties and durability of ultra-high-performance geopolymer concrete
  114. Influence of palm oil ash and palm oil clinker on the properties of lightweight concrete
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