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Green synthesis, characterization, cytotoxicity, and antimicrobial activity of iron oxide nanoparticles using Nigella sativa seed extract

  • Hassan Al-Karagoly EMAIL logo , Atiaf Rhyaf , Hala Naji , Salim Albukhaty , Faizah A. AlMalki , Amal A. Alyamani , Jawaher Albaqami and Salman Aloufi
Published/Copyright: March 28, 2022
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Green Processing and Synthesis
From the journal Green Processing and Synthesis Volume 11 Issue 1

Abstract

Green synthesis of nanoparticles (NPs) is a more sustainable, safe, and environmentally friendly method. This study aimed to investigate the synthesis procedure of iron oxide nanoparticles (IONPs) using the seed extract of Nigella sativa (N. sativa) as a strong reducing agent and to estimate their cytotoxic and antibacterial properties. The obtained IONPs were characterized by field-emission scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, dynamic light scattering (DLS), zeta potential (ZP), and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy analyses. The cytotoxicity of the biosynthesized IONPs was demonstrated by the MTT on a Vero cell line. Furthermore, the antibacterial activity of the fabricated biosynthesis metal oxide NPs was tested on Escherichia coli (E. coli) (ATCC 35218) and Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) (ATCC 29213) bacterial strains using the Kirby–Bauer disk diffusion method. This study showed the formation of a well-dispersed, highly stable (ZP ζ = −51.8 mV) IO NPs with an average diameter of about 31.45 nm. Moreover, the biosynthetic NPs (IONPs) exhibited a significantly noncytotoxic effect when analyzed by the MTT assay. The biosynthetic NPs (NS-IONPs) exhibited excellent antibacterial activity against E. coli and S. aureus, where the inhibition zones were 12.34 ± 0.58 and 11.52 ± 0.58, respectively.

Keywords: antibacterial activity; cytotoxicity; iron oxide nanoparticles; Nigella sativa ; green synthesis

1 Introduction

Magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (IONPs) are one of the most commonly used inorganic nanoparticles (NPs) in various industries, including chemical, medicinal, pharmaceutical, electronic, and agricultural industries, due to their unique properties such as high saturation magnetization, which allows for easy magnetic separation in the presence of an external magnetic field [1,2]. IONPs can be synthesized using various methods, such as sol–gel, chemical reduction, co-precipitation [3], hydrothermal synthesis, and pulsed laser ablation in dimethylformamide (DMF) [3,4,5,6]; however, the chemicals used in these processes are considered hazardous to the environment [7]. Green NP synthesis using bioresources has sparked considerable interest as a promising method not only for reducing the toxicity of NPs that is often linked with traditional chemical synthesis methods but for its low cost, convenience of use, and environmentally friendly nature [8].

Plant extracts are used as a reducing and capping agent in the biosynthesis of NPs, decreasing the need for toxic-reducing chemicals [9]. Recently, numerous investigations have been performed on the environmentally friendly production of iron-based NPs using diverse plant parts such as Cynometra ramiflora fruit extract, Persea americana rind and Punica granatum seed extract, and Avicennia marina flower extract; Nigella sativa; Glycyrrhiza glabra; Cynodon dactylon; and fungi such as Aspergillus flavus and Phoma exigua [10,11,12,13,14,15]. Various reducing agents such as DMF, hydrazine carbon monoxide (CO), sodium borohydride (NaBH4), and others have been utilized in the synthesis of IONPs. These reducing agents are highly reactive compounds that negatively affect the environment and impair IONP biocompatibility, resulting in restricted biomedical applications of IONPs [16,17].

So, IONPs must be entirely biocompatible for biomedical applications [18]. As a result, biogenic reduction/green synthesis methods that are novel and environmentally friendly are in high demand [19].

Biogenic reduction techniques, which involve bacteria, fungi, algae, and higher plant extracts, are among the best options for producing metal and metal oxide NPs [20]. These more environmentally friendly methods are cost-effective, produce a good yield, and are fairly reproducible [21].

There are a couple of successful studies in synthesizing IONPs by using plant extracts, for instance, fruit extract of Ficus carica (common fig) [22], leaf extract of F. carica [23] and Carica papaya [24], and also seed extract of fenugreek seed [25]. However, there are only finite studies on the synthesis of IONPs from the seed extract of N. sativa.

N. sativa is a plant belonging to the Ranunculaceae family. It is a traditional medicinal plant that grows in various locations worldwide, particularly in Iraq and Saudi Arabia [26]. N. sativa has a rich source of nutritionally important elements, and its oil contains polyunsaturated fatty acids and other phytochemicals with high antioxidant activities and a glucose-lowering impact [27].

In this study, we used N. sativa as a reducing agent in the green synthesis technique to synthesize IONPs, combining the therapeutic properties of N. sativa’s seed extract with the critical properties of IONPs and evaluating their antibacterial effectiveness against E. coli and S. aureus.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Chemicals and plant collection

All chemicals used in this study, including tetrahydrates of iron–iron oxide (FeCl2·4H2O, 99%), hexagonal-ferrous chloride (FeCl3·6H2O, 99%), ammonia (NH3, 25%), tetramethylammonium hydroxide (25%), NaOH (99.99%), absolute ethanol (≥99.8%) (GC), and nutritional broth, were obtained from Sigma-Aldrich Pty Ltd (Darmstadt, Germany) and used without further purification. In June 2021, N. sativa seeds were obtained from the faculty of the University of Al-Qadisiyah, Al-Diwaniyah, Iraq. The seeds were collected and stored at 4°C until further study.

2.2 Bacterial strains

The tested bacteria were Gram-positive and Gram-negative, including Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 29213) and Escherichia coli (ATCC 35218).

2.3 Synthesis of IONPs

2.3.1 Preparation of the plant extract

Following the Jalali and Tehranipour [28] method, with some modifications, about 100 g of N. sativa seeds were mixed with 70% ethanol in a Soxhlet extractor in the central laboratory of the College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Al-Qadisiyah. Under low pressure, 32% of the obtained extract was concentrated and stored at 4°C until required.

2.3.2 Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis

The seed extract of N. sativa was analyzed using GC-MS (Shimadzu GC 17A, Japan). For the analysis, 1 μL of the extract was injected at a 20:1 split ratio. Helium gas (99.9%) was used at 1 μL per minute in the gaseous form. The experiment was carried out in the electron impact (EI) mode with a 70 eV ionization energy. The temperature of the injector was held constant at 250°C. The temperature of the column oven was set at 50°C (held for 3 min), increased to 280°C (held for 3 min) at 10°C per min, and finally at 300°C held for held for 10 min. After comparing the spectral configurations acquired with the available mass spectral databases (NIST and WILEY libraries [multiplier voltage of 1 kV]), the compounds were characterized [29,30,31].

2.3.3 Preparation of green-synthesized (N. sativa-iron oxide) NPs

The biosynthesis of IONPs was carried out using a method described earlier by Bibi et al. [32]. To prepare IONPs, distilled deionized water was used as the solvent. In all, 4.0 mL of FeCl3 (1 M) and 1.0 mL of FeCl2 (2 M) were mixed in a 100 mL container under vigorous shaking. The co-precipitation method, the most common method, was used for preparing magnetic IONPs for biomedical applications [33]; an aqueous solution of NH3 (50 mL and 1.0 M) over 5 min was slowly added to this mixture. The residue was then treated with 25% tetramethylammonium hydroxide and the reaction mixture was gently stirred for 2–3 min. The powder was accurately weighed, transferred to a flask, and dissolved in ultrapure water by ultra-sonification for 5 min using the dispersion method.

2.3.4 Characterization of green-synthesized IONPs

2.3.4.1 Field-emission scanning electron microscope (FESEM)

The morphological features and size of green-synthesized IONPs were studied using an FESEM (MIRA3 TESCAN-XMU, Brno, Czech Republic) at a 20 kV electron acceleration.

2.3.4.2 X-ray diffraction (XRD) test

Applications of Cu–Kα-wavelength (T = 1.5405 Å) were produced using a Phillips diffractometer in samples of green-synthesized IONPs. The voltage used was 40 kV, and the current intensity was 25 mA.

2.3.4.3 DLS measurement

DLS measurements of the prepared green-synthesized IONPs were carried out using Horiba SZ-100 nanoparticle analyzer. An appropriate powder concentration of 0.01 g per 100 mL is distributed in DMSO. The same medium has been used to estimate the cytotoxicity effect on the distribution of DMSO particles.

2.3.4.4 Determination of zeta potential (ZP)

ZP measurements were performed using Horiba SZ-100 nanoparticle analyzer to investigate particles’ surface charge of prepared green-synthesized IONPs. The particle’s electrostatic potential was calculated in ultrasonic dispersion of 0.01 g per 100 mL in DMSO at room temperature.

2.3.4.5 FTIR analysis

To study the chemical bonds formed between the N. sativa (NS) seed extract and IONPs, IR spectra analysis of the NS-IONP layers was performed. The spectra were acquired in the 400–3,500 cm−1 wavenumber range in an attenuated total reflection (ATR) mode using an FTIR instrument (Shimadzu Corporation, Japan) with 4 cm−1 resolution. The spectra have been acquired in transmittance mode by placing the samples on the diamond–ZnSe crystal plate of the ATR unit inserted into the spectrometer and analyzed using Version 1 25 Sp5, supplied by Shimadzu. The spectrum of the NS-IONP layer was recorded after 32 scans.

2.3.4.6 MTT assay

To measure the cytotoxic effect and biocompatibility of prepared green-synthesized IONPs, the MTT assay was used by following the instructions from the manufacturer. At a density of 1 × 105 cells per well, Vero cultures were incubated at 37°C in the presence of 5% CO2. Green-synthesized IONPs were added in five concentrations 12.5, 25, 50, 100, and 200 μg·mL−1 for 48 h, followed by washing twice before introducing 100 µL of cultivated medium and 0.5 mg·mL−1 of MTT reagent each to a fresh source. Green-synthesized IONPs were washed twice with phosphate-buffered saline (PBS). The unlabeled cells were used as the control group, while Triton-X was used as the positive control. Later, the labeled cells were incubated at 37°C in 5% CO2 for 4 h. The medium was tactfully aspired and replaced by 100 µL of fresh DMSO. The absorbance of the dissolved formazan product was examined at a wavelength of 570 nm.

2.3.4.7 Antibacterial activity

Kirby–Bauer disk diffusion method was used to test the antibacterial activity, which was considered a suitable method for evaluating the antibacterial activity of a newly synthesized material [34]. Briefly, four or five bacterial colonies were collected using a sterile inoculating loop and suspended in 2 mL of sterilized PBS; the studied bacteria include S. aureus (ATCC 29213) and E. coli (ATCC35218). The turbidity of bacterial suspension has been modified to a 0.5 McFarland level by diluting it with sterile PBS. Swabs that are free from bacteria were put into the inoculum channels. Bacteria were streaked onto Muller–Hinton agar plates by using swabs. Green-synthesized IONP suspensions were prepared by dissolving 0.1 mg of green-synthesized IONPs in 1 mL of distilled water. Sonication was carried out on the suspension for 10 min before usage. In all, 35 μL of green-synthesized IONP suspensions and distilled water (as a negative control) were used to impregnate the standard antibiotic disc (as a positive control). The final step was to conduct a disc diffusion assay on Mueller–Hinton agar plates against two different bacterial strains (Merck, Germany). Sterile forceps were used to put disks impregnated with culture medium on the surface of the agar. The bacterial activity was evaluated using plates incubated at 37°C for 24 h. The zone of inhibition (this activity) was measured in millimeters. The assays were repeated three times.

2.3.4.8 Statistical analysis

The mean ± standard deviation (SD) was used to analyze our results. For assessing statistical significance, Excel was also used. A p-value less than 0.05 or 0.01 was considered statistically significant. All required statistical analyses were performed using the statistical program SPSS version 19.0 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA).

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis

The ethanolic extract of N. sativa seeds was subjected to gas chromatography–mass spectrometry analysis, revealing various peaks. The database of the spectrum of known components from the GC-MS library was used to interpret the chromatogram peaks. The extract contained 15 main elements, according to GC-MS profiling. The peak regions for several chemicals are shown in Table 1, and Figure 1 lists the discovered compounds and their peak area (%) and retention duration (RT).

Table 1

GC-MS analysis of N. sativa seed extract

No. Compound name RT Peak area (%)
1 Butyric acid-2-D1 8.939 3.18
2 R-5,6-o-benzylidene-d-galatose 13.309 0.25
3 4-Methanoazulene 14.904 0.08
4 2-Ethyl-1-(isopropylamino)-1-cyanobutene 18.165 0.64
5 Tetradecanoic acid, ethyl ester 20.682 0.41
6 9-Octadecenoic acid (Z) 23.072 0.47
7 Hexadecanoic acid, ethyl ester 23.345 13.56
8 d-Arabino-hexose 24.287 0.10
9 Nonanoic acid, 9-oxo-, ethyl ester 24.576 0.10
10 Butyl 4-(2,4-dichlorophenoxy)butyrate 24.701 0.14
11 Linoleic acid ethyl ester(ethyl linoleate) 25.439 75.28
12 Octadecanoic acid, ethyl ester 25.762 2.04
13 Dodeca-1,6-dien-12-ol, 6,10-dime 27.466 0.69
14 Linoleic acid 27.670 2.87
15 Propionic acid, 2-chloro-3-methoxy 27.990 0.20
Figure 1 Chromatogram of the ethanolic extract of N. sativa.
Figure 1

Chromatogram of the ethanolic extract of N. sativa.

GC-MS analysis confirmed the presence of many N. sativa seed extract compounds, including amino acids, proteins, carbohydrates, fixed oil, steroids, flavonoids, alkaloids, phenols, and quinones. The difference between the current study and others is the number of compounds detected in the extract; the present study discovered 15 compounds, another study discovered 23 [30], and 31 was found in ref. [35].

Many plant bioactive compounds are found and used to enhance good health and combat infection in humans and animals, and many of these compounds are sold as food or herbal medications [36,37]. Herbal medicine’s popularity among the general public has soared in recent years, in part due to the ease with which it can be obtained without a prescription, the low cost, and the ease of scheduling an appointment with a healthcare provider, but also because of the widespread belief that natural remedies are less dangerous than synthetic ones [38]. Many compounds in the N. sativa plant include volatile oils, cardiac glycosides, terpenoids, flavonoids, anthraquinones, sterols, alkaloids, saponins, and volatile bases [39].

3.2 Characterization

3.2.1 FESEM

The fabricated green-synthesized IONPs (Figure 2), with an average size of 31.45 nm, were visualized using the FESEM technique for displaying the size and shape of relatively spherical NPs.

Figure 2 FESEM micrographs of IONPs at different magnification; scales: (a) 1 µm, (b) 500 nm, (c) 200 nm, and (d) 100 nm.
Figure 2

FESEM micrographs of IONPs at different magnification; scales: (a) 1 µm, (b) 500 nm, (c) 200 nm, and (d) 100 nm.

3.2.2 XRD

The diffraction peak appeared at 2θ with 30.3°, 35.7°, 43.1°, 53.6°, 57.4°, and 62.6°, respectively, corresponding to the crystal structure of magnetite (220), (311), (400), (440), (531), and (533), indicating the formation of the anatase phase of green-synthesized IONPs (Figure 3). The peaks in Figure 3 show a broadening of the half maximum of the peak in green-synthesized IONPs and increased signal concerning the crystallographic plane 311. The XRD pattern of green-synthesized IONPs matched well with that of the standard reference for Fe3O4 (magnetite) from the database (JCPDS file no. 00-003-0863), and our results are also in good agreement with the previously reported studies [40].

Figure 3 XRD pattern of green-synthesized IONPs.
Figure 3

XRD pattern of green-synthesized IONPs.

3.2.3 Dynamic light scattering (DLS) and zeta analysis

The DLS and ZP analysis of prepared green-synthesized IONPs are shown in Figures 4 and 5. The nature of hydrodynamic size (diameter) in DMSO of prepared green-synthesized IONPs was studied. DLS showed the hydrodynamic size distribution of small particles, and it refers to the size of the core and the materials used to cover it. For the green-synthesized IONP suspension in DMSO, a clear indicator for stability without particle settlement was found by the ZP analysis (Figure 5) (ζ = −51.8 mV), with an electrophoretic movement (mean) of −0.000402 cm2·V−1·s−1. The study on the prepared suspension also confirms the general ZP criteria negatively for improved stability [41,42].

Figure 4 DLS of the particle volume distribution size of green-synthesized IONPs using HORIBA Scientific Nanoparticle Analyzer SZ-100.
Figure 4

DLS of the particle volume distribution size of green-synthesized IONPs using HORIBA Scientific Nanoparticle Analyzer SZ-100.

Figure 5 ZP analysis (ζ = −51.8 mV) of green-synthesized IONPs.
Figure 5

ZP analysis (ζ = −51.8 mV) of green-synthesized IONPs.

3.2.4 FTIR analysis

FTIR analysis was used to determine the functional groups of green-synthesized IONPs (Figure 6). Based on the peak value in the infrared radiation region, an FTIR spectroscope was used to determine the functional groups of active substances. The FTIR spectra of produced NPs ranged from 3,500 to 400 cm−1. The FTIR spectra of the produced IONPs were used to determine the groups responsible for NP capping and stabilization. Thirteen peaks were recorded including 3384.04, 2921.79, 2851.83, 2349.42, 1722.80, 1619.13, 1528.23, 1461.96, 1392.79, 1376.84, 1054.53, 582.29, and 443.39 cm−1. From these 13 peaks, about 4 peaks were extreme bands which are 3384.04 cm−1 (br), 1722.80 cm−1 (m), 1054.53 cm−1 (m), and 582.29 cm−1 (m), as shown in Figure 5 (m). These four bands have been linked to those found in Fe2O3 [43,44]. Peaks at 582.29 cm−1 (Fe–O) and 1722.80 cm−1 (H2O bending vibration), and a large peak at 3384.04 cm−1 are the vibration bands (H2O str). Instead of three distinct peaks, a broad peak of about 582.29 cm−1 (Fe–O str) was noticed, which could be due to an organic molecule from N. sativa extract on the surface of IONPs [40].

Figure 6 FTIR analysis of (a) green-synthesized IONPs and (b) standard IONPs.
Figure 6

FTIR analysis of (a) green-synthesized IONPs and (b) standard IONPs.

3.3 MTT results

The MTT assay was used to evaluate the viability/proliferation of green-synthesized IONPs at various concentrations, 12.5, 25, 50, 100, and 200 μg·mL−1 for 48 h (Figure 7). Compared to the control group, the negative control and green-synthesized IONPs did not show any mentioned cytotoxicity at concentrations of 12.5, 25, 50, 100, and 200 μg·mL−1 for 48 h.

Figure 7 Cytotoxic effect of green-synthesized IONPs on Vero cells after exposure to different concentrations for 24 and 48 h compared to negative and positive control. Error bars represent mean ± SD; * mean highly significant difference p < 0.0001.
Figure 7

Cytotoxic effect of green-synthesized IONPs on Vero cells after exposure to different concentrations for 24 and 48 h compared to negative and positive control. Error bars represent mean ± SD; * mean highly significant difference p < 0.0001.

The current study agreed with that of Izadiyan et al., which approved no significant toxicity of green-synthesized IONPs (J. regia-IONPs) on normal cell lines at varying doses [42]. These findings show that these J. regia-IONPs can be used in various biomedical applications. Another study found the bio-functional starch/IONPs to have non-toxic effects on normal and malignant cervical cell lines, making them ideal candidates for various biological applications [45]. Khatami et al. fabricated super-paramagnetic IONPs (SPIONPs), utilizing a zero-calorie stevia extract as a reducing and stabilizing agent, and showed that the antioxidant activity of the generated NPs was found to be within acceptable limits [46,47,48]. These can be attributed to the presence of phytochemicals and bioactive substances such as flavonoids, quinones, tannins, and other compounds that play an essential role in the creation, capping, and stabilization of iron(ii) oxide NPs. These polyphenols and antioxidants protect the NPs from oxidation and aggregation and eventually inhibit the toxic effect of synthesized IONPs [49,50,51].

3.4 Antibacterial activity

Figure 8 shows that green-synthesized IONPs have more efficient antibacterial activity on S. aureus and E. coli. Green-synthesized IONPs exhibited attractive antimicrobial decrease by enhancing the specific surface area [52]. The disc diffusion test was used to determine the antibacterial impact of green-synthesized IONPs against E. coli and S. aureus (Figure 9), where an evident zone of growth inhibition of green-synthesized IONPs at a concentration of 0.1 mg·mL−1 was 12.34 ± 0.58 for E. coli and 11.52 ± 0.58 for S. aureus, respectively.

Figure 8 Inhibitory effects of the green-synthesized IONPs, IONPs, N. sativa extract, and erythromycin (C+ve) against pathogenic bacteria (E. coli and S. aureus) using disc diffusion assay. The results were compared with the DW as a negative control (C−ve). ** Highly significant differences p < 0.05; * significant differences p < 0.05.
Figure 8

Inhibitory effects of the green-synthesized IONPs, IONPs, N. sativa extract, and erythromycin (C+ve) against pathogenic bacteria (E. coli and S. aureus) using disc diffusion assay. The results were compared with the DW as a negative control (C−ve). ** Highly significant differences p < 0.05; * significant differences p < 0.05.

Figure 9 Disc diffusion assay exhibiting the impact of green-synthesized NPs as antibacterial agents against S. aureus and E. coli. (1) Green synthesized (N. sativa-iron oxide) NPs, (2) IONPs, (3) N. sativa extract, (4) erythromycin (C +ve), and (5) DW (C −ve).
Figure 9

Disc diffusion assay exhibiting the impact of green-synthesized NPs as antibacterial agents against S. aureus and E. coli. (1) Green synthesized (N. sativa-iron oxide) NPs, (2) IONPs, (3) N. sativa extract, (4) erythromycin (C +ve), and (5) DW (C −ve).

Antibacterial properties of green-synthesized IONPs were investigated against different pathogenic bacterial strains such as E. coli, S. aureus, B. subtilis, S. epidermidis, K. pneumoniae, and P. aeruginosa at various concentrations using the disc diffusion assay [53]. In general, all bacterial strains were susceptible to IONPs, except S. epidermidis and P. aeruginosa [54]. Similarly, antibacterial activity was observed for IONPs produced through the co-precipitation approach from Balanites aegyptiaca oil [55]. Khashan et al. used pulsed laser ablation in liquid for investigating the synthesis of IONPs at various concentrations doped with carbon nanotubes for antibacterial activity and wound dressing repair [56]. Medicinal plants with antibacterial activity have been employed infrequently in the production of IONPs. Our findings indicate that the green synthesis of the N. sativa-IONP compound possesses vigorous antibacterial activity against pathogenic bacterial strains (E. coli, S. aureus) [57].

Green-synthesized IONPs stuck in a suspension on bacterial surfaces, resulting in green-synthesized IONPs being adsorbed on the bacteria’s surface, which could be combined with a photocatalytic oxidation reaction to inactivate the bacteria [58]. Several possible mechanisms explain bacteria’s impact on green synthesis IONPs [59]. Scientific evidence shows that the formation of hydroxyl radicals, superoxide radicals, singlet oxygen, and hydrogen peroxide, collectively known as reactive oxygen species, can damage bacteria’s proteins and DNA, resulting in bactericidal action on IONPs [60].

4 Conclusion

In this work, we used the seed extract of N. sativa to synthesize IONPs in a green and environmentally friendly method. Chemically, the N. sativa seeds are highly diverse, and the GC-MS analysis revealed 15 substances in the plant extract. The synthesized NPs are 31.45 nm, stable and well distributed, and noncytotoxic to Vero cell lines. They have good antimicrobial activity against pathogenic E. coli and S. aureus bacterial strains.

Acknowledgements

The authors thank College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Al-Qadisiyah, Al-Diwaniyah, Iraq; Department of Basic Science, College of Science, University of Misan, Mayasn, Iraq; and Taif University for their technical support.

  1. Funding information: Financial support was provided by the Taif University, Researchers Supporting Project number TURSP-2020/274.

  2. Author contributions: Conceptualization and methodology: Hassan Al-Karagoly, Salim Albukhaty, Amal A. Alyamani, and Salman Aloufi; formal analysis: Hassan Al-Karagoly, Salim Albukhaty, Atiaf Rhyaf, Hala Naji, and Faiza Almaliki; investigation and data curation: Salim Albukhaty, Hala Naji, and Faiza Almaliki; validation: Hassan Al-Karagoly, Salim Albukhaty, Jawaher Albaqami, and Salman Aloufi; visualization: Amal A. Alyamani, Atife Rhyaf, and Jawaher Albaqami; writing – original draft preparation: Hassan Al-Karagoly, Salim Albukhaty, Atiaf Rhyaf, Hala Naji, Faiza Almaliki, Jawaher Albaqami, and Salman Aloufi; writing – review and editing: Hassan Al-Karagoly, Salim Albukhaty, Atiaf Rhyaf, Hala Naji, Faiza Almaliki, Jawaher Albaqami, and Salman Aloufi; supervision: Hassan Al-Karagoly; project administration: Hassan Al-Karagoly; funding acquisition: Faiza Almaliki, Jawaher Albaqami, Amal A. Alyamani, and Salman Aloufi. All authors approved the final version of the manuscript.

  3. Conflict of interest: Authors state no conflict of interest.

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Received: 2021-12-05
Revised: 2022-01-25
Accepted: 2022-02-10
Published Online: 2022-03-28

© 2022 Hassan Al-Karagoly et al., published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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https://doi.org/10.1515/gps-2022-0026
Keywords for this article
antibacterial activity; cytotoxicity; iron oxide nanoparticles; Nigella sativa; green synthesis
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Research Articles
  2. Kinetic study on the reaction between Incoloy 825 alloy and low-fluoride slag for electroslag remelting
  3. Black pepper (Piper nigrum) fruit-based gold nanoparticles (BP-AuNPs): Synthesis, characterization, biological activities, and catalytic applications – A green approach
  4. Protective role of foliar application of green-synthesized silver nanoparticles against wheat stripe rust disease caused by Puccinia striiformis
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  6. Efficient degradation of methyl orange and methylene blue in aqueous solution using a novel Fenton-like catalyst of CuCo-ZIFs
  7. Synthesis of biological base oils by a green process
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  49. Biomediated synthesis of ZnO quantum dots decorated attapulgite nanocomposites for improved antibacterial properties
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  55. Effectiveness of different accelerated green synthesis methods in zinc oxide nanoparticles using red pepper extract: Synthesis and characterization
  56. Blueprinting morpho-anatomical episodes via green silver nanoparticles foliation
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  59. The catalytic performance of acid-modified Hβ molecular sieves for environmentally friendly acylation of 2-methylnaphthalene
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  61. Larvicidal potential of Cipadessa baccifera leaf extract-synthesized zinc nanoparticles against three major mosquito vectors
  62. Fabrication of green nanoinsecticides from agri-waste of corn silk and its larvicidal and antibiofilm properties
  63. Palladium-mediated base-free and solvent-free synthesis of aromatic azo compounds from anilines catalyzed by copper acetate
  64. Study on the functionalization of activated carbon and the effect of binder toward capacitive deionization application
  65. Co-chlorination of low-density polyethylene in paraffin: An intensified green process alternative to conventional solvent-based chlorination
  66. Antioxidant and photocatalytic properties of zinc oxide nanoparticles phyto-fabricated using the aqueous leaf extract of Sida acuta
  67. Recovery of cobalt from spent lithium-ion battery cathode materials by using choline chloride-based deep eutectic solvent
  68. Synthesis of insoluble sulfur and development of green technology based on Aspen Plus simulation
  69. Photodegradation of methyl orange under solar irradiation on Fe-doped ZnO nanoparticles synthesized using wild olive leaf extract
  70. A facile and universal method to purify silica from natural sand
  71. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Atalantia monophylla: A potential eco-friendly agent for controlling blood-sucking vectors
  72. Endophytic bacterial strain, Brevibacillus brevis-mediated green synthesis of copper oxide nanoparticles, characterization, antifungal, in vitro cytotoxicity, and larvicidal activity
  73. Off-gas detection and treatment for green air-plasma process
  74. Ultrasonic-assisted food grade nanoemulsion preparation from clove bud essential oil and evaluation of its antioxidant and antibacterial activity
  75. Construction of mercury ion fluorescence system in water samples and art materials and fluorescence detection method for rhodamine B derivatives
  76. Hydroxyapatite/TPU/PLA nanocomposites: Morphological, dynamic-mechanical, and thermal study
  77. Potential of anaerobic co-digestion of acidic fruit processing waste and waste-activated sludge for biogas production
  78. Synthesis and characterization of ZnO–TiO2–chitosan–escin metallic nanocomposites: Evaluation of their antimicrobial and anticancer activities
  79. Nitrogen removal characteristics of wet–dry alternative constructed wetlands
  80. Structural properties and reactivity variations of wheat straw char catalysts in volatile reforming
  81. Microfluidic plasma: Novel process intensification strategy
  82. Antibacterial and photocatalytic activity of visible-light-induced synthesized gold nanoparticles by using Lantana camara flower extract
  83. Antimicrobial edible materials via nano-modifications for food safety applications
  84. Biosynthesis of nano-curcumin/nano-selenium composite and their potentialities as bactericides against fish-borne pathogens
  85. Exploring the effect of silver nanoparticles on gene expression in colon cancer cell line HCT116
  86. Chemical synthesis, characterization, and dose optimization of chitosan-based nanoparticles of clodinofop propargyl and fenoxaprop-p-ethyl for management of Phalaris minor (little seed canary grass): First report
  87. Double [3 + 2] cycloadditions for diastereoselective synthesis of spirooxindole pyrrolizidines
  88. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles and their antibacterial activities
  89. Review Articles
  90. A comprehensive review on green synthesis of titanium dioxide nanoparticles and their diverse biomedical applications
  91. Applications of polyaniline-impregnated silica gel-based nanocomposites in wastewater treatment as an efficient adsorbent of some important organic dyes
  92. Green synthesis of nano-propolis and nanoparticles (Se and Ag) from ethanolic extract of propolis, their biochemical characterization: A review
  93. Advances in novel activation methods to perform green organic synthesis using recyclable heteropolyacid catalysis
  94. Limitations of nanomaterials insights in green chemistry sustainable route: Review on novel applications
  95. Special Issue: Use of magnetic resonance in profiling bioactive metabolites and its applications (Guest Editors: Plalanoivel Velmurugan et al.)
  96. Stomach-affecting intestinal parasites as a precursor model of Pheretima posthuma treated with anthelmintic drug from Dodonaea viscosa Linn.
  97. Anti-asthmatic activity of Saudi herbal composites from plants Bacopa monnieri and Euphorbia hirta on Guinea pigs
  98. Embedding green synthesized zinc oxide nanoparticles in cotton fabrics and assessment of their antibacterial wound healing and cytotoxic properties: An eco-friendly approach
  99. Synthetic pathway of 2-fluoro-N,N-diphenylbenzamide with opto-electrical properties: NMR, FT-IR, UV-Vis spectroscopic, and DFT computational studies of the first-order nonlinear optical organic single crystal
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