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Incorporating geranium plant waste into ultra-high performance concrete prepared with crumb rubber as fine aggregate in the presence of polypropylene fibers

  • Ali H. AlAteah EMAIL logo
Published/Copyright: October 25, 2024
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REVIEWS ON ADVANCED MATERIALS SCIENCE
From the journal REVIEWS ON ADVANCED MATERIALS SCIENCE Volume 63 Issue 1

Abstract

This research examines the efficiency of ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC) when utilizing geranium plant (GP) ash, which is subjected to different curing temperatures ranging from 300 to 900°C for 3 h of burning time. The GP ash is used as a replacement for cement in varying amounts (10, 20, 30, 40, and 50 wt%). Crumb rubber powder is utilized as a substitute for fine aggregate. Polypropylene fibers have been used to improve concrete performance. The performance of UHPC is evaluated by assessing its mechanical qualities, such as flexural strength, splitting tensile strength, and compressive strength. The sorptivity test is also evaluated as a component of it. Scanning electron microscopy is used to analyze UHPC after exposure to temperatures as high as 900°C. The findings demonstrated a notable enhancement in the mechanical characteristics of all mixtures. The most favorable mixtures were achieved with proportions of 50, 40, 40, and 20% for mixtures including GP waste incinerated at temperatures ranging from 300 to 900°C. Furthermore, the optimal outcome is achieved when 40% substitution is performed at a temperature of 700°C, resulting in notable enhancements of 14% in compressive strength, 30% in flexural strength, and 17% splitting tensile strength, respectively. At a high temperature of 700°C, the decrease in strength increased to approximately 37–40% as a result of the initial removal of carbon dioxide from calcite at temperatures ranging from 600 to 900°C and reached 56% at 900°C. Great resistance to sorptivity, as well as a dense and compact microstructure with a high content of calcium and silicon, was obtained.

Keywords: ultra-high performance concrete; microstructure; polypropylene fibers; concrete mechanical properties; durability; geranium waste ash

1 Introduction

Ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC) is a composite material composed of quartz sand or river sand, quartz powder, silica fume, cement, water, and superplasticizer, which may or may not include fibers and coarse aggregates [1]. This material has been efficiently utilized in large-scale construction projects, such as high-rise buildings, bridges, and nuclear power plants. Quartz sand is a conventional aggregate used in UHPC; it is time-consuming and expensive to prepare, and its use can result in negative health effects and pollution [2,3]. Environment Canada and Health Canada (2008) reported a strong link between the increasing percentage of lung cancer in people and industries that expose them to respirable silica dust [4]. On the other hand, river sand is a non-renewable resource that is being depleted at a rate that outweighs its replenishment, which can have negative environmental impacts due to sand mining [5,6,7]. UHPC is a cutting-edge composite material that has revolutionized the construction industry by offering a promising alternative to traditional concrete. With its remarkable durability and strength, UHPC has advanced the development of the construction world and can be used in various applications that were previously limited by design constraints. Despite its impressive properties, the preparation of UHPC is costly because of the demand for special curing techniques, difficult manufacturing processes, and high cement content [2,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15].

Since the 1980s, numerous researchers have used leftover tire rubber powder to create crumb rubber concrete (CRC) [16]. The incorporation of crumb rubber into concrete addresses the drawbacks of its excessive weight and brittleness and expands the scope of waste rubber recycling. CRC is a composite material produced using finely ground rubber particles to replace a portion of the fine aggregate or larger rubber particles to replace a portion of the coarse aggregate in regular concrete [17]. Studies have demonstrated that CRC surpasses regular concrete in various aspects, such as energy absorption and consumption, fatigue resistance, reduction in material brittleness, deformation capacity, prevention of crack propagation, durability, and thermal performance [18]. This study focused on the use of carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (CRC) in deep foundation pit support systems to minimize the occurrence of brittle failure. Incorporating rubber powder into concrete has a positive effect on its durability and significantly reduces the rate at which chloride ions migrate within the concrete. However, the incorporation of crumb rubber resulted in a reduction in the elastic modulus, compressive strength, and tensile strength of the CRC to varying extents. The incorporation of mineral admixtures such as slag optimizes the pore structure of CRC, resulting in improved mechanical properties, particularly in terms of compressive strength [19,20]. Preheating and hardening the surface of crumb rubber enhance the compressive strength and impact resistance of CRC. Furthermore, to fully exploit the denaturation capability of CRC, many researchers have recently incorporated steel fibers into concrete to increase its impact toughness. CRC has been used in various applications, including rubber asphalt concrete pavements, CRC blocks, CRC bridge panels, flexible components, self-compacting concrete, and permeable concrete [21,22].

Recently, the accumulation of crumb rubber waste has become a significant environmental concern. Owing to the slow rate of decomposition and potential release of toxic compounds through leaching, the disposal of abandoned rubber tires and other rubber products in landfills poses a significant environmental threat [18,23]. The use of crumb rubber waste in concrete has emerged as a promising and environmentally friendly solution to this problem. By incorporating crumb rubber into concrete mixtures, researchers can reduce the amount of rubber waste in landfills and improve the durability and flexibility of the resulting concrete [18,21,24]. This innovative approach provides a mutually beneficial solution for both the environment and the construction industry by not only reducing the negative impact of discarded rubber but also creating a stronger and more environmentally friendly building material for various infrastructure projects [16,25,26]. The incorporation of crumb rubber in concrete as a method of recycling sand represents a novel and sustainable approach to waste reduction and enhancement of construction materials [19]. This innovative idea involves combining sand, a readily available material, with crumb rubber, a waste product derived from discarded tires. This environmentally conscious approach not only reduces the reliance on virgin sand, which is commonly extracted in excessive amounts from natural sources, but also confers several beneficial characteristics to the resulting concrete. These include increased flexibility and resilience, which leads to improved resistance to cracking and impact damage, reduced noise levels within buildings, and enhanced insulation [18,27,28]. In conclusion, the process of recycling sand with crumb rubber in concrete not only conserves natural resources but also results in a flexible and environmentally friendly building material that aligns with the principles of sustainability and circular economy.

Agricultural waste is commonly utilized in the concrete industry [29,30], particularly in the production of various types of concrete, such as lightweight, geopolymer, and reactive powder concrete [31,32,33]. Several agricultural waste materials, including corn ash [34,35], cotton husk ash [36,37], sugar cane bagasse ash [38,39,40,41], rice straw ash [42,43,44,45,46], palm oil ash [47,48,49,50], and rice husk ash [19,20,21,22,23], have been incorporated into concrete to enhance its performance [51,52,53], particularly in geopolymer concrete, reactive powder concrete, and lightweight concrete, with a significant role in the pozzolanic reaction [36,51,54,55,56,57,58,59,60,61,62,63,64,65], particularly in lightweight and geopolymer concrete. By burning agricultural waste at high temperatures, it is possible to improve its chemical properties such as compressive strength, tensile strength, and flexure strength. For instance, sugar cane bagasse ash precured at temperatures ranging from 200 to 800°C for 2 h with increasing silica content from 75%, 17.78 MPa, and 24.05 MPa in compressive strength, tensile strength, and flexure strength, respectively [35]. Similarly, rice husk ash was used in UHPC mixes after burning at different temperatures, and it significantly improved UHPC performance when heated at 500°C for 2 h, resulting in a 9.7% at 7 days, 14.5% at 28 days, and 10.2% at 120 days improvement in compressive strength, respectively, when cement content was replaced by 2/3 of its value by rice husk ash [66]. Geraniums have a significant presence in the realm of decorative plants, and their widespread availability in the flower industry is well established [67,68]. In urban settings, they are commonly used in a variety of contexts, such as flower beds, containers, and green spaces, and are renowned for their ability to thrive under harsh environmental conditions. Furthermore, geraniums exhibit the unusual characteristic of becoming organic heavy metal accumulators, which makes them useful in phytoremediation for removing or reducing contaminants from contaminated soil or water. Geranium waste, which includes discarded leaves, stalks, flowers, and other plant parts, is the byproduct or residue of geranium cultivation, processing, or disposal and is sometimes considered trash. However, this waste has significant value and can be used for various purposes. For instance, it can be composted to produce organic fertilizers that support sustainable agriculture. Additionally, geranium waste can be recycled to create essential oils and natural colors that have applications in the perfume, cosmetics, and herbal medicine sectors. Furthermore, the natural heavy metal acquisition property of geraniums makes their waste materials suitable for phytoremediation uses, which support the remediation of damaged soils or waters. By exploring innovative ways to utilize geranium waste, we can unlock its potential and encourage a more circular and sustainable approach to geranium cultivation [69].

1.1 Research significance

The literature review revealed that previous studies had examined the feasibility of incorporating different agricultural and industrial waste materials into UHPC. However, the objective of this study is to develop environmentally friendly UHPC by substituting a portion of the cement with geranium plant waste (GPW) powder. This substitution is a viable and sustainable alternative for cement, offering practicality and user-friendliness. In addition to saving natural resources of sand by using alternative resources and solving environmental problems of landfills, no specific investigation has been conducted on the effects of incorporating geranium waste or perfume industry waste in concrete. This is especially pertinent considering the present climatic and environmental concerns regarding carbon emissions, as well as the increasing abundance of various industrial waste materials and scarcity of natural resources. Moreover, the worldwide expense of garbage disposal is escalating, necessitating the development of sustainable alternatives.

2 Experimental work

2.1 Raw materials

This investigation employed conventional Portland cement 52.5N, which adhered to the BSEN197/1 2011 standard [70]. The Sika Company in Egypt manufactured silica fume with a specific gravity of 3.15 and a surface area of 3,960 cm2·g−1, as well as silica fume with a surface area of 200,000 cm2·g−1, a specific gravity of 2.13, and a density of 0.78 g·cm−3. The silica fume had an initial setting time and a final setting time of 134 and 198 min, respectively, and exhibited compressive strengths of 24.2 MPa at 7 days and 52.5 MPa at 28 days. Table 1 shows the chemical composition of cement and silica fume. The GPW used in the experiment was obtained from a perfume-manufacturing company and subjected to a drying process at a temperature of 25°C, followed by heating in an oven for burning for 3 h at varying rates of 10°C per min, reaching temperatures ranging from 300 to 900°C with 200°C step. The heated samples were then crushed and passed through a 90 mm screen, and their chemical compositions were analyzed using EDEX analysis. A sample of crumb rubber was used as a fine aggregate of bulk density and specific gravity of 530 kg·m−3 and 0.97, respectively. Figure 1 shows a sieve analysis diagram for rubber; the Sika Company provided polypropylene fiber and a third-generation superplasticizer named SikaViscoCrete5930, which has a pH range of 8.0–1.0 and a density of 1.08 kg·m−3. Figure 2 illustrates the raw materials used for the UHPC production (Figure 3).

Table 1

Chemical composition of cement and silica fume (%)

Chemical composition (%) SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO MgO K2O Na2O SO3 Cl Free lime
CEM I 20.97 5.65 2.41 64.88 2.68 0.6 — 2.81
SF 98.1 0.11 0.15 0.11 0.3 1.1 0 0.13
Figure 1 Sieve analysis for waste rubber.
Figure 1

Sieve analysis for waste rubber.

Figure 2 Sieve analysis for cement and silica fume.
Figure 2

Sieve analysis for cement and silica fume.

Figure 3 Rubber and polypropylene appearance.
Figure 3

Rubber and polypropylene appearance.

2.1.1 GPW preparation steps

Geranium waste ash was acquired from nearby agricultural establishments, and meticulous efforts were made to gather the ash while eliminating any undesired clumps or debris. The ash was subsequently incinerated in a furnace at 300, 500, 700, and 900°C for 3 h at a heating rate of 10°C·min−1 after reaching the target temperature; the samples were kept for 3 h and then cooled to ambient temperature in the oven to avoid oxidation when subjected to air. Following the heating process, the ash was cooled to room temperature for 1 h. Subsequently, the samples were crushed using a zirconia ball mill for 30 min to obtain a particle size of 90 µm (Figure 4). The ashes were subsequently sifted and satisfied the precise requirements specified in BS 3892: Part 1–1997 and ASTM.

Figure 4 Preparation process for geranium waste powder before burning at elevated temperatures.
Figure 4

Preparation process for geranium waste powder before burning at elevated temperatures.

Table 2 presents the X-ray fluorescence analysis results of the geranium waste, indicating that the ash had a micro-sized structure. The ashes were subsequently utilized as a substitute for cement in varying ratios (10–50 wt%) to conduct a comprehensive analysis of their properties. The results were determined to comply with the specifications established by BS 3892: Part 1–1997 and ASTM.

Table 2

Chemical composition of GPW after different treatment methods (%)

Chemical composition (%) SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO MgO K2O Na2O SO3 Cl Free lime
(GPW) 300 46.37 4.87 13.1 16.09 5.01 3.86 2.68 1.35 1.73 2.33
(GPW) 500 49.09 5.97 13.2 15.36 3.48 3.06 3.54 1.36 1.83 1.15
(GPW) 700 51.63 6.49 13.83 15.43 3.55 3.67 2.11 1.11 1.17 1.01
(GPW) 900 53.82 7.12 14.27 13.2 3.82 3.18 2.34 1.16 0.21 0.88

2.2 Concrete mix design

To achieve the desired properties of UHPC (high strength, impermeability, low porosity, and high density), an appropriate w/c ratio was selected, as shown in Table 2 [71]. Several experimental trials were conducted to accurately satisfy UHPC standards. After obtaining the target strength, geranium waste at various percentages, including 10–50 wt% of cement, was replaced from cement content. Finally, polypropylene fiber was added and mixed to avoid the balling effect. The mixing proportions are shown in Table 3.

Table 3

Mix proportions (kg·m−3)

c GP% SF CR SP% w w/c PP
C100G0 900 0 240 1,150 1.5 150 0.16 0.9
10G300 810 90 240 1,150 1.5 150 0.16 0.9
20G300 720 180 240 1,150 1.5 150 0.16 0.9
30G300 630 270 240 1,150 1.5 150 0.16 0.9
40G300 540 360 240 1,150 1.5 150 0.16 0.9
50G300 450 450 240 1,150 1.5 150 0.16 0.9
10G500 810 90 240 1,150 1.5 150 0.16 0.9
20G500 720 180 240 1,150 1.5 150 0.16 0.9
30G500 630 270 240 1,150 1.5 150 0.16 0.9
40G500 540 360 240 1,150 1.5 150 0.16 0.9
50G500 450 450 240 1,150 1.5 150 0.16 0.9
10G700 810 90 240 1,150 1.5 150 0.16 0.9
20G700 720 180 240 1,150 1.5 150 0.16 0.9
30G700 630 270 240 1,150 1.5 150 0.16 0.9
40G700 540 360 240 1,150 1.5 150 0.16 0.9
50G700 450 450 240 1,150 1.5 150 0.16 0.9
10 G900 810 90 240 1,150 1.5 150 0.16 0.9
20G900 720 180 240 1,150 1.5 150 0.16 0.9
30G900 630 270 240 1,150 1.5 150 0.16 0.9
40G900 540 360 240 1,150 1.5 150 0.16 0.9
50G900 450 450 240 1,150 1.5 150 0.16 0.9

c: cement, GP: geranium plant, PP: polypropylene fiber, SF: silica fume, w: water, SP: superplasticizer.

2.3 Mixing procedures

The mixing ratios required for UHPC are detailed in Table 2. The packing density theory for UHPC was achieved through a series of tests that followed the Andreasen and Andersen model [72] as follows.

Mixing procedures involved combining dry binders, such as silica fume, cement, and GPW, in a mixer for 120 s at a low speed. This was followed by the addition of superplasticizer and water, and the components were then mixed for an additional 2 min at a low speed, and then a homogeneous composite was obtained by mixing for 3 min at a high speed. In total, 21 mixes were prepared: one control mix and five mixes prepared for each burning degree with dosages of 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50%. The samples were then compacted and allowed to cure in a laboratory environment for 24 h [73].

2.4 Casting and curing

A concrete mixer with a capacity of 10 L was used for the mixing process. To ensure a consistent mixture, cement, sand, and silica fume were precisely measured before being combined. The superplasticizer and water were mixed in a separate container and then added to the dry ingredients in the mixer drum. The mixture was carefully blended to achieve ideal consistency for casting. The time required for various components to combine varied for each mixture. We created cylindrical specimens with a diameter of 100 mm and a height of 200 mm, as well as cubic specimens with dimensions of 100 mm for each concrete mixture. The molds were gently vibrated to release any trapped air before each of the three concrete layers was placed inside. Plastic sheets were placed over the specimens after the concrete surface was finished to prevent water evaporation. After a 48-h interval, the specimens were removed from the molds and immersed in a water tank maintained at a constant temperature of 25°C/2°C until testing ages of 7, 28, and 90 days for compressive strength.

3 Testing

The investigation included examining the mechanical properties, durability, and microstructure of the concrete mixes at room temperature, as well as conducting compressive strength tests at high temperatures. Some samples were used to evaluate the compressive strength, and the specimens were tested using an ELE crushing machine with a capacity of 3,000 kN, with a loading rate of 6.8 kN·s−1 in accordance with ASTM C109, BS EN 12390 3:2019, and other standards. The specimens were subjected to compressive strength testing at ages of 7, 28, and 90 days, as well as at elevated temperatures of 300, 500, 700, and 900°C, while the other specimens were heated in an electric furnace at a heating rate of 10°C·min−1 to the target temperature. When the desired temperature was achieved, it was maintained constant for 2 h. Subsequently, the furnace was cooled at a rate of 1.67°C·min−1 to avoid any thermal shock to the specimens. Cylindrical specimens with dimensions of 100 mm × 200 mm were tested for splitting tensile strength in accordance with ASTM C496, and 100 mm × 100 mm × 500 mm beams were used to investigate the flexural strength. For each mixture, three specimens of each age were cast and cured until the testing date, and the average strength was calculated. Nine cubes of each mix were cast for 7, 28, and 90 days, in addition to three cylinders for each mix for splitting at 28 days and three beams for flexure at 28 days. For durability evaluation, a sorptivity test was performed on all mixes using cylinders of 100 mm diameter × 50 mm length after drying the samples at 105°C, as per ASTM C1585. Microstructure analysis was performed using a scanning electron microscope on thin sections taken from crushed cube cores, in addition to thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), to determine the effect of GPW on the decomposition of internal hydration products [74].

4 Results and discussion

4.1 Compressive strength

A compressive strength test was conducted on all the designed mixtures to assess the performance of UHPC that incorporated GPW that had been burnt at 300–900°C. The goal is to compare their performance and determine the most suitable choice with the best performance and optimal dosage. Figure 5a shows the compressive strength of UHPC incorporating GPW burnt at 300°C. The results indicated that replacing the cement weight with GPW increased the compressive strength at all ages for all dosages. Moreover, it is clarified that there is compatibility in the trend of CSH findings at all ages, where the CSH outcomes are boosted gradually up to a replacement ratio of 40%. The compressive strength of the mix gradually increased from 110 MPa at the reference mix to 116 MPa at 40% and then decreased to 114 MPa at the age of 7 days. Compared to the control mix with zero waste (GP), the compressive strength increased from 131 MPa for the reference mix to 139.8 MPa at 28 days and from 140 MPa for the control mix at 90 days to 148 MPa with increasing ratios ranging between 4 and 7% at all ranges. Figure 3b shows similar results for GP burnt at 500°C. Replacing cement with GPW has a positive effect on the compressive strength results at all replacement ratios up to 10% at 7 days, with a significant increase in compressive strength from 110 to 120 MPa at a 40% replacement ratio and a small decrease at a 50% replacement ratio of 119 MPa. The same trend was obtained at 28 and 90 days with an increase rate of 8.7%. In general, it was observed that a 40% replacement ratio achieved the best performance for this group. When the cement was replaced with GPW treated at 700°C, the strength increased dramatically up to a 50% replacement ratio, and the strength increased (1) from 110.2 to 125 MPa at 7 days and (2) from 131.2 to 150 MPa at 28 days, owing to high pozzolanic reactions, which may have occurred because of the silica content of 51.3% that can react with calcium hydroxide, resulting in CSH. Moreover, the silica content in GPW is approximately 2.5 times greater than that in cement, and the fineness of the particles also participates in the production of CSH. At the age of 90 days, the strength increased for all mixes gradually from 140 to 158 MPa, achieving the optimum dosage, as shown in Figure 5c. Figure 5d displays the compressive strength when GPW powder treated at 900°C was utilized. The results indicate that adding GPW improves the compressive strength up to a 20% replacement ratio, and after 20%, the compressive strength decreases gradually, reaching a strength greater than that of the control mix. However, the decrease in the optimum value may be due to the presence of unreacted silica in the composition of GPW when subjected to 900°C and higher contamination.

Figure 5 Compressive strength for UHPC incorporating GP waste: (a) 300°C, (b) 500°C, (c) 700°C, (d) 900°C, and (e) cumulative curve for all burning degrees.
Figure 5

Compressive strength for UHPC incorporating GP waste: (a) 300°C, (b) 500°C, (c) 700°C, (d) 900°C, and (e) cumulative curve for all burning degrees.

Figure 5e explains the cumulative figure for compressive strength for 21 different dosages and GPWs. It can be concluded that burning GPW at 700°C is the best compared to the studied temperatures, achieving a 19% increase in strength with decreasing cement content by 320 kg·m−3. The strength improvement of the mixes with GPW treated at 900°C can be attributed to the insufficient calcium hydroxide needed to react with the high silica content present in GPW or the negative effect of temperatures higher than 700°C, which improves the crystalline phase of silica and decreases the pozzolanic reaction continuity. In addition, specific areas play an important role in accelerating reactions.

4.2 Split tensile strength

The aim of this study is to evaluate the indirect tensile strength of different mixtures through the implementation of a splitting tensile strength test on cylindrical specimens with dimensions of 100 mm × 200 mm. The results depicted in Figure 6 demonstrate a notable augmentation in the splitting strength for all mixtures incorporating GPW, along with a substantial value for the reference mixture attributed to the reinforcing effect of the polypropylene fibers. Throughout the testing procedure, initial observations revealed the emergence of minor fractures, and at the point of maximum load on the bearing, the samples experienced a total division into two separate halves [75,76,77]. A study was conducted to assess the indirect tensile strength of different mixtures by subjecting cylindrical specimens measuring 100 mm × 200 mm to a splitting tensile strength test. The objective of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of incorporating polypropylene fibers with GPW. As shown in Figure 3, all the mixtures incorporating GPW exhibited a notable enhancement in the splitting strength. The reference mixture also showed a high starting value, which is attributed to the reinforcing influence of the polypropylene fibers. During the test, the first microfractures were observed, and at the point of maximum force, the samples experienced a complete fracture, resulting in two separate halves. The findings demonstrated that the adhesion between the geranium powder and UHPC constituents improved the interfacial transition zone (ITZ), resulting in heightened strength. Furthermore, the substitution of cement with fine materials abundant in amorphous silica also played a role in increasing the strength. As presented in Figure 3, the splitting tensile strength increased by 8.3–21.3% for mixes 10G300-50G300, 8–21% for mixes 10G500-40500, 11.7–27.8% for mixes 10G700-40G700, and 10–16% for mixes 10G900-20G900. The most favorable outcomes were achieved at varying temperatures for the treatment of GPW, which aligns with the findings on compressive strength.

Figure 6 Splitting tensile strength for UHPC with GPW.
Figure 6

Splitting tensile strength for UHPC with GPW.

4.3 Flexural strength

The flexural strength of 21 mixtures is assessed using the four-point test to evaluate the performance of various mixtures. The addition of GPW (GP as a replacement for cement significantly impacts the flexural strength of UHPFC). The use of GP was found to significantly improve the flexural strength of UHPC [58], and all mixtures incorporating GPW achieved a high degree of flexural strength similar to that of the reference mixture. The failure strength is related to the ultimate phase, during which cracks appear in the samples under stress. As the weight increased, the cracks in the specimens expanded and elongated, eventually joining together and strengthening the central area. Eventually, there was a failure in the form of a vertical crack [78]. The use of GPW in place of cement resulted in varying increases in flexural strength: 18% at 50% GP prepared at 300°C, 18% at 40% replacement ratio prepared at 500°C, 30% increase at 40% replacement dosage pretreated at 700°C, and 13.6% at 20% replacement of GP treated at 900. The mixes incorporating GPW exhibited a flexural strength of 28 MPa, which surpassed the value of 22 MPa achieved in the absence of GPW. The exceptional flexural strength of UHPC can be attributed to its compact microstructure and robust ITZ between the aggregate and matrix, as illustrated in Figure 7.

Figure 7 Flexure strength for UHPC contains GPW.
Figure 7

Flexure strength for UHPC contains GPW.

4.4 Sorptivity

The GPW ash functions as a physical micro-filler, efficiently filling the voids between cement particles. The sorptivity of the concrete diminishes due to the constraining effect of the fine powder on water penetration. Consequently, the reduced porosity restricts the absorption of water through the capillaries, thereby further decreasing the sorptivity [8,63]. Figure 8 illustrates a progressive rise in sorptivity resistance, varying from 4.6 to 18%, for mixtures with a gradation of 10G300–50G300. In the same manner, blends with a range of 10G500–50G500 showed an increase from 7.5 to 18.6%. Significantly, the mixes with a range of 10G700–50G700 showed a notable increase from 19.18 to 43.3%. Finally, the mixtures ranging from 10G900 to 50G900 exhibited a progressive rise in percentage, increasing from 4.6 to 17.5%. Consequently, the addition of GP improved the concrete performance by decreasing its porosity, thereby enhancing its resistance to absorption [8,10]. The incorporation of GPW also led to a substantial decrease in the sorptivity. Various factors have contributed to this decline. By introducing GPWs, the compaction of the concrete mixture was first improved. This leads to a denser matrix with fewer vacant spaces that are interconnected, hence decreasing the number of paths for water to penetrate [8,10,63]. This enhanced packing diminishes the rate of moisture absorption by the material. Furthermore, GP residues exhibit pozzolanic characteristics, signifying their capacity to undergo chemical reactions with calcium hydroxide (CH) and produce supplementary cementitious compounds. This chemical reaction causes the microstructure to become more tightly packed, causing a significant lowering in the porosity of the concrete.

Figure 8 Sorptivity for UHPC incorporating GPW.
Figure 8

Sorptivity for UHPC incorporating GPW.

4.5 Compressive strength after subjecting to elevated temperatures

The loss in compressive strength of 21 mixes of four groups of ultra-high-performance fiber-reinforced concrete (UHPBFC) with varying dosages of cement replacement (10, 20, 30, 40, and 50 wt%) using GPWs and rubber as fine aggregate are shown in Figure 9. The specimens were dried at 100°C and then heated to 300, 500, 700, and 900°C for 3 h. Three cubes were selected and subjected to different temperatures for testing, and their compressive strengths were measured. The findings indicated a marginal enhancement in compressive strength upon subjecting the samples to 100°C, followed by a progressive decline in strength as the temperature increased to 900°C. Some reactions occurred, beginning with the removal of water bound to other substances at 100°C, resulting in a decrease in moisture. As a result, there was a minor increase in the compressive strength of approximately 5% for all mixtures. Thermal strain can occur at 300°C when the dihydroxylation of CSH occurs within a temperature range of 150–400°C. This process led to the formation of microcracks [79,80,81]. Moreover, the compressive strength experienced a decrease of roughly 7–11% as the temperature increased up to 500°C. Rising temperatures can result in thermal expansion as well as the formation of internal fissures, which ultimately weaken the material’s structural integrity. The dehydration of CH at temperatures ranging from 400 to 600°C resulted in a significant strength reduction, measuring approximately 28%, and caused the disintegration of the microstructure of the material [82,83]. At a temperature of 700°C, the decrease in strength increased to around 37–40% as a result of the initial removal of carbon dioxide from calcite at temperatures ranging from 600 to 900°C and reached 56% at 900°C. The average strength of polypropylene fibers undergoes the following changes at different temperatures: an increase of up to 5.8% at 100°C, 10.8% at 300°C, 28% at 500°C, 38% at 700°C, and 56% at 900°C over a 3-h period. This suggests that UHPBFC has a greater resistance to heat when exposed to high temperatures [84].

Figure 9 Compressive strength after subjecting to elevated temperatures for GP blended UHPBFC.
Figure 9

Compressive strength after subjecting to elevated temperatures for GP blended UHPBFC.

4.6 TGA

TGA is performed for all mixes, and results in Figures 10 and 11 show that TGA for UHPC incorporating GPW treated at different temperatures achieved increasing weight loss due to CSH decomposition due to more pozzolanic reactions. By adding GPW to UHPC, organic components are introduced that undergo pozzolanic interactions with the cementitious matrix, especially when exposed to high treatment temperatures. TGA studies commonly show an augmentation in weight reduction, primarily ascribed to the dissolution of calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) phases in the concrete. The degradation observed here suggests an increase in the pozzolanic activity, as the treated geranium waste combines with the calcium hydroxide in the concrete to produce more C-S-H. This reaction not only utilizes the lime that would otherwise not react, but also enhances the microstructure of the concrete, so improving its overall durability and performance. The weight loss observed in TGA curves, which increases as the treatment temperature of the plant waste increases, serves as a quantitative indication of the magnitude of these pozzolanic processes and their influence on the thermal stability of the composite material.

Figure 10 Mass loss due to CSH decomposition.
Figure 10

Mass loss due to CSH decomposition.

Figure 11 Mass loss due to CH decomposition.
Figure 11

Mass loss due to CH decomposition.

4.7 Microstructural assessment

In this study, a scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis was performed to evaluate the mechanical properties of five compositions cured at room temperature. The primary objective of this study is to investigate the effects of replacing cement with ground palm kernel shell (GP) as an aggregate. The SEM images of the five samples with optimum compressive strength are shown in Figure 12a–e. These images reveal a highly compact structure with minimal gaps and cracks, which can be attributed to the increased packing density achieved using GP as an aggregate that exhibits a uniform distribution [85,86,87], combined with a robust ITZ and a powder [88,89]. The incorporation of GPW increased the pozzolanic process, resulting in the formation of a CSH gel [89].

Figure 12 SEM micrograph of UHPC. (a) SEM micrograph for reference mix. (b) SEM micrograph for 50GP300. (c) SEM micrograph for 40% GP prepared at 500. (d) SEM micrograph for 40% GP prepared at 700. (e) SEM micrograph for 20% GP prepared at 900.
Figure 12

SEM micrograph of UHPC. (a) SEM micrograph for reference mix. (b) SEM micrograph for 50GP300. (c) SEM micrograph for 40% GP prepared at 500. (d) SEM micrograph for 40% GP prepared at 700. (e) SEM micrograph for 20% GP prepared at 900.

5 Conclusion

This research investigates the performance of UHPC by replacing GPW burnt at temperatures of 300, 500, 700, and 900°C with varying proportions of waste (10, 20, 30, 40, and 50%) relative to the weight of cement to achieve environmental aspects. An investigation was conducted on the mechanical properties, including compressive strength, splitting, durability, and microstructure. The results of this study are presented as follows:

  1. The compressive strength exhibited a significant increase in all mixes containing a higher proportion of GPW compared to the control mix.

  2. The most favorable proportions were achieved by substituting 50% at 300°C, 40% at 500°C, 40% at 700°C, and 20% at 900°C of GPW at temperatures of 300, 500, 700, and 900°C, respectively.

  3. The splitting tensile strength of all the mixes improved when different replacement ratios were used. The optimal strength increased when 40% of the GPW burnt at a temperature of 700°C was used. Additionally, there was significant improvement in the flexural strength.

  4. The addition of GPW led to a significant reduction in the sorptivity. Multiple factors contribute to this decrease. Initially, the compaction of the concrete mixture was enhanced by incorporating GPWs, resulting in a more compact matrix with fewer interconnected empty spaces.

  5. SEM analysis of UHPC, including ground granulated blast furnace slag (GPW), conducted at room temperature exhibited a finely tuned and densely packed microstructure. Fine GPW particles fill the voids, resulting in a denser matrix with improved particle packing. Enhanced adhesion is achieved by optimizing the interface between the cementitious matrix and aggregate network, resulting in a stronger binding strength.

  6. The inclusion of ground granulated blast furnace slag (GPW) in UHPC enhances its microstructural integrity and thermal stability, making it a promising material for high-temperature applications.

Acknowledgments

The author acknowledges the facilities and support provided by the University of Hafr Al Batin, Saudi Arabia.

  1. Funding information: The author states no funding involved.

  2. Author contributions: The author has accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and approved its submission.

  3. Conflict of interest: The author states no conflict of interest.

  4. Data availability statement: The datasets generated and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Received: 2024-05-08
Revised: 2024-08-28
Accepted: 2024-10-03
Published Online: 2024-10-25

© 2024 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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  12. Revolutionizing energy harvesting: A comprehensive review of thermoelectric devices
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  34. Enhancement of hardness and wear strength of pure Cu and Cu–TiO2 composites via a friction stir process while maintaining electrical resistivity
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  37. Development of a new damping ratio prediction model for recycled aggregate concrete: Incorporating modified admixtures and carbonation effects
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https://doi.org/10.1515/rams-2024-0061
Keywords for this article
ultra-high performance concrete; microstructure; polypropylene fibers; concrete mechanical properties; durability; geranium waste ash
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Review Articles
  2. Effect of superplasticizer in geopolymer and alkali-activated cement mortar/concrete: A review
  3. Experimenting the influence of corncob ash on the mechanical strength of slag-based geopolymer concrete
  4. Powder metallurgy processing of high entropy alloys: Bibliometric analysis and systematic review
  5. Exploring the potential of agricultural waste as an additive in ultra-high-performance concrete for sustainable construction: A comprehensive review
  6. A review on partial substitution of nanosilica in concrete
  7. Foam concrete for lightweight construction applications: A comprehensive review of the research development and material characteristics
  8. Modification of PEEK for implants: Strategies to improve mechanical, antibacterial, and osteogenic properties
  9. Interfacing the IoT in composite manufacturing: An overview
  10. Advances in processing and ablation properties of carbon fiber reinforced ultra-high temperature ceramic composites
  11. Advancing auxetic materials: Emerging development and innovative applications
  12. Revolutionizing energy harvesting: A comprehensive review of thermoelectric devices
  13. Exploring polyetheretherketone in dental implants and abutments: A focus on biomechanics and finite element methods
  14. Smart technologies and textiles and their potential use and application in the care and support of elderly individuals: A systematic review
  15. Reinforcement mechanisms and current research status of silicon carbide whisker-reinforced composites: A comprehensive review
  16. Innovative eco-friendly bio-composites: A comprehensive review of the fabrication, characterization, and applications
  17. Review on geopolymer concrete incorporating Alccofine-1203
  18. Advancements in surface treatments for aluminum alloys in sports equipment
  19. Ionic liquid-modified carbon-based fillers and their polymer composites – A Raman spectroscopy analysis
  20. Emerging boron nitride nanosheets: A review on synthesis, corrosion resistance coatings, and their impacts on the environment and health
  21. Mechanism, models, and influence of heterogeneous factors of the microarc oxidation process: A comprehensive review
  22. Synthesizing sustainable construction paradigms: A comprehensive review and bibliometric analysis of granite waste powder utilization and moisture correction in concrete
  23. 10.1515/rams-2025-0086
  24. Research Articles
  25. Coverage and reliability improvement of copper metallization layer in through hole at BGA area during load board manufacture
  26. Study on dynamic response of cushion layer-reinforced concrete slab under rockfall impact based on smoothed particle hydrodynamics and finite-element method coupling
  27. Study on the mechanical properties and microstructure of recycled brick aggregate concrete with waste fiber
  28. Multiscale characterization of the UV aging resistance and mechanism of light stabilizer-modified asphalt
  29. Characterization of sandwich materials – Nomex-Aramid carbon fiber performances under mechanical loadings: Nonlinear FE and convergence studies
  30. Effect of grain boundary segregation and oxygen vacancy annihilation on aging resistance of cobalt oxide-doped 3Y-TZP ceramics for biomedical applications
  31. Mechanical damage mechanism investigation on CFRP strengthened recycled red brick concrete
  32. Finite element analysis of deterioration of axial compression behavior of corroded steel-reinforced concrete middle-length columns
  33. Grinding force model for ultrasonic assisted grinding of γ-TiAl intermetallic compounds and experimental validation
  34. Enhancement of hardness and wear strength of pure Cu and Cu–TiO2 composites via a friction stir process while maintaining electrical resistivity
  35. Effect of sand–precursor ratio on mechanical properties and durability of geopolymer mortar with manufactured sand
  36. Research on the strength prediction for pervious concrete based on design porosity and water-to-cement ratio
  37. Development of a new damping ratio prediction model for recycled aggregate concrete: Incorporating modified admixtures and carbonation effects
  38. Exploring the viability of AI-aided genetic algorithms in estimating the crack repair rate of self-healing concrete
  39. Modification of methacrylate bone cement with eugenol – A new material with antibacterial properties
  40. Numerical investigations on constitutive model parameters of HRB400 and HTRB600 steel bars based on tensile and fatigue tests
  41. Research progress on Fe3+-activated near-infrared phosphor
  42. Discrete element simulation study on effects of grain preferred orientation on micro-cracking and macro-mechanical behavior of crystalline rocks
  43. Ultrasonic resonance evaluation method for deep interfacial debonding defects of multilayer adhesive bonded materials
  44. Effect of impurity components in titanium gypsum on the setting time and mechanical properties of gypsum-slag cementitious materials
  45. Bending energy absorption performance of composite fender piles with different winding angles
  46. Theoretical study of the effect of orientations and fibre volume on the thermal insulation capability of reinforced polymer composites
  47. Synthesis and characterization of a novel ternary magnetic composite for the enhanced adsorption capacity to remove organic dyes
  48. Couple effects of multi-impact damage and CAI capability on NCF composites
  49. Mechanical testing and engineering applicability analysis of SAP concrete used in buffer layer design for tunnels in active fault zones
  50. Investigating the rheological characteristics of alkali-activated concrete using contemporary artificial intelligence approaches
  51. Integrating micro- and nanowaste glass with waste foundry sand in ultra-high-performance concrete to enhance material performance and sustainability
  52. Effect of water immersion on shear strength of epoxy adhesive filled with graphene nanoplatelets
  53. Impact of carbon content on the phase structure and mechanical properties of TiBCN coatings via direct current magnetron sputtering
  54. Investigating the anti-aging properties of asphalt modified with polyphosphoric acid and tire pyrolysis oil
  55. Biomedical and therapeutic potential of marine-derived Pseudomonas sp. strain AHG22 exopolysaccharide: A novel bioactive microbial metabolite
  56. Effect of basalt fiber length on the behavior of natural hydraulic lime-based mortars
  57. Optimizing the performance of TPCB/SCA composite-modified asphalt using improved response surface methodology
  58. Compressive strength of waste-derived cementitious composites using machine learning
  59. Melting phenomenon of thermally stratified MHD Powell–Eyring nanofluid with variable porosity past a stretching Riga plate
  60. Development and characterization of a coaxial strain-sensing cable integrated steel strand for wide-range stress monitoring
  61. Compressive and tensile strength estimation of sustainable geopolymer concrete using contemporary boosting ensemble techniques
  62. Customized 3D printed porous titanium scaffolds with nanotubes loading antibacterial drugs for bone tissue engineering
  63. Facile design of PTFE-kaolin-based ternary nanocomposite as a hydrophobic and high corrosion-barrier coating
  64. Effects of C and heat treatment on microstructure, mechanical, and tribo-corrosion properties of VAlTiMoSi high-entropy alloy coating
  65. Study on the damage mechanism and evolution model of preloaded sandstone subjected to freezing–thawing action based on the NMR technology
  66. Promoting low carbon construction using alkali-activated materials: A modeling study for strength prediction and feature interaction
  67. Entropy generation analysis of MHD convection flow of hybrid nanofluid in a wavy enclosure with heat generation and thermal radiation
  68. Friction stir welding of dissimilar Al–Mg alloys for aerospace applications: Prospects and future potential
  69. Fe nanoparticle-functionalized ordered mesoporous carbon with tailored mesostructures and their applications in magnetic removal of Ag(i)
  70. Study on physical and mechanical properties of complex-phase conductive fiber cementitious materials
  71. Evaluating the strength loss and the effectiveness of glass and eggshell powder for cement mortar under acidic conditions
  72. Effect of fly ash on properties and hydration of calcium sulphoaluminate cement-based materials with high water content
  73. Analyzing the efficacy of waste marble and glass powder for the compressive strength of self-compacting concrete using machine learning strategies
  74. Experimental study on municipal solid waste incineration ash micro-powder as concrete admixture
  75. Parameter optimization for ultrasonic-assisted grinding of γ-TiAl intermetallics: A gray relational analysis approach with surface integrity evaluation
  76. Producing sustainable binding materials using marble waste blended with fly ash and rice husk ash for building materials
  77. Effect of steam curing system on compressive strength of recycled aggregate concrete
  78. A sawtooth constitutive model describing strain hardening and multiple cracking of ECC under uniaxial tension
  79. Predicting mechanical properties of sustainable green concrete using novel machine learning: Stacking and gene expression programming
  80. Toward sustainability: Integrating experimental study and data-driven modeling for eco-friendly paver blocks containing plastic waste
  81. A numerical analysis of the rotational flow of a hybrid nanofluid past a unidirectional extending surface with velocity and thermal slip conditions
  82. A magnetohydrodynamic flow of a water-based hybrid nanofluid past a convectively heated rotating disk surface: A passive control of nanoparticles
  83. Prediction of flexural strength of concrete with eggshell and glass powders: Advanced cutting-edge approach for sustainable materials
  84. Efficacy of sustainable cementitious materials on concrete porosity for enhancing the durability of building materials
  85. Phase and microstructural characterization of swat soapstone (Mg3Si4O10(OH)2)
  86. Effect of waste crab shell powder on matrix asphalt
  87. Improving effect and mechanism on service performance of asphalt binder modified by PW polymer
  88. Influence of pH on the synthesis of carbon spheres and the application of carbon sphere-based solid catalysts in esterification
  89. Experimenting the compressive performance of low-carbon alkali-activated materials using advanced modeling techniques
  90. Thermogravimetric (TG/DTG) characterization of cold-pressed oil blends and Saccharomyces cerevisiae-based microcapsules obtained with them
  91. Investigation of temperature effect on thermo-mechanical property of carbon fiber/PEEK composites
  92. Computational approaches for structural analysis of wood specimens
  93. Integrated structure–function design of 3D-printed porous polydimethylsiloxane for superhydrophobic engineering
  94. Exploring the impact of seashell powder and nano-silica on ultra-high-performance self-curing concrete: Insights into mechanical strength, durability, and high-temperature resilience
  95. Axial compression damage constitutive model and damage characteristics of fly ash/silica fume modified magnesium phosphate cement after being treated at different temperatures
  96. Integrating testing and modeling methods to examine the feasibility of blended waste materials for the compressive strength of rubberized mortar
  97. Special Issue on 3D and 4D Printing of Advanced Functional Materials - Part II
  98. Energy absorption of gradient triply periodic minimal surface structure manufactured by stereolithography
  99. Marine polymers in tissue bioprinting: Current achievements and challenges
  100. Quick insight into the dynamic dimensions of 4D printing in polymeric composite mechanics
  101. Recent advances in 4D printing of hydrogels
  102. Mechanically sustainable and primary recycled thermo-responsive ABS–PLA polymer composites for 4D printing applications: Fabrication and studies
  103. Special Issue on Materials and Technologies for Low-carbon Biomass Processing and Upgrading
  104. Low-carbon embodied alkali-activated materials for sustainable construction: A comparative study of single and ensemble learners
  105. Study on bending performance of prefabricated glulam-cross laminated timber composite floor
  106. Special Issue on Recent Advancement in Low-carbon Cement-based Materials - Part I
  107. Supplementary cementitious materials-based concrete porosity estimation using modeling approaches: A comparative study of GEP and MEP
  108. Modeling the strength parameters of agro waste-derived geopolymer concrete using advanced machine intelligence techniques
  109. Promoting the sustainable construction: A scientometric review on the utilization of waste glass in concrete
  110. Incorporating geranium plant waste into ultra-high performance concrete prepared with crumb rubber as fine aggregate in the presence of polypropylene fibers
  111. Investigation of nano-basic oxygen furnace slag and nano-banded iron formation on properties of high-performance geopolymer concrete
  112. Effect of incorporating ultrafine palm oil fuel ash on the resistance to corrosion of steel bars embedded in high-strength green concrete
  113. Influence of nanomaterials on properties and durability of ultra-high-performance geopolymer concrete
  114. Influence of palm oil ash and palm oil clinker on the properties of lightweight concrete
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